595:
505:; and any married person who engages in licentious conduct. To "ride such a person skimmington" involved exposing them or their effigy to ridicule on a cart, or on the back of a horse or donkey. Some accounts describe the participants as carrying ladles and spoons with which to beat each other, at least in the case of skimmingtons prompted by marital discord. The noisy parade passed through the neighbourhood, and served as a punishment to the offender and a warning to others to abide by community norms; Roberts suggests that the homes of other potential victims were visited in a pointed manner during a skimmington. According to one citation, a skimmington was broken up by the police in a village in Dorset as late as 1917; and incidents have been reported from the 1930s, the 1950s and perhaps even the 1970s.
27:
437:
just such an occurrence. However, in the nineteenth century the practice seems to have been somewhat refocused; whilst in the early period rough music was often used against men who had failed to assert their authority over their wives, by the end of the nineteenth century it was mostly targeted against men who had exceeded their authority by beating them. Thus, in contrast to the verses above referring to a shrewish wife there were also songs referring to the use of rough music as a protection for wives.
388:
265:
1266:, Season 1, Episode 8, "The Chivaree", the couple getting married discuss the expected "chivareeing" to follow their upcoming wedding. The groom opposes, after having already been chided in the town previously, but the scorned ex-lover of the bride insists. The bride and groom sit quietly in the window and endure the ruckus for two days before inviting the crowd in for food and drink.
699:
were committing the adulterous relationship) and dispense animal blood on their doorsteps. European charivaris were highly provocative, leading to overt public humiliation. The people used them to acknowledge and correct misbehaviour. In other parts of the world, similar public rituals around nuptials were practised mostly for celebration.
237:
Villages also used charivari in cases of adulterous relationships, against wife-beaters or unmarried mothers. It was also used as a form of shaming upon husbands who were beaten by their wives and had not stood up for themselves. In some cases, the community disapproved of any remarriage by older widows or widowers.
793:. In some communities the ritual served as a gentle spoof of the newlyweds, intended to disrupt for a while any sexual activities that might be under way. In parts of the midwest US, such as Kansas, in the mid 1960–1970s, shivaree customs continued as good natured wedding humour along the lines of the musical
229:
was frequently dunked at the end of the proceedings. A safer form involved a neighbour of the wrongdoer impersonating the victim while being carried through the streets. The impersonator was obviously not him or herself punished and often cried out or sang ribald verses mocking the wrongdoer. In the common form, an
535:
of royal forest lands, the name "Lady
Skimmington" was adopted by the leader of the protest movement. According to some sources the name was used by a number of men involved with the Western Rising, who dressed in women's clothes not only as a method of disguise, but also in order to symbolise their
874:
for that reason. After he married at the age of 14, his wife did not get pregnant for eight years, so villagers ridiculed him. Later in his life, another man took over Guerre's identity and life. The trial against the impostor was what captured the events for history. In the 20th century, the events
822:
The use of excessive noise was a universal practice in association with variations in the custom. Loud singing and chanting were common in Europe, including
England, and throughout North America. For an 1860 English charivari against a wife-beater, someone wrote an original chant which the crowd was
698:
In Europe various types of charivari took place that differed from similar practices in other parts of the world. For example, the community might conduct a stag hunt against adulterers by creating a mock chase of human "stags" by human "hounds". The hounds would pursue the stags (that is, those who
666:
but it is likely that it was traditional before that. It was first recorded in France, as a regular wedding activity to celebrate the nuptials at some point after the vows had been taken. But charivari achieved its greatest importance as it became transformed into a form of community censure against
228:
Parades were of three types. In the first and generally most violent form, an alleged wrongdoer (or wrongdoers) might be dragged from his or her home or place of work and paraded by force through a community. In the process, the victim was subject to the derision of the crowd and might be pelted and
788:
This account from an
American charivari in Kansas exemplifies the North American attitude. In contrast to punitive charivari in small villages in Europe, meant to ostracize and isolate the evildoers, North American charivaris were used as "unifying rituals", in which those in the wrong were brought
690:
The charivari as celebration was a custom initially practised by the upper classes, but as time went on, the lower classes also participated and often looked forward to the next opportunity to join in. The two main purposes of the charivari in Europe were to facilitate change in the current social
500:
used in that region for cheesemaking, which was perceived as a weapon used by a woman to beat a weak or henpecked husband. The rationale for a skimmington varied, but one major theme was disapproval of a man for weakness in his relationship with his wife. A description of the custom in 1856 cites
802:
In Tampa, Florida, in
September 1885, a large chivaree was held on the occasion of local official James T. Magbee's wedding. According to historian Kyle S. Vanlandingham, the party was "the wildest and noisiest of all the chivaree parties in Tampa's history," attended by "several hundred" men and
468:
The participants were generally young men temporarily bestowed with the power of rule over the everyday affairs of the community. As above, issues of sexuality and domestic hierarchy most often formed the pretexts for rough music, including acts of domestic violence or child abuse. However, rough
436:
Rough music processions are well attested in the medieval period as punishments for violations of the assumed gender norms. Men who had allowed themselves to be dominated by their shrewish wives were liable to be targeted and a frieze from
Montecute House, an Elizabethan Manor in Somerset depicts
858:
Charivari was sometimes called "riding the 'stang", when the target was a man who had been subject to scolding, beating, or other abuse from his wife. The man was made to "ride the 'stang", which meant that he was placed backwards on a horse, mule or ladder and paraded through town to be mocked,
1060:. Effigies of the mayor and Lucetta, a former lover, are paraded through the streets on a donkey by a noisy crowd when rumours of their prior relationship surface. Lucetta, now respectably married to Henchard's rival Farfrae, collapses in distress and humiliation, miscarries her baby and dies.
407:
Noisy, masked processions were held outside the home of the accused wrongdoer, involving the cacophonous rattling of bones and cleavers, the ringing of bells, hooting, blowing bull's horns, the banging of frying pans, saucepans, kettles, or other kitchen or barn implements with the intention of
773:
As practised in North
America, the charivari tended to be less extreme and punitive than the traditional European custom. Each was unique and heavily influenced by the standing of the family involved, as well as who was participating. While embellished with some European traditions, in a North
769:
from the earliest days of
English settlers through the early 1900s. The earliest documented examples of Canadian charivari were in Quebec in the mid-17th century. One of the most notable was on June 28, 1683. After the widow of François Vézier dit Laverdure remarried only three weeks after her
236:
Communities used "rough music" to express their disapproval of different types of violation of community norms. For example, they might target marriages of which they disapproved such as a union between an older widower and much younger woman, or the premature remarriage of a widow or widower.
