144:) was founded in 1950 as part of industrialization process that the South African government considered essential for continued economic development and autonomy. South Africa had no known domestic oil reserves at the time, and this made the country very vulnerable to disruption of supplies coming from outside, albeit for different reasons at different times. Sasol was a successful way to protect the country's balance of payment against the increasing dependence on foreign oil. For years its principal product was synthetic fuel, and this business enjoyed significant government protection in South Africa during the
133:
supply in the 1940s. The DCL and ICL plants effectively complemented each other rather than competed. The reason for this is that coal hydrogenation yields high quality gasoline for aviation and motors, while FT synthesis chiefly produced high-quality diesel, lubrication oil, and waxes together with some smaller amounts of lower-quality motor gasoline. The DCL plants were also more developed, as lignite – the only coal available in many parts of
Germany – worked better with hydrogenation than with FT synthesis. After the war, Germany had to abandon its synthetic fuel production as it was prohibited by the
152:. Although it was generally much more expensive to produce oil from coal than from natural petroleum, the political as well as economic importance of achieving as much independence as possible in this sphere was sufficient to overcome any objections. Early attempts to attract private capital, foreign or domestic, were unsuccessful, and it was only with state support that the coal liquefaction could start. CTL continued to play a vital part in South Africa's national economy, providing around 30% of its domestic fuel demand. The
1642:
1628:
2813:
570:(LPG) and naphtha (petroleum ether). First tests were implemented at the end of 2008. A second and longer test campaign was started in October 2009. In 2011, Shenhua Group reported that the direct liquefaction plant had been in continuous and stable operations since November 2010, and that Shenhua had made 800 million yuan ($ 125.1 million) in earnings before taxes in the first six months of 2011 on the project.
25:
2303:
2182:
Based on 1913 work by
Bergius it had been noted that certain minerals in coal ash had a mild catalytic activity, and this led to design work on a SRC-II demonstration plant to be built at Morgantown, WV. This too was cancelled in 1981. It appeared based on the work done so far to be desirable to separate the coal-dissolution and catalytic-hydrogenation functions to obtain a greater yield of
492:. Advantages of this process are that dissolution and oil upgrading are taking place in the single reactor, products have high H/C ratio, and a fast reaction time, while the main disadvantages are high gas yield (this is basically a thermal cracking process), high hydrogen consumption, and limitation of oil usage only as a boiler oil because of impurities.
310:
269:
for processing, in combination with increasing temperature, through four stages of pyrolysis. Heat is transferred by hot gases produced by combustion of part of the produced char. A modification of this process, the COGAS Process, involves the addition of gasification of char. The TOSCOAL Process, an
2186:
oil; this was accomplished in a small+scale pilot plant at
Wilsonville, AL during 1981-85. The plant also included a critical-solvent deasher to recover a maximum amount of usable liquid product. In a commercial plant, the deasher underflow containing unreacted carbonaceous matter would be gasified
2181:
The SRC-I pilot plant operated at Fort Lewis Wash in the 1970s but was not able to overcome lack of solvent balance problems (continual imports of solvent containing polynuclear aromatics were necessary). A SRC-I demonstration plant was scheduled to be built at Newman, KY but was cancelled in 1981.
807:
Hydrogen from renewables: the hydrogen demand of coal liquefaction processes might be supplied through renewable energy sources including wind, solar, and biomass, significantly reducing the emissions associated with traditional methods of hydrogen synthesis (such as steam methane reforming or char
788:
The United States military has an active program to promote alternative fuels use, and utilizing vast domestic U.S. coal reserves to produce fuels through coal liquefaction would have obvious economic and security advantages. But with their higher carbon footprint, fuels from coal liquefaction face
834:
In terms of commercial development, coal conversion is experiencing a strong acceleration. Geographically, most active projects and recently commissioned operations are located in Asia, mainly in China, while U.S. projects have been delayed or canceled due to the development of shale gas and shale
132:
initiated industrial production of synthetic fuels derived from coal. This led to the construction of twelve DCL plants using hydrogenation and nine ICL plants using
Fischer–Tropsch synthesis by the end of World War II. In total, CTL provided 92% of Germany's air fuel and over 50% of its petroleum
487:
is added. The reaction takes place in a tubular reactor at a temperature between 430 °C (810 °F) and 465 °C (870 °F) at the pressure 150-200 bar. The produced oil has low quality and requires intensive upgrading. H-Coal process, developed by
Hydrocarbon Research, Inc., in
164:
CTL technologies have steadily improved since the Second World War. Technical development has resulted in a variety of systems capable of handling a wide array of coal types. However, only a few enterprises based on generating liquid fuels from coal have been undertaken, most of them based on ICL
257:
process, coal is heated at 680 °F (360 °C) to 1,380 °F (750 °C) in the absence of air. These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. However, any produced liquids are mostly a by-product and the main product is
789:
the significant challenge of reducing life-cycle GHG emissions to competitive levels, which demands continued research and development of liquefaction technology to increase efficiency and reduce emissions. A number of avenues of research & development will need to be pursued, including:
819:
Since 2014, the U.S. Department of Energy and the
Department of Defense have been collaborating on supporting new research and development in the area of coal liquefaction to produce military-specification liquid fuels, with an emphasis on jet fuel, which would be both cost-effective and in
285:
Liquid yields of pyrolysis and the
Karrick process are generally considered too low for practical use for synthetic liquid fuel production. The resulting coal tars and oils from pyrolysis generally require further treatment before they can be usable as motor fuels; they are processed by
696:
The above instances of commercial plants based on indirect coal liquefaction processes, as well as many others not listed here including those in planning stages and under construction, are tabulated in the
Gasification Technologies Council's World Gasification Database.
156:
of South Africa in the 1990s made Sasol search for products that could prove more competitive in the global marketplace; as of the new millennium the company was focusing primarily on its petrochemical business, as well as on efforts to convert natural gas into crude oil
803:
Coal/biomass/natural gas feedstock blends for coal liquefaction: Utilizing carbon-neutral biomass and hydrogen-rich natural gas as co-feeds in coal liquefaction processes has significant potential for bringing fuel products' life-cycle GHG emissions into competitive
215:, often at high pressures and temperatures. Since liquid hydrocarbons generally have a higher hydrogen-carbon molar ratio than coals, either hydrogenation or carbon-rejection processes must be employed in both ICL and DCL technologies.
