Colonization of Mars

2042:. NASA wants its crew members to treat each other like coworkers would in a professional environment. A pregnant member on a spacecraft is dangerous to all those aboard. The pregnant woman and child would need additional nutrition from the rations aboard, as well as special treatment and care. The pregnancy would impinge on the pregnant crew member's duties and abilities. It is still not fully known how the environment in a spacecraft would affect the development of a child aboard. It is known however that a fetus would be more susceptible to solar radiation in space, which would likely have a negative effect on its cells and genetics. During a long trip to Mars, it is likely that members of a craft may engage in sex due to their stressful and isolated environment. 797:

affects the cardiovascular, musculoskeletal and neurovestibular (central nervous) systems. The cardiovascular effects are complex. On Earth, blood within the body stays 70% below the heart, but in microgravity this is not the case due to nothing pulling the blood down. This can have several negative effects. Once entering into microgravity, the blood pressure in the lower body and legs is significantly reduced. This causes legs to become weak through loss of muscle and bone mass. Astronauts show signs of a puffy face and chicken legs syndrome. After the first day of reentry back to earth, blood samples showed a 17% loss of blood plasma, which contributed to a decline of

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electricity generation systems rely on solar power, large energy storage facilities will also be needed to cover the periods when dust storms block out the sun, and automatic dust removal systems may be needed to avoid human exposure to conditions on the surface. If the colony is to scale beyond a few people, systems will also need to maximise use of local resources to reduce the need for resupply from Earth, for example by recycling water and oxygen and being adapted to be able to use any water found on Mars, whatever form it is in.

1035: 1470: 647: 6973:"Martian biological contamination may occur if astronauts breathe contaminated dust or if they contact material that is introduced into their habitat. If an astronaut becomes contaminated or infected, it is conceivable that he or she could transmit Martian biological entities or even disease to fellow astronauts, or introduce such entities into the biosphere upon returning to Earth. A contaminated vehicle or item of equipment returned to Earth could also be a source of contamination." 1957: 2627: 2556: 9677: 9365: 699:(DLR). Some scientists think that cyanobacteria could play a role in the development of self-sustainable crewed outposts on Mars. They propose that cyanobacteria could be used directly for various applications, including the production of food, fuel and oxygen, but also indirectly: products from their culture could support the growth of other organisms, opening the way to a wide range of life-support biological processes based on Martian resources. 7888: 1461:, modifies the natural trajectory of a spacecraft. Such an orbit would enable continuous communications during solar conjunction by allowing a relay spacecraft to "hover" above Mars, out of the orbital plane of the two planets. Such a relay avoids the problems of satellites stationed at either L4 or L5 by being significantly closer to the surface of Mars while still maintaining continuous communication between the two planets. 1285: 946: 1074:. In the former case, a trip time of forty days could be attainable, and in the latter, a trip time down to about two weeks. In 2016, a University of California, Santa Barbara scientist said they could further reduce travel time for a small robotic probe to Mars down to "as little as 72 hours" with the use of a laser propelled sail (directed photonic propulsion) system instead of the fuel-based rocket propulsion system. 485:) is not stable in the Martian atmosphere and breaks down after a few hours. Also due to the thinness of the atmosphere, the temperature difference between day and night is much larger than on Earth, typically around 70 °C. However, the day/night temperature variation is much lower during dust storms when very little light gets through to the surface even during the day, and instead warms the middle atmosphere. 1913:, and these cannot be removed while preserving the life of the human. Containment seems the only option, but it is a major challenge in the event of a hard landing (i.e. crash). There have been several planetary workshops on this issue, yet no final guidelines for a way forward. Human explorers would also be vulnerable to back contamination to Earth if they become carriers of microorganisms should Mars have life. 9665: 9377: 8111: 937:(Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation) that places scientists in a simulated Martian laboratory to study the psychological effects of isolation, repetitive tasks, and living in close-quarters with other scientists for up to a year at a time. Computer programs are being developed to assist crews with personal and interpersonal issues in absence of direct communication with professionals on Earth. 9653: 2051: 802:

sickness. Returning astronauts also felt disoriented. Journeys to and from Mars being six months is the average time spent at the ISS. Once on Mars with its lesser surface gravity (38% percent of Earth's), these health effects would be a serious concern. Upon return to Earth, recovery from bone loss and atrophy is a long process and the effects of microgravity may never fully reverse.

2145:, challenges the widespread view among advocates that a Mars colony would be friendly to the interests of humans on Earth. According to Deudney, this is merely an assumption based on the largely unexamined claim that a future Mars colony will be a straightforward extension of civilization on Earth, rather than a new kind of civilization with distinct goals, values, fears and desires. 732:. (For instance, half of all water is used during showers.) Similar systems would be needed on Mars but would need to be much more efficient, since regular robotic deliveries of water to Mars would be prohibitively expensive (the ISS is supplied with water four times per year). Potential access to on-site water (frozen or otherwise) via drilling has been investigated by NASA. 1054:, a trip to Mars requires approximately nine months in space. Modified transfer trajectories that cut the travel time down to four to seven months in space are possible with incrementally higher amounts of energy and fuel compared to a Hohmann transfer orbit, and are in standard use for robotic Mars missions. Shortening the travel time below about six months requires higher 852:. The average daily dose was about 220 μGy (22 mrad)—equivalent to 0.08 Gy per year. A three-year exposure to such levels would exceed the safety limits currently adopted by NASA, and the risk of developing cancer due to radiation exposure after a Mars mission could be two times greater than what scientists previously thought. Occasional 829:

protects against uncharged and highly energetic GCRs. There are ways to mitigate solar radiation, but without much of an atmosphere, the only solution to the GCR flux is heavy shielding amounting to roughly 15 centimeters of steel, 1 meter of rock, or 3 meters of water, limiting human colonists to living underground most of the time.