764:
The early French colonists took the custom of charivari to their settlements in Quebec. Some historians believe the custom spread to
English-speaking areas of Lower Canada and eventually into the American South, but it was independently common in English society, so was likely to be part of
412:, along with a litany of obscenities and insults. Alternatively, one of the participants would "ride the stang" (a pole carried between the shoulders of two or more men or youths) while banging an old kettle or pan with a stick and reciting a rhyme (called a "nominy") such as the following:
582:, a seasonal custom, takes place at midnight on the third Sunday in December. The participants march around the village for about an hour, rattling pans, dustbin lids, kettles and anything else that will make a noise. The council once attempted to stop the tin-canning; participants were
850:
Perhaps the most common usage of the word today is in relation to circus performances, where a 'charivari' is a type of show opening that sees a raucous tumble of clowns and other performers into the playing space. This is the most common form of entrance used in today's classical
841:
In Europe the noise, songs, and chants had special meanings for the crowd. When directed against adulterers, the songs represented the community’s disgust. For a too-early remarriage of a widow or widower, the noises symbolized the scream of the late husband or wife in the night.
748:
Charivari has been practiced in much of the United States, but it was most frequent on the frontier, where communities were small and more formal enforcement was lacking. It was documented into the early 20th century, but was thought to have mostly died out by mid century. In
705:
was the most common consequence of the
European charivari. The acts which victims endured were forms of social ostracism often so embarrassing that they would leave the community for places where they were not known. Sometimes the charivari resulted in
408:
creating long-lasting embarrassment to the alleged perpetrator. During a rough music performance, the victim could be displayed upon a pole or donkey (in person or as an effigy), their "crimes" becoming the subject of mime, theatrical performances or
718:
include five cases of a charivari victim's firing on his accusers: these incidents resulted in two people being blinded and three killed. Some victims committed suicide, unable to recover from the public humiliation and social exclusion.
395:
In
Warwickshire, the custom was known as "loo-belling" or "lewbelling", and in northern England as "riding the stang". Other names given to this or similar customs were "rough-musicking" and "hussitting" (said to be a reference to the
305:), literally "heaviness in the head" but also used to mean "headache", from κάρα "head" and βαρύς "heavy". In any case, the tradition has been practised for at least 700 years. An engraving in the early 14th-century French manuscript,
904:; the items consist of small trophies from game, like teeth from wild boar, or deer, jaws and fangs from foxes and various marters, feathers and claws from jaybirds and birds of prey. A Bavarian Charivari resembles the so-called "
1193:
refers to the 'dissonant piping and war-drums of vengeance' sounds of rough music in a scene where a rural town finds out that a local man beat his daughter, causing her miscarriage, and a drunken mob come to kill him for the
363:
of the victim under the eyes of their neighbours Rough music practices were irregularly scattered throughout English communities in the nineteenth century. In the twentieth they declined but endured in a few places, such as
1221:, Season 2, Episode 8, the Widow Castell is made to walk a Skimmington in order to shame her for not remarrying soon enough. The men in power want her under the control of a husband to stymie her meddling in colony politics.
1162:, the episode titled "The Shivaree" focused around a wedding between a city boy and a country girl. The groom almost calls off the marriage after being humiliated by a shivaree thrown by his wife's family and friends.
1114:
band from the West Country of England. They took their name from the Skimmington (known as Skimmity in Dorset) to reflect their music and stage show which is a mix of rough music, parody, drunkenness and audience
356:". Where effigies of the "wrongdoers" were made they were frequently burned as the climax of the event (as the inscription on the Rampton photograph indicates) or "ritually drowned" (thrown into a pond or river).
622:
607:
473:, or profiteering at times of poor harvests. Occupational groups, such as butchers, employed rough music against others in the same trade who refused to abide by the commonly agreed labour customs.
256:
As species of popular justice rites, Charivaric events were carefully planned and they were often staged at times of traditional festivity thereby blending delivering justice and celebration.
969:, the evil half-man, half-horse central character Fauvel marries the allegorical figure of Vainglory, and the townspeople hold a charivari in the street as he goes to his marriage bed.
586:
and fined, but a dance was organised to raise money to pay the fines and the custom continues. The village is sufficiently proud of its custom for it to feature on the village sign.
799:. Rituals included wheeling the bride about in a wheelbarrow or tying cowbells under a wedding bed. This ritual may be the base of the fastening of tin cans to the newlyweds car.
1094:"She's me—she's me—even to the parasol—my green parasol!" cried Lucetta with a wild laugh as she stepped in. She stood motionless for one second—then fell heavily to the floor.
892:
With the charivari widely practised among rural villagers across Europe, the term and practice were part of common culture. Over time, the word was applied to other items. In
476:
Rough music practices would often be repeated for three or up to seven nights in a row. Many victims fled their communities and cases of suicide are not unknown. As forms of
492:
Skimmingtons are recorded in England in early medieval times and they are recorded in colonial America from around the 1730s. The term is particularly associated with the
695:
within the community. The goal was to enforce social standards and to rid the community of socially unacceptable relationships that threatened the stability of the whole.
908:", a women's ornament consisting of a silver chain with numerous pendants like a mini silver box of needles, a small pair of scissors, a tiny bottle of perfume, etc..
862:
The charivari was used to belittle those who could not or would not consummate their marriage. In the mid-16th century, historic records attest to a charivari against
391:
A lewbelling in Warwickshire, 1909. The caption stated that the custom, although dying out, was still occasionally observed. Here it was applied to an immoral couple.
1240:, Season 5, Episode 12, titled "Filibuster", Cyril proposes that the servants conduct a shivaree while he and Julia Calderon consummate their marriage. She declines.