831:. The 2016 Award recipient is Mr. Jona Pillay, executive director for Gasification & CTL, Jindal Steel & Power Ltd (India). The 2017 Award recipient is Dr. Yao Min, Deputy General Manager of Shenhua Ningxia Coal Group (China).
2708:
165:
technology; the most successful one has been Sasol in South Africa. CTL also received new interest in the early 2000s as a possible mitigation option for reducing oil dependence, at a time when rising oil prices and concerns over
578:
unit. The oil produced had properties that were unique when compared to other coal oils; it was lighter and had far fewer heteroatom impurities. The process was scaled-up to the 6 ton per day level, but not proven commercially.
541:
There are also a number of two-stage direct liquefaction processes; however, after the 1980s only the
Catalytic Two-stage Liquefaction Process, modified from the H-Coal Process; the Liquid Solvent Extraction Process by
435:
573:
Chevron
Corporation developed a process invented by Joel W. Rosenthal called the Chevron Coal Liquefaction Process (CCLP). It is unique due to the close-coupling of the non-catalytic dissolver and the catalytic
502:
The Nuclear Utility Services Corporation developed hydrogenation process which was patented by Wilburn C. Schroeder in 1976. The process involved dried, pulverized coal mixed with roughly 1wt%
81:. This process is often known as "Coal to X" or "Carbon to X", where X can be many different hydrocarbon-based products. However, the most common process chain is "Coal to Liquid Fuels" (CTL).
211:
In contrast, direct liquefaction processes convert coal into liquids directly without having to rely on intermediate steps by breaking down the organic structure of coal with application of
177:
Specific liquefaction technologies generally fall into two categories: direct liquefaction (DCL) and indirect liquefaction (ICL) processes. Direct processes are based on approaches such as
678:(SNG). The Great Plains Gasification Plant in Beulah, North Dakota is a coal-to-SNG facility producing 160 million cubic feet per day of SNG, and has been in operation since 1984. Several
464:
is added. The process takes place in a tubular reactor at the pressure of 300 bar (30 MPa) and at the temperature of 470 °C (880 °F). This process was also explored by
2634:
2246:
Lowe, Phillip A.; Schroeder, Wilburn C.; Liccardi, Anthony L. (1976). "Technical Economies, Synfuels and Coal Energy Symposium, Solid-Phase Catalytic Coal Liquefaction Process".
2107:
Ekinci, E.; Yardim, Y.; Razvigorova, M.; Minkova, V.; Goranova, M.; Petrov, N.; Budinova, T. (2002). "Characterization of liquid products from pyrolysis of subbituminous coal".
1949:
1975:
2585:"Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions Research and Development Leading to Cost-Competitive Coal-to-Liquids (CTL) Based Jet Fuel Production Solicitation Number: DE-FOA-0000981"
2388:
Tarka, Thomas J.; Wimer, John G.; Balash, Peter C.; Skone, Timothy J.; Kern, Kenneth C.; Vargas, Maria C.; Morreale, Bryan D.; White III, Charles W.; Gray, David (2009).
2656:
780:
less than or equal to those of their conventional petroleum-based equivalent, as required by Section 526 of the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007.
715:
emissions from the gasification process or as well as from generation of necessary process heat and electricity inputs to the liquefaction reactors, thus releasing
460:, Germany. This plant operated from 1981 to 1987. In this process, coal is mixed with a recycle solvent and iron catalyst. After preheating and pressurizing, H
46:
538:. Other single-stage hydrogenation processes are the Exxon Donor Solvent Process, the Imhausen High-pressure Process, and the Conoco Zinc Chloride Process.
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accordance with EISA Section 526. Projects underway in this area are described under the U.S. Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory's
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fuels. Also, legislation in the United States has restricted the military's use of alternative liquid fuels to only those demonstrated to have life-cycle
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into the saline aquifer of Erdos Basin, at a rate of 100,000 tonnes per year. As of late October 2013, an accumulated amount of 154,000 tonnes of CO
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346:
483:
developed the NEDOL process. In this process, coal is mixed with a recycled solvent and a synthetic iron-based catalyst; after preheating, H
333:
is typically added to the mixture. The reaction occurs at between 400 °C (752 °F) to 500 °C (932 °F) and 20 to 70
218:
At industrial scales (i.e. thousands of barrels/day) a coal liquefaction plant typically requires multibillion-dollar capital investments.
129:
2449:
Mantripragada, H.; Rubin, E. (2011). "Techno-economic evaluation of coal-to-liquids (CTL) plants with carbon capture and sequestration".
605:
gas). In the second stage, the syngas is converted into light hydrocarbons using one of three main processes: Fischer–Tropsch synthesis,
1880:
Spalding-Fecher, R.; Williams, A.; van Horen, C. (2000). "Energy and environment in South Africa: charting a course to sustainability".
2692:
2190:
1953:
33:
706:
2683:
1979:
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2617:
2711:
REVIEW OF WORLDWIDE COAL TO LIQUIDS R, D&D ACTIVITIES AND THE NEED FOR FURTHER INITIATIVES WITHIN EUROPE (2.9MB), 52pp, 2009
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811:
Process improvements such as intensification of the Fischer–Tropsch process, hybrid liquefaction processes, and more efficient
2400:
2315:
2085:
1927:
1838:
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2701:
329:, developed by Friedrich Bergius in 1913. In this process, dry coal is mixed with heavy oil recycled from the process. A
3064:
2396:
1715:
1695:
2502:
1802:
1696:
Takao Kaneko, Frank Derbyshire, Eiichiro Makino, David Gray, Masaaki Tamura, Kejian Li (2012). "Coal Liquefaction".