2093: 2080:, in his lifetime, is "determined to be a part of starting a population on Mars. I think it is absolutely realistic. It will happen... I think over the next 20 years," "we will take literally hundreds of thousands of people to space and that will give us the financial resources to do even bigger things". 828:

to reach the Martian surface. There are two main types of radiation risks to traveling outside the protection of Earth's atmosphere and magnetosphere: galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar energetic particles (SEP). Earth's magnetosphere protects from charged particles from the Sun, and the atmosphere

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due to relatively high concentrations of chlorine and associated compounds, such as perchlorates, which are hazardous to all known forms of life, even though some halotolerant microorganisms might be able to cope with enhanced perchlorate concentrations by drawing on physiological adaptations similar

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Settlement of Mars would depend on permanent migration of humans to the planet and the exploitation of local resources. Both are demanding, with large investments needed and people to be ready for life threatening conditions, since the planet is hostile to human life. Its barren surface is subject to

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Robotic spacecraft to Mars are required to be sterilized, to have at most 300,000 spores on the exterior of the craft—and more thoroughly sterilized if they contact "special regions" containing water, otherwise there is a risk of contaminating not only the life-detection experiments but possibly the

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Crewed missions to Mars have been proposed, but no person has set foot on the planet, and there have been no return missions. Most of the human mission concepts as currently conceived by national governmental space programs would not be direct precursors to colonization. Programs such as those being

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secretion. On the skeletal system which is important to support body posture, long space flight and exposure to microgravity cause demineralization and atrophy of muscles. During re-acclimation, astronauts were observed to have a myriad of symptoms including cold sweats, nausea, vomiting and motion

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Mars has a surface area that is 28.4% of Earth's, which is only slightly less than the amount of dry land on Earth (which is 29.2% of Earth's surface). Mars has half the radius of Earth and only one-tenth the mass. This means that it has a smaller volume (≈15%) and lower average density than Earth.

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are intended solely as exploration missions, with the establishment of a permanent base possible but not yet the main goal. Colonization requires the establishment of permanent habitats that have the potential for self-expansion and self-sustenance. Two early proposals for building habitats on Mars

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could serve as a relay during this period to solve the problem; even a constellation of communications satellites would be a minor expense in the context of a full colonization program. However, the size and power of the equipment needed for these distances make the L4 and L5 locations unrealistic

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much like Earth, though on average they last nearly twice as long because the Martian year is about 1.88 Earth years. Mars' temperature regime is more similar to Earth's than to any other planet's in the solar system. While generally colder than Earth, Mars can have Earth-like temperatures in

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No consensus exists about the minimum viable size of a colony required to ensure that inbreeding would not occur. Through mathematical modelling of the time spent by people on work in a colony, Jean-Marc Salotti concluded that the minimum number for a colony on Mars is 110. This is close to other

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with complex life-support systems. One key aspect of this would be water processing systems. Being made mainly of water, a human being would die in a matter of days without it. Even a 5–8% decrease in total body water causes fatigue and dizziness, and with a 10% decrease comes physical and mental

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and supplies. Equipment that would be necessary would include "machines to produce fertilizer, methane and oxygen from Mars' atmospheric nitrogen and carbon dioxide and the planet's subsurface water ice" as well as construction materials to build transparent domes for initial agricultural areas.

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In order to function, the colony would need the basic utilities to support human civilization. These would need to be designed to handle the harsh Martian environment and would either have to be serviceable while wearing an EVA suit or housed inside a human habitable environment. For example, if

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put astronauts in zero gravity for six months, a comparable length of time to a one-way trip to Mars. This gives researchers the ability to better understand the physical state that astronauts going to Mars would arrive in. Once on Mars, surface gravity is only 38% of that on Earth. Microgravity

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are common throughout the year and can cover the entire planet for weeks, blocking sunlight from reaching the surface. This has been observed to cause temperature drops of 4 °C for several months after the storm. In contrast, the only comparable events on Earth are infrequent large volcanic

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Moon landing. This is minor in comparison to the 1100-day journey to Mars and back envisioned by NASA for possibly as early as the year 2028. Scientists have also hypothesized that many different biological functions can be negatively affected by the environment of Mars. Due to higher levels of

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Wired systems might lay the groundwork for early crewed landings and bases, by producing various consumables including fuel, oxidizers, water, and construction materials. Establishing power, communications, shelter, heating, and manufacturing basics can begin with robotic systems, if only as a

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suggested that an inducement prize contest should be established, perhaps by government, for the achievement of space colonization. One example provided was offering a prize to the first organization to place humans on the Moon and sustain them for a fixed period before they return to Earth.