512:
described a skimmington as: "Saucepans, frying-pans, poker and tongs, marrow-bones and cleavers, bulls horns, etc. beaten upon and sounded in ludicrous processions"
1082:"Well--it mid be. The man has got on a blue coat and kerseymere leggings; he has black whiskers, and a reddish face. 'Tis a stuffed figure, with a falseface." (...)
997:
740:
It is possible that the blowing of car horns after weddings in France (and indeed in many European countries) today is a holdover from the charivari of the past.
1257:) that they were unable to re-enter the saloon they just left because the "shivaree" (i.e., the fight they had with other bar patrons) "wore out our welcome".
221:. Since the crowd aimed to make as much noise as possible by beating on pots and pans or anything that came to hand, these parades were often referred to as
1086:
The numerous lights round the two effigies threw them up into lurid distinctness; it was impossible to mistake the pair for other than the intended victims.
1171:, in episode titled "Shivaree", two travelers are forced to get married when it is discovered that they are actually a young unmarried couple in disguise.
1902:
1275:, Cersei Lannister's hair is cut off and she is paraded naked through the streets of King's Landing, whilst a bell is rung to repeated chants of "Shame!"
2855:. It also states that "The details of the Skimmington are so accurately described by the poet, that he must have derived them from actual observation."
384:
around 1951, and an attempt at traditional rough music practice was last documented by the folklorist Theo Brown in a Devonshire village around 1973.
336:, was most commonly employed, a skimmington being a type of large wooden ladle with which an unruly wife might beat her husband. Other terms include "
469:
music was also used as a sanction against those who committed certain species of economic crimes such as blocking footpaths, preventing traditional
1591:
324:
So-called "Rough Music" practices in England were known by many regional or local designations. In the North the most commonly employed term was "
2388:
1459:
328:", a stang being a long pole carried on the shoulders of two men between which an object or a person could be mounted. In the South, the term
990:, her husband learns with alarm that "here was some talk about a charivari" among the miners, some of whom throw snickering glances at Susan.
559:, until it was banned by the police in 1964 because of hooliganism the previous year. The fair is still held, on the first Monday after Old
2932:
Several early examples of rough music, skimmington rides and similar unnamed customs between 1562 and 1790, including one in Seville (1593)
2546:
515:
2209:
2013:
547:
Tuneless, cacophonous "rough music", played on horns, bugles, whistles, tin trays and frying pans, was a feature of the custom known as
1130:
was the name given to a French satirical magazine first published in 1832. Its British counterpart, established in 1841, was entitled
2840:
2162:
1074:"Yes. Two images on a donkey, back to back, their elbows tied to one another's! She's facing the head, and he's facing the tail."
803:
lasting "until near daylight". The music produced during the chivaree was reportedly "hideous and unearthly beyond description".
594:
687:. It did not want the community taking on the judgment and punishment of parishioners. But the custom continued in rural areas.
2785:
2865:
Several early examples of skimmington rides and similar unnamed customs between 1562 and 1790, including one in Seville (1593)
2920:
2906:
2774:
2755:
2736:
2719:
2629:
2596:
2506:
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2346:
2233:
1889:
1852:
1830:
1784:
1731:
1674:
1557:
1518:
1494:
1423:
1203:, the episode titled "Return Engagement, Part 1" references a shivaree after an ex-prostitute marries the telegraph operator.
2816:
1447:
551:. This had taken place annually, possibly for several centuries, in the early hours of the morning, to herald the start of
774:
American charivari participants might throw the culprits into horse tanks or force them to buy candy bars for the crowd.
2473:
Kyle S. Vanlandingham, "James T. Magbee: ‘Union Man, Undoubted Secessionist and High Priest in the Radical Synagogue,"
299:, already referring to the custom of rattling kitchenware with an iron rod, itself probably from the Greek καρηβαρία (
2892:
2080:
1654:
911:
In the Philippines, Charivari is punishable for being a public disorder under Article 155 of the Revised Penal Code.
770:
husband’s death, people of Quebec City conducted a loud and strident charivari against the newlyweds at their home.
2657:
2450:
1212:, Laurey and Curly are given a shivaree on their wedding night by a group of rowdy cowboys near the end of Act II.
1719:
1226:
778:
All in fun – it was just a shiveree, you know, and nobody got mad about it. At least not very mad.
2092:
1414:
1906:
1485:
Palmer, Bryan D. (2005). "Discordant Music: Charivaris and Whitecapping in Nineteenth-Century North America".
376:(1920s and 1936), Northamptonshire. There were in fact some examples after the Second World War in Sussex, at
1574:
1047:, which dates from the Elizabethan era, and shows a man mounted on a pole, carried on the shoulders of others
568:
496:
region of England and, although the etymology is not certain, it has been suggested that it derived from the
213:) was a European and North American folk custom designed to shame a member of the community, in which a mock
2965:
2955:
1231:
newlyweds Chris and Kay are given a shivaree by local ranchers on Kay’s first night at her husband’s ranch.
2043:(1922 edition), Sir James George Frazer, Ch 56 The Public Expulsion of Evils §1 The Omnipresence of Demons
501:
three main targets: a man who is worsted by his wife in a quarrel; a cuckolded man who accepts his wife's
2970:
1012:
579:
1957:
1614:
1397:
877:
855:, whereas the two and three-ring circuses of the last century usually preferred a parade, or a 'spec'.
737:, consisted of raucous nocturnal music, and was aimed at widows or widowers who remarried prematurely.
26:
20:
2975:
2566:
2526:
2407:
1401:
1199:
1056:
1300:
441:
365:
1967:
923:
tradition as a 'rustic' or 'pastoral' character piece. Notable examples are those of the renowned
2935:
2925:
2868:
2858:
1235:
544:
Many folk customs around the world have involved making loud noises to scare away evil spirits.
1315:
381:
2137:
2621:
2613:
2249:
Johnson, Loretta T. (1990). "Charivari/Shivaree: A European Folk Ritual on American Plains".
2025:
1928:
1244:
1216:
993:
722:
2389:"Charivari on the Hudson: Misrule, Disorder, and Festive Play in the Countryside, 1750–1900"
241:
is the original French word, and in Canada it is used by both Anglophones and Francophones.