645:
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800:
and developmental CCS methods to offset emissions from both synthesis and utilization of liquid fuels from coal,
552:, a Chinese coal mining company, decided in 2002 to build a direct liquefaction plant in Erdos, Inner Mongolia (
89:
Coal liquefactions originally was developed at the beginning of the 20th century. The best-known CTL process is
2745:
1671:
597:
Indirect coal liquefaction (ICL) processes operate in two stages. In the first stage, coal is converted into
140:
South Africa developed its own CTL technology in the 1950s. The South African Coal, Oil and Gas Corporation (
90:
720:
685:
In another application of gasification, hydrogen extracted from synthetic gas reacts with nitrogen to form
1855:
2404:
1665:
588:
480:
444:
several plants based on this technology were built in Germany; these plants were extensively used during
205:
2524:
3157:
3084:
1725:
793:
750:
724:
827:
Every year, a researcher or developer in coal conversion is rewarded by the industry in receiving the
2882:
2130:
Stranges, Anthony N. (1984). "Friedrich Bergius and the Rise of the German Synthetic Fuel Industry".
1427:
476:
456:, was used in the demonstration plant with the capacity of 200 ton of lignite per day, built in
275:
94:
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2435:
2268:
2232:
3152:
3135:
Note: Peat is considered a precursor to coal. Graphite is only technically considered a coal type.
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2867:
2862:
2282:
1590:
Undefined amount of coal/biomass to 60,000 BPD jet fuel/gasoline/diesel and 200-400 MW electricity
777:
769:
731:
231:
102:
1282:
1.5 million TPY of high-sulfur IL coal generating 10,200 barrels per day of high quality gasoline
3114:
2337:
1647:
765:
735:
640:
catalyst. This process, under the moniker MTG (MTG for "Methanol To Gasoline"), was developed by
567:
226:
A number of carbonization processes exist. The carbonization conversion typically occurs through
38:
2187:
to provide hydrogen to drive the process. This program ended in 1985 and the plant was scrapped.
325:
One of the main methods of direct conversion of coal to liquids by hydrogenation process is the
3089:
2897:
2387:
2304:
Rosenthal, et al., 1982. The Chevron coal liquefaction process (CCLP). Fuel 61 (10): 1045-1050.
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449:
212:
2071:
2009:
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2842:
2550:
2422:
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2219:
815:
technologies needed for production of oxygen (e.g. ceramic membrane-based oxygen separation).
797:
648:(JAMG) in Shanxi, China. Based on this methanol synthesis, China has also developed a strong
489:
105:
in the 1920s. The FT synthesis is the basis for indirect coal liquefaction (ICL) technology.
1913:
1430:(BOE), 2) expand to 5.3 million BOE (3) expand to 8.0 million BOE (47 billion cf/y), 516 MW
2949:
2924:
2021:
1362:
Not specified. Coal to methanol and other chemicals (over 100 million tons of coal supply)
510:
produced in a separate gasifier. The process ultimately yielded a synthetic crude product,
279:
2716:
1441:
Australian-American Energy Co. (Terra Nova Minerals or Great Western Energy), Crow Nation
448:
to supply Germany with fuel and lubricants. The Kohleoel Process, developed in Germany by
8:
3027:
2887:
2787:
2245:
1751:
2025:
727:
technologies. There are technically feasible low-emission configurations of CTL plants.
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3099:
3042:
3012:
3002:
2959:
2738:
2155:
2147:
1775:
649:
192:
Indirect liquefaction processes generally involve gasification of coal to a mixture of
134:
2116:
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2832:
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2159:
2081:
2039:
1923:
1834:
1798:
1711:
1660:
822:
Advanced Fuels Synthesis R&D area in the Coal and Coal-Biomass to Liquids Program
313:
109:, also a German chemist, invented direct coal liquefaction (DCL) as a way to convert
106:
1779:
3094:
2847:
2458:
2139:
2112:
2029:
1889:
1826:
1765:
1703:
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772:, such as enacted in the State of California, reflect an increasing demand for low
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243:
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679:
657:
575:
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320:
262:
250:
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153:
149:
120:'s four-year plan of 1936, and became an integral part of German industry during
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1963, mixes pulverized coal with recycled liquids, hydrogen and catalyst in the
2974:
2902:
2877:
2482:. China Shenhua Coal to Liquid & Chemical Engineering Company. July 9, 2012
2368:"Gasification Technologies Council Resource Center World Gasification Database"
1238:
30.6 mm bbls/year of synthetic crude (or 182 billion cubic feet per year)
812:
716:
661:
592:
158:
1830:
1189:
American Lignite Energy LLC (North American Coal, Headwaters Energy Services)
3146:
2731:
2201:
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549:
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and implemented as pilot plants in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s.
334:
287:
266:
254:
239:
186:
178:
78:
3119:
2043:
2034:
2008:
Höök, Mikael; Fantazzini, Dean; Angelantoni, André; Snowden, Simon (2013).
906:
20,000 BPD; primary products diesel fuel, liquefied petroleum gas, naphtha
543:
472:
445:
121:
117:
98:
761:
had been injected since 2010, which reached or exceeded the design value.
506:
catalysts. Hydrogenation occurred by use of high temperature and pressure
3052:
3047:
2989:
2939:
2914:
1919:
1610:
300 tons of coal into 525 BPD liquid fuels including diesel and jet fuel
675:
671:
618:
441:
74:
723:. This is especially true if coal liquefaction is conducted without any
711:
Typically coal liquefaction processes are associated with significant CO
546:; and the Brown Coal Liquefaction Process of Japan have been developed.
495:
The SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes were developed by
430:{\displaystyle n{\ce {C}}+(n+1){\ce {H2 -> C}}{}_{n}{\ce {H}}_{2n+2}}
2797:
2010:"Hydrocarbon liquefaction: viability as a peak oil mitigation strategy"
828:
682:
plants are in operation or in project in China, South Korea and India.
503:
301:
In summary, the economic viability of this technology is questionable.