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ranges from about 3 minutes at closest approach (approximated by perihelion of Mars minus aphelion of Earth) to 22 minutes at the largest possible superior conjunction (approximated by aphelion of Mars plus aphelion of Earth). Real-time communication, such as telephone conversations or

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is directly between Mars and Earth, although the actual duration of the communications blackout varies from mission to mission depending on various factors—such as the amount of link margin designed into the communications system, and the minimum data rate that is acceptable from a mission

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critique. Seeing the need for inclusive and democratic participation and implementation of any space and Mars exploration, infrastructure, or colonialization, many have called for dramatic sociological reforms and guarantees to prevent racism, sexism, and other forms of prejudice.

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Mars has a surface gravity 0.38 times that of Earth, and the density of its atmosphere is about 0.6% of that on Earth. The relatively strong gravity and the presence of aerodynamic effects make it difficult to land heavy, crewed spacecraft with thrusters only, as was done with the

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A team of researchers which presented at Geological Society of America Connects 2022 identified some 139 caves worth exploring as potential shelters. Each was within 60 miles (100 km) of a location ideal for use as a landing site and had been imaged in high-resolution by

1633:. SpaceX was successful in developing the reusable technology with Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy and as of April 2024, it was rapidly advancing towards reusability of Starship. This is expected to "have a major impact on the cost of access to space", and change the increasingly 1925:, it was determined that no country may take claim to space or its inhabitants. Since the planet Mars offers a challenging environment and dangerous obstacles for humans to overcome, the laws and culture on the planet will most likely be different from those on Earth. With 746:

Mars presents a hostile environment for human habitation. Different technologies have been developed to assist long-term space exploration and may be adapted for habitation on Mars. The existing record for the longest consecutive space flight is 438 days by cosmonaut

1707:. However, Mars' thin atmosphere would allow almost all of that energy to reach the surface as compared to Earth, where the atmosphere absorbs roughly a quarter of the solar radiation. Sunlight on the surface of Mars would be much like a moderately cloudy day on Earth. 907:

to simulate space radiation. The facility studies its effects on living organisms, as well as experimenting with shielding techniques. Initially, there was some evidence that this kind of low level, chronic radiation is not quite as dangerous as once thought; and that

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announcing his plans for travel to Mars, it is uncertain how the dynamic of a private company possibly being the first to put a human on Mars will play out on a national and global scale. NASA had to deal with several cuts in funding. During the presidency of

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skylights have been located on the flanks of Arsia Mons. Earth based examples indicate that some should have lengthy passages offering complete protection from radiation and be relatively easy to seal using on-site materials, especially in small subsections.

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event which threw large amounts of ash into the atmosphere in 1883, causing a global temperature drop of around 1 °C. These dust storms would affect electricity production from solar panels for long periods, and interfere with communications with Earth.

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Zeitlin, C.; Hassler, D. M.; Cucinotta, F. A.; Ehresmann, B.; Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F.; Brinza, D. E.; Kang, S.; Weigle, G.; et al. (May 31, 2013). "Measurements of Energetic Particle Radiation in Transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory".

214:. But back then also already the US State Department made clear to avoid the use of the term because of the colonialist meaning. Today "settlement" is preferred out of similar reasons, trying to avoid the broad sociopolitical meaning of colonization. 6897:"No-one has yet proved that there is deep groundwater on Mars, but it is plausible as there is certainly surface ice and atmospheric water vapour, so we wouldn't want to contaminate it and make it unusable by the introduction of micro-organisms." 6677: 7814:; By Iris Fleischer, Olivia Haider, Morten W. Hansen, Robert Peckyno, Daniel Rosenberg and Robert E. Guinness; 30 September 2003; IAC Bremen, 2003 (29 Sept–03 Oct 2003) and MoonMars Workshop (26–28 Sept 2003, Bremen). Accessed on 18 January 2010 6645: 710:

ascents (35 km (114,000 feet) in 1961, 38 km in 2012) is similar to that on the surface of Mars. However, the pilots were not exposed to the extremely low pressure, as it would have killed them, but seated in a pressurized capsule.

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Justifications and motivations for colonizing Mars include technological curiosity, the opportunity to conduct in-depth observational research, the possibility that the settlement of other planets could decrease the probability of

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risk of between 1% and 19% (one estimate is 3.4%) for males to die of cancer because of the radiation during the journey to Mars and back to Earth. For females the probability is higher due to generally larger glandular tissues.