2980:
1320:
1028:
986:, shortly after new bride Susan Burling Ward arrives in 1876 in the California mining town
38:
1024:, features a horseback skimmington ride prompted by a woman who seeks greater independence
8:
2203:
2173:
1180:
television episode "Four Funerals and a Wedding" prominently features a Skimmington ride.
1111:
886:
616:
2837:
Ralpho upon the skimmington (not named as such in the text) and their ignominious escape
1961:
2960:
2682:
2319:
2266:
1994:
1535:
1141:
905:
360:
1963:
The Social History of the People of the Southern Counties of England in Past Centuries
1153:'s characters by holding a noisy, drunken shivaree a couple days after their nuptials.
950:
ensemble, Charivari Agréable (founded in 1993), states that their name translates as,
2916:
2902:
2888:
2770:
2751:
2732:
2726:
2715:
2625:
2592:
2586:
2367:
2342:
2229:
2076:
1885:
1848:
1826:
1806:(1905 ed.). London, Reeves and Turner. p. 563 – via Internet Archive.
1780:
1727:
1670:
1650:
1553:
1514:
1490:
1443:
1419:
1262:
943:
556:
2791:
939:. Some are quite advanced and difficult and subsequently evoke the title's origins.
2833:
Part 2, Canto 2, lines 565–844 describe the mock-heroic attack by Hudibras and his
2311:
2258:
1986:
1606:
1176:
1146:
1132:
1037:, the central character encounters a skimmington in a scene notably illustrated by
676:
636:
598:
Paris men sing a drunken serenade in Honoré Daumier's series of humorous cartoons,
552:
369:
163:
157:
122:
57:
2826:
2315:
1610:
1575:
The Nottinghamshire Heritage Gateway: Folklore and customs, by Dr Peter Millington
2820:
2813:
1271:
1190:
1044:
1038:
982:
973:
965:
684:
650:
626:
611:
484:, ran-tanning and similar activities were banned under the Highways Act of 1882.
307:
270:
246:
116:
30:
2403:
2366:(in French). Paris: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales. p. 141.
1649:, pp. 6–8, Privately published, Stanley L Hunt (printers), Rushden, 1991.
1587:
1375:
1345:
1017:
977:
936:
924:
920:
631:
528:
1801:
1370:
761:, and the Atlantic provinces, but not always as an expression of disapproval.
2949:
2198:
1310:
1021:
863:
766:
730:
641:
564:
509:
497:
387:
1460:""Stang riding" as punishment for male victims of intimate partner violence"
233:
was employed instead, abused and often burnt at the end of the proceedings.
16:
European and North American folk custom designed to shame a community member
2878:
1290:
1167:
1150:
1126:
1051:
928:
655:
493:
377:
283:
1577:
Includes a rare photograph of a ran-tan at Rampton, Nottinghamshire (1909)
954:'pleasant tumult' (from Saint-Lambert’s 1707 treatise on accompaniment)".
1409:
1405:
1325:
1158:
987:
947:
702:
680:
663:
409:
2644:
1145:, members of a North Dakota farming community celebrate the marriage of
2323:
2213:. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 891.
2055:
2047:
2038:
1998:
1754:
1285:
1254:
1250:
901:
811:
646:
560:
2270:
683:
forbade the ritual of charivari and threatened its practitioners with
531:
of 1628–1631, which was a rebellion in south-west England against the
19:
This article is about the mock-serenading custom. For other uses, see
2847:
The footnote describes a skimmington, and likens it to examples from
1208:
1185:
1090:"Come in, come in," implored Elizabeth; "and let me shut the window!"
795:
532:
477:
401:
373:
1990:
2848:
2748:
Make the Night Hideous: Four English-Canadian Charivaris, 1881–1940
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1295:
1033:
871:
672:
502:
470:
397:
218:
217:
was staged through the settlement accompanied by a discordant mock
43:
34:
1800:
Brand, John; Ellis, Henry; Hazlitt, William Carew (July 8, 1905).
1066:"They are coming up Corn Street after all! They sit back to back!"
2852:
2841:
Samuel Butler (ed. Henry G. Bohn, with notes from Grey and Nash)
1305:
893:
867:
754:
711:
692:
583:
2202:
2138:"British Folk Customs, Broughton Tin Can Band, Northamptonshire"
2834:
1647:
Like Dew Before the Sun – Life and Language in Northamptonshire
1005:
852:
807:
790:
758:
750:
715:
707:
230:
214:
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Charivari is believed to have inspired the development of the
667:
socially unacceptable marriages; for example, the marriage of
193:
105:
81:
2547:"stanging-for-a-man-beaten-by-a-wife-mentioned-top (picture)"
1981:
Allan, D. G. C. (1952). "The Rising in the West, 1628–1631".
726:
668:
765:
Anglo-American customs. Charivari is well documented in the
264:
143:
131:
2942:
Descriptions of Riding the Stang, including a ran-tan rhyme
2769:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 106–112.
900:
was adopted as the name for the silver ornaments worn with
789:
back into the community after what might amount to a minor
481:
184:
169:
146:
99:
72:
2118:
Wassail! A Traditional Celebration of an English Midwinter
166:
128:
90:
63:
178:
134:
93:
66:
2658:"Charivari et justice populaire au Québec de René Hardy"
671:
before the end of the customary social period of formal
2451:"Why Do We Fasten Tin Cans to Newlyweds' Car Bumpers?"
919:
Charivari would later be taken up by composers of the
2362:
Le Goff, Jacques; Schmitt, Jean-Claude, eds. (1981).
268:
Depiction of charivari, early 14th century (from the
172:
125:
60:
1705:: Illustrated London News, 14 August 1909, page 233.
1489:. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press. pp. 48–49.
190:
181:
175:
140:
102:
96:
78:
69:
2302:Alford, Violet (1959). "Rough Music or Charivari".
1749:
Seal, Graham, "A 'Hussitting' in Berkshire, 1930" (
1534:. ex officina Hackiana. 1671. p. 822 (note by
536:protest against a breach of the established order.