2605:
2151:
3124:
3109:
3057:
3007:
2997:
2618:
Coal Conversion to Higher Value Hydrocarbons: A Tangible Acceleration
2077:
746:
553:
227:
182:
145:
125:
2477:"The Progress of the CCS Demonstration Project in the Shenhua Group"
1770:
1641:
1402:
4.3 million TPY coal/biomass to 400 million GPY diesel and jet fuel
1322:
4.2-11.4 million TPY Healy-mined coal; ~40k BPD liquid fuels; 110MW
644:
in the early 1970s, and is being tested at a demonstration plant by
3074:
3022:
2929:
2907:
2872:
2852:
2827:
2802:
2143:
886:
160,000 BPD; primary products gasoline and light olefins (alkenes)
665:
629:
610:
606:
496:
337:
330:
298:
species, after which they are finally processed into liquid fuels.
295:
235:
197:
166:
2812:
2934:
2782:
2188:
1627:
843:
686:
653:
637:
511:
457:
110:
2007:
1879:
783:
24:
2919:
2837:
2702:
Coal and Coal-Biomass to Liquids Program, NETL official website
1578:
Tyonek Coal-to-Liquids (formerly Alaska Accelergy CTL Project)
633:
625:
598:
507:
291:
201:
169:
made planners rethink existing supply chains for liquid fuels.
2106:
1915:
Synthetic Fuels Handbook: Properties, Process, and Performance
1198:
11.5 million TPY lignite coal to 32,000 BPD of undefined fuel
2772:
2390:"Affordable Low Carbon Diesel from Domestic Coal and Biomass"
641:
465:
141:
16:
Chemical process of converting coal into liquid hydrocarbons
3017:
2969:
2857:
2777:
2754:
1752:"A review on coal to liquid fuels and its coal consumption"
1258:
16 million TPY coal to 80,000 BPD of diesel and naphtha; CO
690:
556:), with barrel capacity of 20 thousand barrels per day (3.2
453:
70:
2709:
Research Programme of the Research Fund for Coal and Steel
2503:"Shenhua Group's Carbon Capture and Storage Demonstration"
966:
3,960,000 (Nm/d) syngas capacity; Fischer–Tropsch liquids
309:
2964:
1178:
7,500 TPD of coal to 18,000 BPD gasoline and 300 BPD LPG
874:
Sasol Synfuels II (West) & Sasol Synfuels III (East)
387:
838:
221:
2723:
2635:"World (Non-U.S.) Proposed Gasification Plant Database"
1978:. National Energy Technology Laboratory. Archived from
1952:. National Energy Technology Laboratory. Archived from
1302:
1,000 tpd ammonia; 2,000 BPD clean fuels and chemicals
2693:
Indirect Liquefaction Processes, NETL official website
2541:
T., Bartis, James; Lawrence, Van Bibber (2011-01-01).
621:. Fischer–Tropsch is the oldest of the ICL processes.
1382:
Bitumen crude oil to 340,000 BPD jet and diesel fuel
1135:
689:. Ammonia then reacts with carbon dioxide to produce
349:
340:
pressure. The reaction can be summarized as follows:
3080:
Health and environmental impact of the coal industry
2684:
Direct Liquefaction Processes, NETL official website
1623:
1246:
Cook Inlet Coal-to Liquids Project (aka Beluga CTL)
566: m/d) of liquid products including diesel oil,
161:) using its expertise in Fischer–Tropsch synthesis.
3070:
Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia
2717:
Coal To Liquids on World Coal-To-X official website
1745:
1743:
1741:
2659:. National Energy Technology Laboratory. June 2014
2637:. National Energy Technology Laboratory. June 2014
2448:
2283:"China Shenhua coal-to-liquids project profitable"
2189:Cleaner Coal Technology Programme (October 1999).
1518:Rentech/Peabody Joint Development Agreement (JDA)
429:
282:, uses hot recycled solids for the heat transfer.
2191:"Technology Status Report 010: Coal Liquefaction"
2014:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
1186:American Lignite Energy (aka Coal Creek Project)
3144:
1786:
1738:
1126:30,000 BPD Phase I 45,000 BPD + 840 MW Phase II
582:
530:) suitable for use as fuels, small amounts of NH
1218:Petcoke to up to 30,000 BPD ultra-clean diesel
849:World (Non-U.S.) Coal to Liquid Fuels Projects
700:
471:During the 1970s and 1980s, Japanese companies
1699:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
1249:AIDEA and Alaska Natural Resources to Liquids
1086:4 million tonnes/year of diesel & naphtha
844:World (Non-U.S.) Coal to Liquid Fuels Projects
208:syngas is converted into liquid hydrocarbons.
2739:
2543:"Alternative Fuels for Military Applications"
2285:. American Fuels Coalition. September 8, 2011
1470:3 million TPY coal to 11,700 BPD of gasoline
997:Industrial Corporation of Mongolia LLC (ICM)
784:Research and development of coal liquefaction
1823:Germany's synthetic fuel industry, 1927–1945
1821:Stranges, A.N. (2000). Lesch, John E (ed.).
1792:
1749:
1730:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1313:Fairbanks Economic Development Corp. (FEDC)
1006:13,200,000 (Nm/d) syngas capacity; gasoline
753:demonstration project, involves injecting CO
249:One typical example of carbonization is the
2657:"U.S. Proposed Gasification Plant Database"
2500:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1581:Accelergy, Tyonek Native Corporation (TNC)
116:Coal liquefaction was an important part of
2746:
2732:
2540:
2100:
1816:
1814:
1501:Rentech Energy Midwest Corporation (REMC)
1293:Rentech Energy Midwest Corporation (REMC)
1206:Belwood Coal-to-Liquids Project (Natchez)
304:
2569:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2033:
1825:. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 147–216.
1769:
1604:Perry County/Muhlenberg County, Kentucky
738:is another adverse environmental effect.
707:Environmental impact of the coal industry
632:, which is subsequently polymerized into
200:, often known as synthesis gas or simply
2248:American Society of Mechanical Engineers
2129:
1900:
1820:
1757:International Journal of Energy Research
1353:Future Fuels, Kentucky River Properties
609:synthesis with subsequent conversion to
308:
258:semi-coke - a solid and smokeless fuel.
84:
49:of all important aspects of the article.