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Author Robert Zubrin has been a major advocate for Mars exploration and colonization for many years. He is a member of the Mars society and has authored several fiction and nonfiction books about the subject. In 1996 he wrote

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released in 2009 reported that "Mars is not an easy place to visit with existing technology and without a substantial investment of resources." NASA is exploring a variety of alternative techniques and technologies such as

1020:: this includes raising children and educating them, health care, preparing meals, cleaning, washing, organizing the work and making decisions. Time for sport, culture and entertainment can be minimized but not eliminated. 6360: 1645: 2129:

and viewing the Moon "not as a destination but more a point of departure, one that places humankind on a trajectory to homestead Mars and become a two-planet species". In August 2015, Aldrin, in association with the

1836:. It has been speculated that settlers could benefit from the shelter that these or similar structures could provide from radiation and micrometeoroids. Geothermal energy is also suspected in the equatorial regions. 727:

uses 70–140 litres of water per day on average. Through experience and training, astronauts on the ISS have shown it is possible to use far less, and that around 70% of what is used can be recycled using the

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have shown, it may be that these systems will involve private as well as government ownership. These robotic systems also have a reduced cost compared with early crewed operations, and have less political risk.

7388: 1527:. These systems could help locate resources, such as ground water or ice, that would help a colony grow and thrive. The lifetimes of these systems would be years and even decades, and as recent developments in 1002:: this includes extracting methane for vehicles and if photovoltaic cells are used to produce energy this would include the extraction and processing of silicates, to augment or replace any original equipment. 4826:

Williams D, Kuipers A, Mukai C, Thirsk R. Acclimation during space flight: effects on human physiology. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l’Association medicale canadienne 2009;180(13):

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than Earth's, increasing temperature and solar constant variations over the course of the Martian year. Mars has no rain and virtually no clouds, so although cold, it is permanently sunny (apart from during

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Some early Mars colonies might specialize in developing local resources for Martian consumption, such as water and/or ice. Local resources can also be used in infrastructure construction. One source of

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Caves would naturally provide a degree of insulation from Martian hazards for humans on the planet. These hazards include radiation, impactor events, and the wide range in temperatures on the surface.

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and landing a large vehicle. Landing piloted missions on Mars would require braking and landing systems different from anything used to land crewed spacecraft on the Moon or robotic missions on Mars.

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for relay stations, and the inherent stability of these regions, although beneficial in terms of station-keeping, also attracts dust and asteroids, which could pose a risk. Despite that concern, the

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No evidence of abundant resources on Mars with value to Earth has been collected. The distance between Mars and Earth would present a considerable challenge to potential trade between the planets.

7579: 3988: 7165: 4587: 538:) is around 43.3% of what reaches the Earth's upper atmosphere. However, due to the much thinner atmosphere, a higher fraction of the solar energy reaches the surface as radiation. The maximum 7104: 1177:

of Mars (17,032 km). A rocket launch would still be needed to get the rocket and cargo to the beginning of the space elevator 28 km above the surface. The surface of Mars is rotating at 0.25

4933:. NASA. 30 September 2015. Quote: " a trip to interplanetary space carries more radiation risk than working in low-Earth orbit, said Jonathan Pellish, a space radiation engineer at Goddard." 2618: 7414: 5220: 5547: 7078: 986:(6,000+ years). Other studies, focused on interstellar settlement, have concluded that minimum viable populations or a desirable number of colonists range from 198 to as high as 10,000. 7260: 4608:

Mui, K. W., Wong, L. T., & Law, L. Y. (2007). Domestic water consumption benchmark development for Hong Kong. Building Services Engineering Research & Technology, 28(4), p. 329.

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It is unforeseen how the first human landing on Mars will change the current policies regarding the exploration of space and occupancy of celestial bodies. In the 1967 United Nations

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as previously estimated, exposing astronauts to greater risk of cancer and other diseases. As a result of the higher radiation in the Martian environment, the summary report of the

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Due to the communication delays, new protocols need to be developed in order to assess crew members' psychological health. Researchers have developed a Martian simulation called

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of Mars is the hypothetical set of planetary engineering projects that would modify Mars to allow terrestrial life to survive free of protection or mediation. Proposals for the

7453: 669:. However, the surface is not hospitable to humans or most known life forms due to the radiation, greatly reduced air pressure, and an atmosphere with only 0.16% oxygen. 5577: 4722: 1403:, between Earth and Mars would be highly impractical due to the long time lags involved. NASA has found that direct communication can be blocked for about two weeks every 1391:. While these will eventually wear out, additional orbiters with communication relay capability are likely to be launched before any colonization expeditions are mounted. 4627: 7378: 2591: 2565: 7291: 5824: 4681: 4535: 9594: 6532: 5443:

Smith, Cameron M. (April 2014). "Estimation of a genetically viable population for multigenerational interstellar voyaging: Review and data for project Hyperion".

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cause DNA damage, which significantly increases the risk of cancer. The effect of long-term travel in interplanetary space is unknown, but scientists estimate an

1014:: even if the base is constructed before arrival, it will need frequent adaptation according to the evolution of the settlement as well as inevitable replacement. 702:

Humans have explored parts of Earth that match some conditions on Mars. Based on NASA rover data, temperatures on Mars (at low latitudes) are similar to those in

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was a proposed project designed to learn more about what effect Mars' lower surface gravity would have on humans, but it was cancelled due to a lack of funding.

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would be needed to get to the space elevator. Phobos orbits at 2.15 km/s and the outer most part of the space elevator would rotate around Mars at 3.52 km/s.