300:
187:
137:
87:
75:
2565:
2545:
2525:
2505:
2507:"stanging-for-man-whose-wife-beats-him (picture)"
1903:"Riot and Revelry in Early America: Introduction"
1799:
1043:A skimmington is depicted in a plaster frieze in
2947:
1882:Informal Justice in England and Wales, 1760–1914
1869:Informal Justice in England and Wales, 1760–1914
1823:Informal Justice in England and Wales, 1760–1914
1667:Informal Justice in England and Wales, 1760-1914
1550:Informal Justice in England and Wales, 1780–1918
1511:Informal Justice in England and Wales, 1760–1914
1440:Informal Justice in England and Wales, 1760–1914
431:Till the blood run down like a new stuck sheep!
2783:
2712:Informal Justice in England and Wales 1760-1914
2361:
2132:
2130:
729:"in spite of the energetic disapproval of the
2647:, from Charivari Agréable's official website.
1570:
1568:
1566:
1418:(18th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1346:"What medieval Europe did with its teenagers"
725:recorded the survival of the custom in 1950s
37:Encounters the Skimmington" (illustration to
2750:. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
2228:. Ottawa: The Golden Dog Press. p. 57.
2051:, Ch 56 §2 The Occasional Expulsion of Evils
1985:. New series, vol. 5 (1). Blackwell: 76–85.
1745:
1743:
1580:
487:
429:She struck him so hard, and she cut so deep,
2731:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
2591:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
2127:
662:The custom has been documented back to the
516:A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue
425:For spending a penny when he stood in need.
294:
287:
2728:Society and Culture in Early Modern France
2355:
1952:
1950:
1563:
1050:A skimmington forms a well-known scene in
931:in his five collections of pieces for the
2745:
2059:, Ch56 §3 The Periodic Expulsion of Evils
1740:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1004:depicts a charivari that occurs in rural
2938:The Popular Antiquities of Great Britain
2928:The Popular Antiquities of Great Britain
2871:The Popular Antiquities of Great Britain
2861:The Popular Antiquities of Great Britain
2611:
2339:A View of the World: Selected Journalism
2223:
2197:
1803:The Popular Antiquities of Great Britain
1586:
1415:Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary
1078:"Is it meant for anybody in particular?"
1070:"What—two of 'em—are there two figures?"
957:
593:
386:
263:
25:
2845:Vol 1, p. 196, (1859) Annotated edition
2680:
2448:
2386:
2248:
2011:
1956:
1947:
1905:. Penn State University. Archived from
1842:
1713:
1711:
2948:
2674:
2402:(2). Hudson River Valley Institute at
2301:
1894:
1632:
1484:
1343:
817:
649:, (also cacerolazo or cacerolada) and
314:
2724:
2681:Quinion, Michael (16 December 2000).
2584:
2336:
1980:
1974:
1779:. London: Continuum. pp. 47–48.
1770:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1396:
1119:
963:In the 14th-century political satire
832:It is a very great shame and disgrace
359:The very essence of the practice was
2814:DarkDorset.co.uk: Skimmington Riding
2764:
2251:Journal of Interdisciplinary History
2073:A Dictionary of British Folk Customs
2065:
1920:
1717:
1708:
885:, by the American history professor
455:We'll put his nose right out before.
2014:"Myth, Memory and Misunderstanding"
1926:
1774:
875:formed the basis of a French film,
859:while people banged pots and pans.
675:. In the early 17th century at the
13:
2823:(Several examples given in detail)
2704:
2387:Wermuth, Thomas S. (Spring 2016).
2124:, Fellside Records, FECD125 (1997)
2116:John Kirpatrick, Sleeve notes for
1900:
1759:
1720:"Appendix G: The Skimmington Ride"
691:structure and to act as a form of
589:
539:
440:Rough music song originating from
14:
2992:
2807:
2790:. Richard Bentley. Archived from
2226:The Charivari or Canadian Poetics
1753:, vol. 98, No. 1 (1987), 91, 93.
1697:The word was said to derive from
1344:Kremer, William (23 March 2014).
522:
427:She up with a three-footed stool;
249:. In the United States, the term
2875:Descriptions of Riding the Stang
2620:. New York: New Press. pp.
2572:gynocentrism.files.wordpress.com
2552:gynocentrism.files.wordpress.com
2532:gynocentrism.files.wordpress.com
2512:gynocentrism.files.wordpress.com
1532:Historiae Augustae scriptores VI
1464:gynocentrism.files.wordpress.com
1234:In the American animated sitcom
743:
508:The antiquary and lexicographer
162:
121:
56:
2827:Exclassics.com: online text of
2650:
2638:
2605:
2578:
2558:
2538:
2518:
2498:
2489:
2480:
2467:
2449:Russell, Whitney (2017-11-24).
2442:
2433:
2424:
2380:
2337:Lewis, Norman (2011). "Ibiza".
2330:
2295:
2286:
2277:
2242:
2217:
2191:
2155:
2110:
2085:
2032:
2005:
1874:
1861:
1836:
1815:
1793:
1691:
1679:
1659:
845:
423:She bang'd him, she bang'd him,
2831:by Samuel Butler, 1805 edition
2396:The Hudson River Valley Review
2075:, pp291–292, Paladin Granada,
1933:North Carolina History Project
1542:
1524:
1513:, Chapter Three Boydell Press
1503:
1478:
1452:
1432:
1390:
1363:
1337:
1133:Punch, or The London Charivari
753:, charivaris have occurred in
421:Mrs. _______ and her good man.
311:, shows a charivari underway.
1:
2930:, (1905 edition) pp. 551–552.
2863:, (1905 edition) pp. 551–552.
2767:Ritual in Early Modern Europe
2725:Davis, Natalie Zemon (1975).
2714:Woodbride, UK: Boydell Press
2585:Davis, Natalie Zemon (1983).
2316:10.1080/0015587x.1959.9717197
2163:"Broughton Parish Plan (pdf)"
1611:10.1080/0015587X.1992.9715826
1331:
834:To all who live in this place
714:. Examples from the south of
245:became the common variant in
1487:Crime and Deviance in Canada
1215:In the British drama series
1183:In the fantasy novel series
1110:The Skimmity Hitchers are a
836:It is indeed, upon my life!
480:that were likely to lead to
259:
7:
2746:Greenhill, Pauline (2010).