2318:. National Energy Technology Laboratory
2065:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1911:
1811:
1573:Active (no new information since 2011)
1453:Active (no new information since 2011)
917:Yitai Coal Oil Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
894:Shenhua Direct Coal Liquefaction Plant
674:reaction converts syngas to substitute
238:, oil and water vapor, non-condensable
148:years for its contribution to domestic
124:. During the mid-1930s, companies like
3145:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2169:
1750:Höök, Mikael; Aleklett, Kjell (2010).
1677:Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir
1262:for EOR; 380 MW electrical generation
946:300,000 t/a methanol from MTG process
45:Please consider expanding the lead to
3038:mining disasters in the United States
2727:
2401:National Energy Technology Laboratory
1558:Secure Energy CTL (aka MidAmericaC2L
986:160,000 mt/a Fischer–Tropsch liquids
937:Jincheng Anthracite Mining Co., Ltd.
926:160,000 mt/a Fischer–Tropsch liquids
839:Coal liquefaction plants and projects
222:Pyrolysis and carbonization processes
2056:
1994:
1458:Medicine Bow Fuel and Power Project
1169:TransGas Development Systems (TGDS)
1166:Adams Fork Energy - TransGas WV CTL
272:TOSCO II oil shale retorting process
18:
2355:
2166:
2069:
1793:Davis, B.H.; Occelli, M.L. (2006).
1141:U.S. Coal to Liquid Fuels Projects
1066:46,000 BPD Fischer–Tropsch liquids
1046:46,000 BPD Fischer–Tropsch liquids
1026:30,000 BPD Fischer–Tropsch liquids
522:gas, light-medium weight liquids (C
13:
3065:Environmental issues in Appalachia
2397:United States Department of Energy
1882:Energy for Sustainable Development
1689:
1136:U.S. Coal to Liquid Fuels Projects
749:, an Inner Mongolian plant with a
14:
3179:
2675:
1950:"Indirect Liquefaction Processes"
1853:
1413:USA Synthetic Fuel Corp. (USASF)
1229:USA Synthetic Fuel Corp. (USASF)
2811:
2198:Department of Trade and Industry
1640:
1626:
1498:Rentech Energy Midwest Facility
646:Jincheng Anthracite Mining Group
624:In methanol synthesis processes
93:(FT), named after the inventors
23:
2649:
2627:
2610:
2599:
2577:
2534:
2517:
2501:Wu Xiuzhang (January 7, 2014).
2494:
2469:
2442:
2381:
2330:
2308:
2297:
2275:
2239:
2123:
1976:"Direct Liquefaction Processes"
1450:First phase: 8,000 BPD liquids
1241:Planning/financing not secured
1034:Yitai Ordos CTL Plant Phase II
652:industry, with outputs such as
601:(a purified mixture of CO and H
261:The COED Process, developed by
37:may be too short to adequately
1968:
1942:
1873:
1847:
1672:Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program
1668:, defunct US state corporation
1481:North American Biofuels Group
1077:Shenhua Group Corporation Ltd
730:High water consumption in the
390:
373:
361:
47:provide an accessible overview
1:
2316:"Great Plains Synfuels Plant"
2117:10.1016/S0378-3820(02)00056-5
1894:10.1016/S0973-0826(08)60259-8
1708:10.1002/14356007.a07_197.pub2
1682:
1426:Three Phases: 1) 2.7 million
1390:Illinois Clean Fuels Project
1192:MacLean County, North Dakota
900:Erdos, Inner Mongolia, China
583:Indirect conversion processes
534:and significant amounts of CO
278:, which is also used for the
1370:Hunton "Green Refinery" CTL
1172:Mingo County, West Virginia
1074:Shenhua Ningxia CTL Project
1040:Ordos, Zhungeer-Dalu, China
721:anthropogenic global warming
701:Environmental considerations
113:into synthetic oil in 1913.
7:
3168:Synthetic fuel technologies
2463:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.02.053
1666:Synthetic Fuels Corporation
1619:
1564:McCracken County, Kentucky
1270:Decatur Gasification Plant
1139:
1060:Guanquanbao, Urunqi, China
847:
481:Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
69:is a process of converting
10:
3184:
3085:Health effects of coal ash
2893:power in the United States
2109:Fuel Processing Technology
1912:Speight, James G. (2008).
1538:Rentech/Peabody Minemouth
1393:American Clean Coal Fuels
1350:Future Fuels Kentucky CTL
1333:Freedom Energy Diesel LLC
1330:Freedom Energy Diesel CTL
1100:Mozambique, Tete province
994:ICM Coal to Liquids Plant
903:CTL (direct liquefaction)
794:Carbon capture and storage
764:In the United States, the
751:carbon capture and storage
725:carbon capture and storage
704:
586:
318:
253:. In this low-temperature
234:. It produces condensable
172:
73:into liquid hydrocarbons:
3133:
2988:
2820:
2809:
2761:
1831:10.1007/978-94-015-9377-9
1795:Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis
1444:Big Horn County, Montana
1428:barrels of oil equivalent
1226:CleanTech Energy Project
1181:Operations 2016 or later
1080:China, Yinchuan, Ningxia
477:Sumitomo Metal Industries
91:Fischer–Tropsch synthesis
2955:Greenhouse gas emissions
2753:
1920:McGraw-Hill Professional
1561:MidAmericaC2L / Siemens
1097:Clean Carbon Industries
1094:Clean Carbon Industries
770:low-carbon fuel standard
732:water-gas shift reaction
242:, and a solid residue -
232:destructive distillation
103:Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
3115:Problems in coal mining
2606:Homepage of Carbon to X
2338:"Carbon to X Processes"
1856:"Historical Milestones"
1702:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
1648:Renewable energy portal
1504:East Dubuque, Illinois
1484:Weirton, West Virginia
1464:Carbon County, Wyoming
1396:Coles County, Illinois
1356:Perry County, Kentucky
1296:East Dubuque, Illinois
1054:Yitai ĂśrĂĽmqi CTL Plant
974:Shanxi Lu'an CTL Plant
920:Ordos, Zhungeer, China
829:World Carbon To X Award
766:Renewable Fuel Standard
736:steam methane reforming
719:that can contribute to
589:Fischer–Tropsch process
568:liquefied petroleum gas
514:, a limited amount of C
305:Hydrogenation processes
206:Fischer–Tropsch process
3090:History of coal mining
2558:Cite journal requires
2505:. Cornerstone Magazine
2430:Cite journal requires
2263:Cite journal requires
2227:Cite journal requires
2035:10.1098/rsta.2012.0319
1656:Coal-water slurry fuel
1550:10,000 and 30,000 BPD
1530:10,000 and 30,000 BPD
1336:Morristown, Tennessee
1103:Coal waste-to-liquids
1017:Yitai Yili Energy Co.