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Conditions on the surface of Mars are closer to the conditions on Earth in terms of temperature and sunlight than on any other planet or moon, except for the

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organisms that survive in hostile conditions on Earth have endured periods of exposure to environments that approximate some of the conditions found on Mars.

7052: 5757: 4961:"Non-Targeted Effects Models Predict Significantly Higher Mars Mission Cancer Risk than Targeted Effects Models." Francis A. Cucinotta, and Eliedonna Cacao. 4755: 4391: 2583: 2566: 5672: 4364: 4942: 7663: 3693: 2594: 7571: 7135: 5622: 3980: 2283: 7157: 2605: 7355: 3511: 3357: 2186: 1205:

used to produce food, propellant, water, energy and breathable oxygen—in order to support human colonization efforts. Required equipment will include:

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is much colder than Earth, with mean surface temperatures between 186 and 268 K (−87 and −5 °C) (depending on the season and latitude). The

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promised to return humans to the Moon and eventually Mars, and increased the NASA budget by $ 1.1 billion, to mostly focus on development of the new

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Mars colonization is advocated by several non-governmental groups for a range of reasons and with varied proposals. One of the oldest groups is the

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when Earth is above the Martian horizon. NASA and ESA included communications relay equipment in several of the Mars orbiters, so Mars already has

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Keating, A.; Goncalves, P. (November 2012). "The impact of Mars geological evolution in high energy ionizing radiation environment through time".

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advocates recycling emergency return vehicles into permanent settlements as soon as initial explorers determine permanent habitation is possible.

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who promote a NASA program to accomplish human exploration of Mars and have set up Mars analog research stations in Canada and the United States.

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on Mars is about 590 W/m compared to about 1000 W/m at the Earth's surface; optimal conditions on the Martian equator can be compared to those on

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over the image to see the names of over 60 prominent geographic features, and click to link to them. Coloring of the base map indicates relative

2579: 4994: 3294: 2619: 2595: 2562: 2134:, presented a "master plan", for NASA consideration, for astronauts, with a "tour of duty of ten years", to colonize Mars before the year 2040. 1008:: extracting and processing appropriate ores, manufacturing tools and other objects; producing clothes, medicine, glass, ceramics, and plastics. 4188: 2603: 2598: 1067: 7252: 7074: 6442: 3072: 7196: 4210:

Heinz, Jacob; Doellinger, Joerg; Maus, Deborah; Schneider, Andy; Lasch, Peter; Grossart, Hans-Peter; Schulze-Makuch, Dirk (August 10, 2022).

2620: 2602: 2599: 2578: 2575: 2568: 1703:(the amount of solar radiation that reaches Mars) is about 42% of that on Earth, since Mars is about 52% farther from the Sun and insolation 856:(SPEs) produce much higher doses, as observed in September 2017, when NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of Mars were temporarily 7601: 7476: 6935:, Michael Meltzer, May 31, 2012, see Chapter 7, Return to Mars – final section: "Should we do away with human missions to sensitive targets" 6140: 4920: 4084: 3791: 2571: 466:

similar to spacecraft, capable of containing a pressure between 30 and 100 kPa. The atmosphere is also toxic as most of it consists of

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Aubert AE, Beckers F, Verheyden B. Cardiovascular function and basics of physiology in microgravity. Acta Cardiologica 2005;60(2): 129–151.

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have successfully explored the surface of Mars and delivered information about conditions on the ground. The first successful lander, the

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Elon Musk founded SpaceX with the long-term goal of developing the technologies that will enable a self-sustaining human colony on Mars.

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Dangerous amounts of radiation reach Mars' surface despite it being much further from the Sun compared to Earth. Mars has lost its inner

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would have to throw a bunch of stuff before you start putting people there. ... It is a transportation system between Earth and Mars.

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If one assumes carbon nanotube construction material will be available with a strength of 130 GPa (19,000,000 psi) then a

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occurs. However, results from a 2006 study indicated that protons from cosmic radiation may cause twice as much serious damage to

9561: 5394:"Estimation of a genetically viable population for multigenerational interstellar voyaging: Review and data for project Hyperion" 2757: 2699: 1987:, especially regarding Mars colonial decision making, reasons for colonial labor and land exploitation have been questioned with 741: 8625: 7947: 6202:

Puumala, Mikko M.; Sivula, Oskari; Lehto, Kirsi (2023). "Moving to Mars: The Feasibility and Desirability of Mars Settlements".

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Heer M, Paloski WH. Space motion sickness: Incidence, etiology, and countermeasures. Autonomic Neuroscience 2006; 129(1): 77–79.

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to launch spacecraft is energetically favorable and a useful location from which to dispatch missions to main belt asteroids.

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have been put forward, but there is considerable debate about their feasibility and the ethics associated with terraforming.

837: 116:, though far enough from Earth that the distance would present a serious limitation on importing goods and people to travel. 9293: 4881: 4306: 4267: 4212:"Perchlorate-specific proteomic stress responses of Debaryomyces hansenii could enable microbial survival in Martian brines" 2593: 989:

To be self-sustaining, a colony would have to be large enough to provide all the necessary living services. These include:

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Szocik, Konrad, Kateryna Lysenko-Ryba, Sylwia Banaś, and Sylwia Mazur. "Political and Legal Challenges in a Mars Colony."