2588:The Return of Martin Guerre
1983:The Economic History Review
1843:Bloxham, Christine (2005).
1279:
1013:The Late Lancashire Witches
914:
883:The Return of Martin Guerre
580:Broughton, Northamptonshire
301:
10:
2997:
1847:. Tempus. pp. 60–61.
1592:"Rough Music Reconsidered"
878:Le Retour de Martin Guerre
453:So if he does it any more,
449:There is a man in our town
319:
21:Charivari (disambiguation)
18:
2936:Archive.org: John Brand,
2926:Archive.org: John Brand,
2887:(1884), chapters 36, 39.
2885:The Mayor of Casterbridge
2879:Notbored.org: Rough music
2869:Archive.org: John Brand,
2859:Archive.org: John Brand,
2803:Chapter XI: The Charivari
2567:"stanging-1829 (picture)"
2527:"wife-beat-him (picture)"
2224:Longmore, George (1977).
2142:information-britain.co.uk
1884:pp. 76–82. Boydell Press
1724:The Mayor of Casterbridge
1442:pp. 71–72 Boydell Press,
1376:Dictionary.com Unabridged
1200:Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman
1103:The Mayor of Casterbridge
1057:The Mayor of Casterbridge
488:Origins, history and form
461:Holler boys, holler boys.
457:Holler boys, holler boys,
451:Who often beats his wife,
2940:, (1905 edition) p. 563.
2873:, (1905 edition) p. 563.
2784:Moodie, Susanna (1854).
2612:Thompson, E. P. (1993).
2071:Hole, Christina (1978).
2012:Pericic, Marija (2009).
1301:Extrajudicial punishment
881:(1982) and the history,
866:in the small village of
605:Equivalents include the
442:South Stoke, Oxfordshire
366:Rampton, Nottinghamshire
201:, alternatively spelled
2787:Roughing It In The Bush
2495:Johnson (1990), p. 376.
2477:20, no. 1 (1994): 7–23.
2439:Johnson (1990), p. 387.
2406:: 27–52. Archived from
2292:Johnson (1990), p. 379.
2283:Johnson (1990), p. 375.
2210:Encyclopædia Britannica
1935:. John Locke Foundation
1845:Folklore of Oxfordshire
1775:Cox, Christoph (2004).
1686:Illustrated London News
1552:, P. 63 Boydell Press,
1509:Banks, Stephen (2014)
1260:In the television show
1197:In the television show
1165:In the television show
1156:In the television show
783:Johnson (1990), p. 382.
278:The origin of the word
2710:Banks, Stephen (2014)
1821:Banks Stephen, (2014)
1665:Banks, Stephen (2014)
1548:Banks, Stephen (2014)
1438:Banks, Stephen (2014)
1316:Tarring and feathering
1107:
839:
786:
654:
640:
630:
615:
602:
600:The Musicians of Paris
466:
434:
392:
295:
288:
275:
48:
2899:I Shall Wear Midnight
2765:Muir, Edward (2005).
2486:Palmer (2005), p. 49.
2430:Palmer (2005), p. 51.
2024:: 6–7. Archived from
1880:Banks Stephen (2014)
1718:Page, Norman (1997).
1253:) tells Mississippi (
1112:Scrumpy & Western
1063:
958:In art and literature
825:
776:
597:
446:
417:With a ran, tan, tan,
414:
390:
267:
29:
2179:on 30 September 2011
2093:"What's On - Dorset"
1966:. Longman. pp.
1810:Costume of Yorkshire
459:Make the bells ring,
2966:Canadian traditions
2956:Weddings by culture
2901:(2010), chapter 2.
2120:, John Kirpatrick
1726:. Broadview Press.
1620:on 13 February 2020
1227:Never A Dull Moment
887:Natalie Zemon Davis
818:Importance of noise
563:Day (10 October) –
463:God save the King.
315:Regional variations
282:is likely from the
2971:Wedding traditions
2819:2019-09-13 at the
2689:. World Wide Words
2683:"World Wide Words"
1645:Dorothy A Grimes,
1536:Claudius Salmasius
1466:. December 2, 2015
1142:The Purchase Price
1120:In popular culture
1002:The Violent Season
830:Has beat his wife!
828:Has beat his wife!
733:". It was called
603:
569:Old Style calendar
419:On my old tin can,
393:
361:public humiliation
276:
209:and also called a
49:
2921:978-0-00-655220-8
2907:978-0-385-61107-7
2897:Terry Pratchett,
2776:978-0-521-84153-5
2757:978-1-4426-4077-1
2738:978-0-8047-0868-5
2720:978-1-84383-940-8
2631:978-1-56584-003-4
2618:Customs in Common
2598:978-0-674-76690-7
2373:978-2-7132-0754-9
2348:978-1-78060-037-6
2341:. London: Eland.
2235:978-0-919614-18-5
2204:"Charivari"
1927:Kickler, Troy L.
1901:Pencak, William.
1890:978-1-84383-940-8
1854:978-0-7524-3664-7
1831:978-1-84383-940-8
1786:978-0-8264-1614-8
1733:978-1-55111-122-3
1688:, 14 August 1909.
1675:978-1-84383-940-8
1558:978-1-84383-940-8
1519:978-1-84383-940-8
1496:978-1-55130-274-4
1425:978-0-521-15255-6
1350:BBC News Magazine
1321:The Rogue's March
1269:In the TV series
1263:Death Valley Days
1243:In the 1966 film
1224:In the 1950 film
944:period instrument
557:Sherborne, Dorset
549:Teddy Rowe's Band
2988:
2976:English folklore
2802:
2800:
2799:
2780:
2761:
2742:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2694:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2574:. December 2015.
2569:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2554:. December 2015.
2549:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2534:. December 2015.
2529:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2514:. December 2015.