1000:Tugrug Nuur, Mongolia
977:Shanxi Lu'an Co. Ltd.
960:Secunda, South Africa
880:Secunda, South Africa
431:
316:
213:hydrogen-donor solvent
2945:Fossil fuel phase-out
2843:Black coal equivalent
2070:Lee, Sunggyu (1996).
1860:Sasol Company Profile
1541:Rentech/Peabody Coal
1521:Rentech/Peabody Coal
1212:Natchez, Mississippi
1014:Yitai Yili CTL Plant
798:enhanced oil recovery
490:ebullated bed reactor
432:
312:
276:Lurgi–Ruhrgas process
85:Historical background
2950:Great Smog of London
2883:pollution mitigation
2622:Cornerstone Magazine
2403:: 21. Archived from
2080:. pp. 166–198.
1601:US Fuel Corporation
1570:10,200 BPD gasoline
1461:DKRW Advanced Fuels
1410:Lima Energy Project
1299:CTL, polygeneration
869:Start of Operations
745:emission control at
347:
280:shale oil extraction
2868:fired power station
2863:combustion products
2788:Sub-bituminous coal
2765:(lowest to highest)
2762:Coal types by grade
2343:. World Carbon To X
2026:2013RSPTA.37220319H
1584:Cook Inlet, Alaska
1290:East Dubuque Plant
1252:Cook Inlet, Alaska
1142:
1114:Arckaringa Project
934:Jincheng MTG Plant
889:1977(II)/1983(III)
850:
389:
3003:Black lung disease
2980:Toxic heavy metals
2960:Metallurgical coal
2624:, 11 October 2013.
2587:. January 31, 2014
2111:. 77–78: 309–315.
2020:(2006): 20120319.
1553:Delayed/Cancelled
1533:Delayed/Cancelled
1513:Delayed/Cancelled
1493:Delayed/Cancelled
1478:NABFG Weirton CTL
1473:Delayed/Cancelled
1405:Delayed/Cancelled
1385:Delayed/Cancelled
1345:Delayed/Cancelled
1316:Fairbanks, Alaska
1305:Delayed/Cancelled
1285:Delayed/Cancelled
1276:Decatur, Illinois
1265:Delayed/Cancelled
1221:Delayed/Cancelled
1201:Delayed/Cancelled
1140:
848:
808:gasification), and
427:
377:
317:
135:Potsdam conference
3158:German inventions
3140:
3139:
2898:preparation plant
2833:Asian brown cloud
2766:
2087:978-1-56032-361-7
2073:Alternative fuels
1929:978-0-07-149023-8
1922:. pp. 9–10.
1840:978-94-015-9377-9
1726:cite encyclopedia
1661:Biomass to liquid
1617:
1616:
1510:1,250 BPD diesel
1423:, polygeneration
1133:
1132:
1120:Australia, South
957:Sasol (Pty) Ltd.
877:Sasol (Pty) Ltd.
650:coal-to-chemicals
468:in South Africa.
410:
395:
380:
356:
314:Friedrich Bergius
107:Friedrich Bergius
67:Coal liquefaction
64:
63:
3175:
3095:Hydrogen sulfide
2815:
2764:
2748:
2741:
2734:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2705:
2704:
2696:
2695:
2687:
2686:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2653:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2631:
2625:
2614:
2608:
2603:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2592:
2581:
2575:
2574:
2567:
2561:
2556:
2554:
2546:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2525:"Pub.L. 110-140"
2521:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2510:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2481:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2457:(5): 2808–2816.
2446:
2440:
2439:
2433:
2428:
2426:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2409:
2394:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2364:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2342:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2323:
2312:
2306:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2266:
2261:
2259:
2251:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2230:
2225:
2223:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2206:
2200:. Archived from
2195:
2179:
2164:
2163:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2095:
2094:
2067:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2050:
2037:
2005:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1936:
1909:
1898:
1897:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1851:
1845:
1844:
1818:
1809:
1808:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1773:
1747:
1736:
1735:
1729:
1721:
1693:
1650:
1645:
1644:
1636:
1631:
1630:
1376:Freeport, Texas
1235:Synthetic crude
1143:
1106:65,000 BPD fuel
940:Jincheng, China
914:Yitai CTL Plant
851:
774:carbon footprint
717:greenhouse gases
628:is converted to
562:
561:
436:
434:
433:
428:
426:
425:
411:
408:
405:
404:
399:
396:
393:
388:
385:
378:
357:
354:
270:analogue to the
59:
56:
50:
27:
19:
3183:
3182:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3153:Coal technology
3143:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3129:
2984:
2821:Coal combustion
2816:
2807:
2793:Bituminous coal
2763:
2757:
2752:
2715:
2714:
2700:
2699:
2691:
2690:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2673:
2672:
2662:
2660:
2655:
2654:
2650:
2640:
2638:
2633:
2632:
2628:
2616:Serge Perineau
2615:
2611:
2604:
2600:
2590:
2588:
2583:
2582:
2578:
2568:
2559:
2557:
2548:
2547:
2539:
2535:
2527:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2508:
2506:
2499:
2495:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2470:
2447:
2443:
2431:
2429:
2420:
2419:
2413:
2411:
2407:
2392:
2386:
2382:
2372:
2370:
2366:
2365:
2356:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2321:
2319:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2302:
2298:
2288:
2286:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2264:
2262:
2253:
2252:
2244:
2240:
2228:
2226:
2217:
2216:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2193:
2184:synthetic crude
2180:
2167:
2128:
2124:
2105:
2101:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2068:
2057:
2048:
2046:
2006:
1995:
1985:
1983:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1959:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1910:
1901:
1878:
1874:
1865:
1863:
1852:
1848:
1841:
1819:
1812:
1805:
1791:
1787:
1771:10.1002/er.1596
1764:(10): 848–864.