4392:"The adaptation potential of extremophiles to Martian surface conditions and its implication for the habitability of Mars" 840:(MARIE), to measure the radiation. MARIE found that radiation levels in orbit above Mars are 2.5 times higher than at the 9048: 8635: 7521:"Mars ain't the kind of place to raise your kid: Ethical implications of pregnancy on missions to colonize other planets" 7283: 5816: 4689: 4539: 3379: 1201:

Colonization of Mars would require a wide variety of equipment—both equipment to directly provide services to humans and

478: 164: 7314: 6528: 5784:"Mars Needs Insects – If humans are ever going to live on the red planet, they're going to have to bring bugs with them" 4561: 167:, among others) have explored the concept, but have mainly done work on exploring Mars robotically and possibly crewed. 9288: 2141:

has argued that a fully developed Mars colony represents an existential threat to humans remaining on Earth. His book,

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at the equator and the bottom of the space elevator would be rotating around Mars at 0.77 km/s, so only 0.52 km/s of

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The prospect of settling Mars has captured the imagination of contemporary space faring societies. Being explored in

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It is impossible to sterilize human missions to this level, as humans are host to typically a hundred trillion

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standpoint. In reality most missions at Mars have had communications blackout periods of the order of a month.

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In the literature there has been a differentiation of the different stages Mars settlement would encompass:

124:, the interest in establishing a colony independent of Earth and in economic exploitation of its resources. 9704: 9023: 8217: 8154: 8096: 8055: 2882: 2836: 2789: 2647: 1716: 1473: 1254: 875: 474:, 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and traces totaling less than 0.4% of other gases, including oxygen). 462:

cannot be expected as a near-term solution, habitable structures on Mars would need to be constructed with

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could extend down from Phobos to Mars 6,000 km, about 28 kilometers from the surface, and just out of the

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Mars greenhouses feature in many colonization designs, especially for food production and other purposes.

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Verseux, Cyprien; Baqué, Mickael; Lehto, Kirsi; de Vera, Jean-Pierre P.; et al. (August 3, 2015).

4406: 1626: 1273: 558: 7938: 6636:"Hubble Examines Massive Metal Asteroid Called 'Psyche' That's Worth Way More Than Our Global Economy" 6464: 5303: 4058: 3401:

West, John B. (1999). "Barometric pressures on Mt. Everest: New data and physiological significance".

3174:

Scharmen, Fred (July 3, 2017). "Highest and Best Use: Subjectivity and Climates Off and After Earth".

3073:"Obama takes a shot at the likes of Musk and Bezos, says we must protect Earth before colonizing Mars" 9305: 9120: 8812: 8630: 8339: 7912: 7735: 6501: 5783: 5305:

A City on Mars: Can we settle space, should we settle space, and have we really thought this through?

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Artist's conception of the process of terraforming Mars as discussed in some works of science fiction

412: 64:. Currently there are only proposals for Mars colonization and humans have not set foot on Mars yet. 6604:"Space Mining: Scientists Discover Two Asteroids Whose Precious Metals Would Exceed Global Reserves" 4180: 2038:

during the trip. According to NASA's policies, it is forbidden for members of the crew to engage in

408: 194:

The terminology used to refer to humans on Mars has been scrutinized since at least the 2010s, with

9551: 9223: 9215: 8792: 6438: 6103:"MATE and DART: An Instrument Package for Characterizing Solar Energy and Atmospheric Dust on Mars" 2745: 2527: 2456: 2266: 1951: 1641: 1561:, a number of robotic cargo missions would be undertaken first in order to transport the requisite 1388: 756: 8555: 7188: 6946:"Planetary Protection Knowledge Gaps for Human Extraterrestrial Missions: Goals and Scope." (2015) 6668:"NASA Heads for 'Psyche,' A Mysterious Metallic Asteroid That Could be the Heart of a Dead Planet" 4536:"Higher, Farther, and Longer — Record Balloon Flights in the Second Part of the Twentieth Century" 3235:

Mutch, T.A.; et al. (August 1976). "The Surface of Mars: The View from the Viking 1 Lander".

1812:

It has been proposed to set up a first base at a Martian pole, which would allow access to water.

1197:

Various technologies and devices for Mars are shown in the conceptual illustration of a Mars base.

9524: 8605: 8462: 8134: 6146: 4133: 3781: 3097: 2441: 2422: 1887:. The atmospheric pressure is relatively higher in this place when compared to the rest of Mars. 1665: 1634: 1603: 884: 879:

Comparison of radiation doses—includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the

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An expedition-style crewed mission would operate on the surface, but for limited amounts of time.