2509:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2487:
2484:
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2239:
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2215:
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2206:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2178:
2172:. Archived from
2170:kettering.gov.uk
2167:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2148:
2134:
2125:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2097:visit-dorset.com
2089:
2083:
2069:
2063:
2041:The Golden Bough
2036:
2030:
2029:
2009:
2003:
2002:
1978:
1972:
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1944:
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1695:
1689:
1683:
1677:
1663:
1657:
1643:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1619:
1613:. Archived from
1596:
1584:
1578:
1572:
1561:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1528:
1522:
1507:
1501:
1500:
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1471:
1456:
1450:
1448:978-1-84383940-8
1436:
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1394:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1341:
1249:, Cole Thorton (
1177:Midsomer Murders
1147:Barbara Stanwyck
1105:
1095:
1091:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
953:
823:happy to adopt:
784:
677:Council of Tours
625:
617:haberfeldtreiben
610:
553:Pack Monday Fair
400:or followers of
370:Middleton Cheney
334:skimmington ride
304:
298:
291:
253:is more common.
200:
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2989:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2946:
2945:
2821:Wayback Machine
2810:
2797:
2795:
2777:
2758:
2739:
2707:
2705:Further reading
2702:
2692:
2690:
2679:
2675:
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2481:
2475:Sunland Tribune
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2434:
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2416:
2414:
2410:
2391:
2385:
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2349:
2335:
2331:
2310:(4): 505–518 .
2300:
2296:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2278:
2257:(3): 371–387 .
2247:
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2222:
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2196:
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2099:
2091:
2090:
2086:
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2066:
2037:
2033:
2010:
2006:
1991:10.2307/2591309
1979:
1975:
1958:Roberts, George
1955:
1948:
1938:
1936:
1925:
1921:
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1910:
1899:
1895:
1879:
1875:
1867:Banks Stephen,
1866:
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1794:
1787:
1773:
1760:
1748:
1741:
1734:
1716:
1709:
1696:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1669:Boydell Press.
1664:
1660:
1644:
1633:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1594:
1588:Thompson, E. P.
1585:
1581:
1573:
1564:
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1497:
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1369:
1368:
1364:
1354:
1352:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1282:
1272:Game of Thrones
1206:In the musical
1191:Terry Pratchett
1122:
1106:
1100:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1045:Montacute House
1039:William Hogarth
983:Angle of Repose
980:-winning novel
974:Wallace Stegner
966:Roman de Fauvel
960:
951:
917:
848:
838:
835:
833:
831:
829:
820:
785:
782:
746:
685:excommunication
681:Catholic Church
621:
606:
592:
590:Mainland Europe
542:
540:Similar customs
525:
490:
482:public disorder
465:
462:
460:
458:
456:
454:
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450:
433:
430:
428:
426:
424:
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317:
308:Roman de Fauvel
271:Roman de Fauvel
262:
247:Ontario, Canada
165:
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115:
114:
86:
59:
55:
31:William Hogarth
24:
17:
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2944:
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2933:
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2911:Patrick Gale,
2909:
2895:
2883:Thomas Hardy,
2881:
2876:
2866:
2856:
2838:
2824:
2809:
2808:External links
2806:
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2404:Marist College
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2285:
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2263:10.2307/204083
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2234:
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2201:, ed. (1911).
2199:Chisholm, Hugh
2190:
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2109:
2084:
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2053:
2031:
2028:on 2009-10-17.
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1101:Thomas Hardy,
1098:
1064:
1062:
1061:
1054:'s 1884 novel
1048:
1041:
1025:
1018:Thomas Heywood
1009:
1000:'s 1961 novel
991:
978:Pulitzer Prize
970:
959:
956:
933:basse de viole
925:viola da gamba
921:French Baroque
916:
913:
870:in the French
847:
844:
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819:
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745:
742:
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529:Western Rising
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2893:0-00-424535-0
2890:
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2862:
2857:
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2832:
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2825:
2822:
2818:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2794:on 2012-04-02
2793:
2789:
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2677:
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2641:
2633:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2614:"Rough Music"
2608:
2600:
2594:
2590:
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2581:
2573:
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2548:
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2427:
2413:on 2018-03-04
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2158:
2143:
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2131:
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2113:
2098:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2081:0-586-08293-X
2078:
2074:
2068:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2039:Bartleby.com
2035:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2008:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1959:
1953:
1951:
1934:
1930:
1929:"Skimmington"
1923:
1909:on 2006-09-01
1908:
1904:
1897:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1877:
1870:
1864:
1856:
1850:
1846:
1839:
1832:
1828:
1825:p. 92. p. 99
1824:
1818:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1796:
1788:
1782:
1778:
1777:Audio Culture
1771:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1755:
1752:
1746:
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1656:
1655:0-9518496-0-3
1652:
1648:
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1399:
1398:Jones, Daniel
1393:
1379:(Online). n.d
1378:
1377:
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1366:
1351:
1347:
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1311:Riding a rail
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1096:
1059:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1029:Samuel Butler
1026:
1023:
1022:Richard Brome
1019:
1015:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1003:
999:
998:Robert Goulet
995:
992:
989:
985:
984:
979:
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909:
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903:
899:
895:
890:
888:
884:
880:
879:
873:
869:
865:
864:Martin Guerre
860:
856:
854:
843:
837:
824:
815:
813:
810:tradition of
809:
804:
800:
798:
797:
792:
779:
775:
771:
768:
767:Hudson Valley
762:
760:
756:
752:
744:North America
741:
738:
736:
732:
731:Guardia Civil
728:
724:
720:
717:
713:
709:
704:
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696:
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688:
686:
682:
678:
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634:
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619:
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566:
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518:
517:
511:
510:Francis Grose
506:
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220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
198:
159:
151:
118:
110:
53:
46:
45:
40:
39:Samuel Butler
36:
32:
28:
22:
2937:
2927:
2912:
2898:
2884:
2870:
2860:
2842:
2828:
2796:. Retrieved
2792:the original
2786:
2766:
2747:
2727:
2711:
2691:. Retrieved
2686:
2676:
2665:. Retrieved
2661:
2652:
2645:All about us
2640:
2617:
2607:
2587:
2580:
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2540:
2531:
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2500:
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2469:
2458:. Retrieved
2454:
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2435:
2426:
2415:. Retrieved
2408:the original
2399:
2395:
2382:
2364:Le charivari
2363:
2357:
2338:
2332:
2307:
2303:
2297:
2288:
2279:
2254:
2250:
2244:
2225:
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2208:
2193:
2183:25 September
2181:. Retrieved
2174:the original
2169:
2157:
2145:. Retrieved
2141:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2100:. Retrieved
2096:
2087:
2072:
2067:
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2034:
2026:the original
2021:
2017:
2007:
1982:
1976:
1962:
1937:. Retrieved
1932:
1922:
1911:. Retrieved
1907:the original
1896:
1881:
1876:
1871:Chapter Five
1868:
1863:
1844:
1838:
1822:
1817:
1809:
1802:
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1615:the original
1602:
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1549:
1544:
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1526:
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1486:
1480:
1468:. Retrieved
1463:
1454:
1439:
1434:
1413:
1410:Esling, John
1406:Setter, Jane
1402:Roach, Peter
1392:
1381:. Retrieved
1374:
1365:
1353:. Retrieved
1349:
1339:
1291:Dorset Ooser
1270:
1261:
1245:
1236:
1225:
1217:
1207:
1198:
1184:
1175:
1168:The Rifleman
1166:
1157:
1151:George Brent
1140:
1139:In the film
1131:
1127:Le Charivari
1125:
1115:humiliation.