1748:
1739:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1646:
1639:
1632:
1625:
1622:
1438:Many Stars CTL
1422:
1310:FEDC Healy CTL
1261:
1138:
954:Sasol Synfuels
846:
841:
786:
760:
756:
744:
714:
709:
703:
604:
595:
585:
576:hydroprocessing
559:
557:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
486:
463:
412:
407:
406:
400:
398:
397:
386:
381:
376:
353:
348:
345:
344:
327:Bergius process
323:
321:Bergius process
307:
263:FMC Corporation
251:Karrick process
224:
194:carbon monoxide
175:
154:democratization
150:energy security
87:
60:
54:
51:
44:
32:This article's
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3181:
3171:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3138:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3100:Mining regions
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3028:homogenization
3025:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2994:
2992:
2986:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2975:Sulfur dioxide
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2888:power in China
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2817:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2769:
2767:
2759:
2758:
2751:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2712:
2706:
2697:
2688:
2677:
2676:External links
2674:
2671:
2670:
2648:
2626:
2609:
2598:
2576:
2560:|journal=
2533:
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2432:|journal=
2380:
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2274:
2265:|journal=
2238:
2229:|journal=
2165:
2144:10.1086/353647
2138:(4): 643–667.
2122:
2099:
2086:
2055:
1993:
1982:on 24 May 2014
1967:
1956:on 25 May 2014
1941:
1928:
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1803:
1785:
1737:
1717:978-3527306732
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1403:
1400:
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1387:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1373:Hunton Energy
1371:
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1274:
1273:Secure Energy
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1118:
1117:Altona Energy
1115:
1111:
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1021:
1018:
1015:
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1007:
1004:
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987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
971:
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967:
964:
961:
958:
955:
951:
950:
947:
944:
941:
938:
935:
931:
930:
927:
924:
921:
918:
915:
911:
910:
907:
904:
901:
898:
897:Shenhua Group
895:
891:
890:
887:
884:
881:
878:
875:
871:
870:
867:
864:
861:
858:
855:
845:
842:
840:
837:
817:
816:
813:air separation
809:
805:
801:
785:
782:
758:
754:
742:
712:
705:Main article:
702:
699:
615:petrochemicals
602:
593:Gas to liquids
584:
581:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
484:
461:
438:
437:
424:
421:
418:
415:
403:
392:
384:
375:
372:
369:
366:
363:
360:
352:
306:
303:
223:
220:
174:
171:
86:
83:
79:petrochemicals
62:
61:
41:the key points
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3180:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3132:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3043:mining region
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2814:
2804:
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2799:
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2779:
2776:
2774:
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2768:
2760:
2756:
2749:
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2718:
2713:
2710:
2707:
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2698:
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2689:
2685:
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2658:
2652:
2636:
2630:
2623:
2619:
2613:
2607:
2602:
2586:
2580:
2572:
2565:
2552:
2544:
2537:
2526:
2520:
2504:
2497:
2478:
2472:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2451:Energy Policy
2445:
2437:
2424:
2410:on 2013-02-20
2406:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2384:
2369:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2339:
2333:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2300:
2284:
2278:
2270:
2257:
2249:
2242:
2234:
2221:
2207:on 2009-06-09
2203:
2199:
2192:
2185:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2089:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2074:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1981:
1977:
1971:
1955:
1951:
1945:
1931:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1861:
1857:
1850:
1842:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1817:
1815:
1806:
1804:9780080466750
1800:
1796:
1789:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1733:
1727:
1719:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1700:
1692:
1688:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1653:
1649:
1643:
1638:
1635:
1634:Energy portal
1629:
1624:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1583:
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1577:
1576:
1572:
1569:
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1560:
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1529:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1492:
1490:Undetermined
1489:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1456:
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1432:
1429:
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1401:
1398:
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1392:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1342:Undetermined
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1328:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1288:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
992:
988:
985:
982:
980:Lu'an, China
979:
976:
973:
972:
968:
965:
962:
959:
956:
953:
952:
948:
945:
942:
939:
936:
933:
932:
928:
925:
922:
919:
916:
913:
912:
908:
905:
902:
899:
896:
893:
892:
888:
885:
882:
879:
876:
873:
872:
868:
865:
862:
859:
856:
853:
852:
836:
832:
830:
825:
823:
814:
810:
806:
802:
799:
795:
792:
791:
790:
781:
779:
778:GHG emissions
775:
771:
767:
762:
752:
748:
739:
737:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
708:
698:
694:
692:
688:
683:
681:
677:
673:
669:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
600:
594:
590:
580:
577:
571:
569:
565:
555:
551:
547:
545:
539:
513:
509:
508:synthesis gas
505:
500:
498:
493:
491:
482:
478:
474:
469:
467:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
422:
419:
416:
413:
401:
382:
370:
367:
364:
358:
350:
343:
342:
341:
339:
336:
332:
328:
322:
315:
311:
302:
299:
297:
293:
289:
288:hydrotreating
283:
281:
277:
273:
268:
267:fluidized bed
264:
259:
256:
255:carbonization
252:
247:
245:
241:
240:synthetic gas
237:
233:
229:
219:
216:
214:
209:
207:
203:
199:
195:
190:
188:
187:hydrogenation
184:
180:
179:carbonization
170:
168:
162:
160:
155:
151:
147:
143:
138:
136:
131:
127:
123:
119:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
95:Franz Fischer
92:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
58:
48:
42:
40:
35:
30:
26:
21:
20:
3120:Refined coal
3033:liquefaction
3032:
2925:Energy value
2661:. Retrieved
2651:
2639:. Retrieved
2629:
2621:
2612:
2601:
2589:. Retrieved
2579:
2551:cite journal
2536:
2519:
2507:. Retrieved
2496:
2484:. Retrieved
2471:
2454:
2450:
2444:
2423:cite journal
2412:. Retrieved
2405:the original
2383:
2371:. Retrieved
2345:. Retrieved
2332:
2320:. Retrieved
2310:
2299:
2287:. Retrieved
2277:
2256:cite journal
2241:
2220:cite journal
2209:. Retrieved
2202:the original
2135:
2131:
2125:
2108:
2102:
2091:. Retrieved
2072:
2047:. Retrieved
2017:
2013:
1984:. Retrieved
1980:the original
1970:
1958:. Retrieved
1954:the original
1944:
1933:. Retrieved
1914:
1885:
1881:
1875:
1864:. Retrieved
1859:
1849:
1822:
1797:. Elsevier.