6060:

Workshop on Mars 2001: Integrated Science in Preparation for Sample Return and Human Exploration

3211:"Colonizing Mars could be dangerous and ridiculously expensive. Elon Musk wants to do it anyway" 2094:

The Case for Space: How the Revolution in Spaceflight Opens Up a Future of Limitless Possibility

1038:

Rendezvous, an interplanetary stage and lander stage come together over Mars (artist conception)

21: 9620: 9452: 8995: 8970: 8807: 8710: 8652: 8584: 8472: 8366: 5645: 4650: 2708: 2517: 2513: 2472: 1833: 1772: 1528: 1501: 1277: 1218: 1051: 764:

radiation, there are a multitude of physical side-effects that must be mitigated. In addition,

618:

Plants and animals cannot survive the ambient conditions on the surface of Mars. However, some

140: 6963: 5186: 5180: 4512:. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology. June 12, 2007. Archived from 4319: 2154: 2116: 1686:. Iron in this form is more easily extracted than from the iron oxides that cover the planet. 1606:

in the 2020s has substantially reduced the cost of access to space. With a published price of

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A few instances in fiction provide detailed descriptions of Mars colonization. They include:

2126: 1821: 1679: 1489: 1450: 1222: 1169:. A similar space elevator cable could extend out 6,000 km the opposite direction that would 1063: 865: 707: 599: 552: 331: 180: 93: 85: 57: 6571: 4985:"Large solar storm sparks global aurora and doubles radiation levels on the martian surface" 4346: 3603: 2417: 729: 9584: 9447: 9205: 8987: 8361: 8193: 7908: 6808: 6712: 6567: 6399: 6063: 6052: 5920: 5855: 5731: 5452: 5405: 5348: 5073: 5027: 5016:

Kerr, Richard (May 31, 2013). "Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier".

4906:. Human Adaptation and Countermeasures Division, Johnson Space Center, NASA. Archived from 4477: 4410: 4223: 4101: 3962: 3928: 3880: 3868: 3841: 3754: 3599: 3445: 3244: 3009: 2977: 2897: 2652: 2521: 2350: 2255: 1896: 1775: 1408: 1306: 1174: 970: 954: 904: 547: 459: 447: 432: 304: 288: 203: 6887: 6295: 8: 9669: 9493: 9442: 9381: 9337: 9150: 8760: 8740: 8705: 8457: 8329: 8188: 8034: 7418: 7383: 7224: 6842: 6351: 6102: 5889: 3715: 2830: 2763: 2435: 2403: 2327: 2061:

astronaut and second person to set foot on the Moon, has recommended human Mars missions.

2000: 1939: 1799:

Mining the asteroid belt from Mars and its moons could help in the colonization of Mars.

1783: 1427: 1420: 1400: 1202: 1173:

Phobos. In total the space elevator would extend out over 12,000 km which would be below

504: 481:, which causes instability in the molecular bonds between atoms. For example, ammonia (NH 6945: 6812: 6716: 6403: 6067: 5924: 5859: 5735: 5456: 5409: 5352: 5077: 5031: 4481: 4414: 4227: 4105: 3966: 3932: 3884: 3758: 3248: 2981: 2091:

He continues to advocate for Mars and space exploration with his most recent book being

1934:, the objective for NASA to reach Mars was pushed to the background. In 2017, president 9488: 9457: 9423: 9078: 8787: 8700: 8690: 8439: 8397: 7817: 7547: 7520: 7319: 6793: 6736: 6585: 5944: 5788: 5369: 5340: 5097: 4800: 4125: 3915: 3426: 3276: 3260: 3148: 2804: 2461: 2388: 2383: 2373: 2261: 2121: 2023: 1922: 1852: 1704: 1543: 1523: 1497: 1344: 1166: 983: 909: 853: 825: 789: 604: 555:). This means solar panels can always operate at maximum efficiency on dust-free days. 343: 195: 81: 69: 4345:. Glenn Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from 1621:

rockets are already the "cheapest in the industry". SpaceX's reusability includes the

824:

than Earth has. Combined with a thin atmosphere, this permits a significant amount of

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Mars 2001: Integrated Science in Preparation for Sample Return and Human Exploration

5948: 5673:"The Mars Landing Approach: Getting Large Payloads to the Surface of the Red Planet" 5598: 5464: 5417: 4513: 3430: 3280: 2137:

There are critics of the project of Mars colonization. American political scientist

765: 593: 9657: 9568: 9462: 9315: 9240: 8897: 8879: 8864: 8824: 8735: 8647: 8128: 8076: 7849: 7542: 7532: 6720: 6575: 6407: 6390:

Landis, Geoffrey A. (2009). "Meteoritic steel as a construction resource on Mars".

6215: 6211: 5928: 5863: 5747: 5739: 5460: 5413: 5364: 5356: 5081: 5035: 4966: 4943:

Study: Collateral Damage from Cosmic Rays Increases Cancer Risk for Mars Astronauts

4790: 4485: 4231: 4129: 4109: 4092: 3911: 3762: 3607: 3450: 3410: 3252: 3183: 3017: 3016:. Fachinformationsdienst für internationale und interdisziplinäre Rechtsforschung. 2990: 2985: 2965: 2795: 2488: 2362: 2322: 2175: 2004: 1910: 1762: 1724: 1700: 1670: 1434: 1082: 1034: 960: 922: 539: 277: 121: 113: 61: 6361:

President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy

5509: 5242: 5101: 5039: 4151:"Mars covered in toxic chemicals that can wipe out living organisms, tests reveal" 3187: 1646:

President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy

9544: 9347: 9300: 8958: 8849: 8745: 8730: 8725: 8677: 8667: 8620: 8615: 8525: 8510: 8485: 8452: 8422: 8334: 7942: 7826: 7602:"Richard Branson on space travel: "I'm determined to start a population on Mars"" 6970: 6952: 6932: 6913: 6894: 5605: 4949: 4927: 4877: 4326: 4290: 4275: 3414: 3256: 2734: 2399: 2316: 2077: 2014:

The predominant perspective of territorial colonization in space has been called

2007:, continuing the narrative of colonial exploration as fundamental to the assumed 1988: 1884: 1880: 1630: 1611: 1517: 1325: 1293: 1261:

and oxygen, later for a wider cross section of minerals, building materials, etc.