1102:
1065:
1055:
1052:Thomas Hardy
1032:
1016:, a play by
1011:
1001:
981:
964:
942:The British
941:
932:
929:Marin Marais
918:
910:
897:
891:
882:
876:
861:
857:
849:
846:Other usages
840:
827:
821:
805:
801:
794:
787:
777:
772:
763:
747:
739:
734:
723:Norman Lewis
721:
701:
697:
689:
661:
604:
599:
576:Tin Can Band
575:
573:
565:St Michael's
548:
546:
543:
526:
513:
507:
494:West Country
491:
475:
467:
448:
439:
435:
416:
406:
394:
380:in 1947 and
378:West Hoathly
358:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
326:stang riding
325:
323:
306:
293:, plural of
286:
284:Vulgar Latin
279:
277:
269:
255:
250:
242:
238:
235:
227:
222:
210:
206:
202:
51:
50:
42:
2981:Vigilantism
2913:Rough Music
2687:Skimmington
2662:Septentrion
1371:"charivari"
1326:Vigilantism
1159:The Waltons
988:New Almaden
948:early music
703:Humiliation
664:Middle Ages
632:katzenmusik
567:Day in the
527:During the
478:vigilantism
410:recitatives
372:(1909) and
346:ran tanning
342:tin-panning
330:skimmington
223:rough music
211:skimmington
2950:Categories
2798:2009-10-20
2667:2024-03-27
2460:2020-03-01
2417:2018-03-03
1913:2009-10-17
1383:2022-01-12
1332:References
1286:Cacerolazo
1255:James Caan
1251:John Wayne
906:chatelaine
902:Lederhosen
812:Tintamarre
735:cencerrada
647:cacerolada
645:, Spanish
642:scampanate
561:Michaelmas
338:lewbelling
296:caribarium
2961:Widowhood
2693:1 January
2147:6 January
2102:6 January
1939:1 January
1808:(quoting
1246:El Dorado
1218:Jamestown
1209:Oklahoma!
1186:Discworld
994:Québécois
927:virtuoso
898:charivari
796:Oklahoma!
656:charivari
623:‹See Tfd›
608:‹See Tfd›
533:enclosure
519:, 1796).
402:John Huss
382:Copthorne
374:Blisworth
302:karēbaría
289:caribaria
280:charivari
260:Etymology
239:Charivari
52:Charivari
2915:(2000)
2849:Plutarch
2843:Hudibras
2829:Hudibras
2817:Archived
2304:Folklore
1960:(1856).
1751:Folklore
1605:: 3–26.
1599:Folklore
1590:(1992).
1412:(eds.).
1400:(2011).
1355:23 March
1296:Escrache
1280:See also
1099:—
1034:Hudibras
976:'s 1971
937:continuo
915:In music
872:Pyrenees
781:—
673:mourning
584:summoned
503:adultery
471:gleaning
398:Hussites
368:(1909),
251:shivaree
243:Chivaree
219:serenade
207:chivaree
203:shivaree
44:Hudibras
35:Hudibras
2853:Juvenal
2622:467–531
2324:1258223
2057:op.cit.
2049:op.cit.
1999:2591309
1812:, 1814)
1703:belling
1624:14 July
1470:15 July
1306:Mobbing
1149:'s and
996:writer
894:Bavaria
868:Artigat
808:Acadian
755:Ontario
712:suicide
693:censure
637:Italian
350:nominey
320:England
2919:
2905:
2891:
2835:squire
2773:
2754:
2735:
2718:
2628:
2595:
2370:
2345:
2322:
2271:204083
2269:
2232:
2122:et al.
2079:
2018:Limina
1997:
1888:
1851:
1829:
1783:
1730:
1673:
1653:
1556:
1517:
1493:
1446:
1422:
1237:Archer
1194:crime.
1006:Quebec
853:circus
791:hazing
759:Quebec
751:Canada
716:France
708:murder
679:, the
669:widows
651:French
627:German
612:German
354:wooset
352:" or "
348:", a "
231:effigy
215:parade
2411:(PDF)
2392:(PDF)
2320:JSTOR
2267:JSTOR
2177:(PDF)
2166:(PDF)
1995:JSTOR
1970:–536.
1618:(PDF)
1595:(PDF)
727:Ibiza
498:ladle
332:, or
160:also
119:also
2917:ISBN
2903:ISBN
2889:ISBN
2851:and
2771:ISBN
2752:ISBN
2733:ISBN
2716:ISBN
2695:2010
2626:ISBN
2593:ISBN
2368:ISBN
2343:ISBN
2230:ISBN
2185:2017
2149:2017
2104:2017
2077:ISBN
1941:2010
1886:ISBN
1849:ISBN
1827:ISBN
1781:ISBN
1728:ISBN
1699:lewd
1671:ISBN
1651:ISBN
1626:2012
1554:ISBN
1515:ISBN
1491:ISBN
1472:2023
1444:ISBN
1420:ISBN
1357:2014
1174:The
1020:and
935:and
620:and
574:The
344:", "
340:", "
2312:doi
2259:doi
1987:doi
1968:535
1607:doi
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