1794:
1788:
1761:
1755:
1697:
1691:
1598:US Fuel CTL
1020:Yili, China
833:
826:
818:
787:
763:
740:
729:
710:
695:
684:
670:
623:
596:
572:
563:
548:
544:British Coal
540:
501:
494:
473:Nippon Kokan
470:
446:World War II
439:
324:
300:
284:
260:
248:
225:
217:
210:
204:. Using the
191:
176:
163:
139:
122:World War II
118:Adolf Hitler
115:
99:Hans Tropsch
88:
75:liquid fuels
66:
65:
52:
36:
34:lead section
2990:Coal mining
2940:Fossil fuel
2347:27 November
1888:(4): 8–17.
1416:Lima, Ohio
680:coal-to-SNG
676:natural gas
672:Methanation
619:methanation
442:World War I
3147:Categories
3013:Coalfields
2798:Anthracite
2414:2016-05-10
2211:2010-10-23
2093:2009-06-27
2049:2009-06-03
1935:2009-06-03
1866:2017-10-05
1683:References
1419:IGCC/SNG/H
796:including
587:See also:
504:molybdenum
319:See also:
290:to remove
130:Ruhrchemie
55:April 2021
3163:Pyrolysis
3125:Whitedamp
3110:Peak coal
3105:Outbursts
3008:Coal dust
2998:Blackdamp
2903:seam fire
2878:phase-out
2160:143962648
2078:CRC Press
1593:Planning
1524:Kentucky
1325:Planning
1152:Locations
1149:Developer
860:Locations
857:Developer
747:Erdos CTL
666:aromatics
554:Erdos CTL
450:Ruhrkohle
391:⟶
265:, uses a
228:pyrolysis
183:pyrolysis
146:apartheid
137:in 1945.
126:IG Farben
101:from the
39:summarize
3075:Firedamp
2930:Flue gas
2853:Charcoal
2828:Ash pond
2803:Graphite
2044:24298075
1780:52037679
1620:See also
1544:Montana
1319:CTL/GTL
1232:Wyoming
1209:Rentech
1158:Products
866:Products
630:methanol
611:gasoline
607:methanol
497:Gulf Oil
338:hydrogen
331:catalyst
296:nitrogen
236:coal tar
198:hydrogen
167:peak oil
2935:Fly ash
2783:Lignite
2663:30 June
2641:30 June
2591:30 June
2509:24 June
2486:24 June
2373:24 June
2322:24 June
2289:24 June
2022:Bibcode
1986:24 June
1960:24 June
1862:. Sasol
1854:Sasol.
1613:Active
1433:Active
1365:Active
1161:Status
1146:Project
854:Project
804:ranges,
687:ammonia
654:olefins
638:zeolite
636:over a
634:alkanes
550:Shenhua
512:naphtha
458:Bottrop
173:Methods
111:lignite
3053:slurry
3048:refuse
2920:Coking
2838:Asthma
2158:
2152:232411
2150:
2084:
2042:
1926:
1837:
1801:
1778:
1714:
1057:Yitai
1037:Yitai
626:syngas
617:, and
599:syngas
479:, and
440:After
292:sulfur
202:syngas
185:, and
2773:Xylit
2528:(PDF)
2480:(PDF)
2408:(PDF)
2393:(PDF)
2341:(PDF)
2250:: 35.
2205:(PDF)
2194:(PDF)
2156:S2CID
2148:JSTOR
1776:S2CID
1587:CBTL
1109:2020
1089:2016
1069:2016
1049:2016
1029:2015
1009:2015
989:2014
969:2011
949:2009
929:2009
909:2008
835:oil.
642:Mobil
466:SASOL
142:Sasol
3058:town
3018:Coal
2970:Smog
2915:Coke
2858:Coal
2848:Char
2778:Peat
2755:Coal
2665:2014
2643:2014
2593:2014
2571:link
2564:help
2511:2014
2488:2014
2436:help
2375:2014
2349:2020
2324:2014
2291:2014
2269:help
2233:help
2132:Isis
2082:ISBN
2040:PMID
1988:2014
1962:2014
1924:ISBN
1835:ISBN
1799:ISBN
1732:link
1712:ISBN
1607:CTL
1567:CTL
1547:CTL
1527:CTL
1507:CTL
1487:CTL
1467:CTL
1447:CTL
1399:CTL
1379:CTL
1359:CTL
1339:GTL
1279:CTL
1255:CTL
1215:CTL
1195:CTL
1175:CTL
1155:Type
1129:TBD
1123:CTL
1083:CTL
1063:CTL
1043:CTL
1023:CTL
1003:CTL
983:CTL
963:CTL
943:CTL
923:CTL
883:CTL
863:Type
768:and
691:urea
664:and
591:and
454:VEBA
452:and
294:and
274:and
244:char
196:and
128:and
97:and
77:and
71:coal
3023:gas
2965:NOx
2908:tar
2873:gas
2459:doi
2140:doi
2113:doi
2030:doi
2018:372
1890:doi
1827:doi
1766:doi
1704:doi
734:or
662:DME
658:MEG
613:or
335:MPa
230:or
159:GTL
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362:(
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157:(
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