1158: 1059: 752: 748: 512: 463: 451: 400: 364: 353: 109: 6701:"Systems engineering and design of a Mars Polar Research Base with a human crew" 6699:

Rüede, Anne-Marlene; Ivanov, Anton; Leonardi, Claudio; Volkova, Tatiana (2019).

6145:(audio file). The Space Show. Event occurs at 29:45–30:40. 2212. Archived from 1066:

technologies, some of which have already been tested to varying levels, such as

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Dark Skies: Space Expansionism, Planetary Geopolitics, and the Ends of Humanity

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Dark Skies: Space Expansionism, Planetary Geopolitics, and the Ends of Humanity

2138: 1720: 1469: 1404: 1395: 1310: 1269: 1226: 1170: 1162: 1127: 1119:, yet the atmosphere is too thin for aerodynamic effects to be of much help in 1071: 864:

25-times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected,

845: 798: 685: 535: 498: 471: 467: 184: 132: 7537: 6580: 6555: 4490: 4465: 3910:

Haberle, R. M.; McKay, C. P.; Pollack, J. B.; Gwynne, O. E.; Atkinson, D. H.;

3611: 3375: 1347:

without requiring use of any of the Martian water resources to obtain hydrogen

9693: 9368: 9136: 8965: 8948: 8940: 8874: 8829: 8750: 8685: 8600: 8515: 8505: 8495: 8390: 7757: 7477:"Colonization of the Venusian Clouds: Is 'Surfacism' Clouding Our Judgement?" 7253:"Against Mars-a-Lago: Why SpaceX's Mars colonization plan should terrify you" 7101:"Trump, Congress approve largest U.S. Research spending increase in a decade" 6732: 6223: 6053:"The Mars In-Situ-Propellant-Production Precursor (MIP) Flight Demonstration" 5176: 4565: 4245: 3680: 3678: 3325: 3195: 2911: 2859: 2783: 2510: 2499: 2426: 2409: 2277: 2210: 2205: 2105: 1961: 1906: 1793: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1734: 1485: 1362: 1318: 1296: 1146: 1142: 1131: 821: 817: 677: 493: 455: 428: 374: 327: 281: 218: 105: 89: 7379:"When discussing Humanity's next move to space, the language we use matters" 6026: 5932: 5752: 5085: 4795: 4778: 4338:

Landis, Geoffrey A.; Colozza, Anthony; LaMarre, Christopher M. (June 2002).

4295:(illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 600. 4236: 4211: 1956: 1792:

could have $ 27 quadrillion worth of minerals and resources. Using the moon

1682:

currently known to be available is metallic iron in the form of nickel–iron

1542:

MIP (Mars ISPP Precursor) was to demonstrate manufacture of oxygen from the

9610: 9467: 9327: 9322: 9263: 9195: 9175: 8839: 8595: 8540: 8480: 8303: 8283: 8265: 8060: 7784: 7556: 6926:

When Biospheres Collide – a history of NASA's Planetary Protection Programs

6700: 6241: 5940: 5378: 5146: 5093: 5047: 4253: 4121: 3766: 3560: 3422: 3272: 2873: 2848: 2842: 2819: 2477: 2465: 2450: 2311: 2250: 2233: 2164: 2070: 2066: 2039: 2008: 1996: 1968: 1935: 1931: 1861: 1829: 1690: 1622: 1566: 1547: 1546:, and test solar cell technologies and methods of mitigating the effect of 1505: 1454: 1340: 1240: 966: 785: 715: 619: 543: 531: 404: 320: 230: 176: 136: 88:

fluctuating between −70 and 0 °C (−94 and 32 °F). While Mars has

56:

has limited, and national space programs have avoided, instead focusing on

49: 7819:

MARTIAN OUTPOST: The Challenges of Establishing a Human Settlement on Mars

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One possible ethical challenge that space travelers might face is that of

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The difference in gravity may negatively affect human health by weakening

251: 9072: 9067: 8530: 8351: 8159: 8149: 7725: 7446:"A Look Into Whether Humans Should Try to Colonize Venus Instead of Mars" 7410: 4466:"Sustainable life support on Mars – the potential roles of cyanobacteria" 3814: 3660: 3626: 2728: 2368: 2169: 2101: 2054: 1984: 1980: 1696: 1689:

Another inter-Martian trade good during colonization could be manure, as

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probes passed through the L4 and L5 regions without damage in late 2009.

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Communications with Earth are relatively straightforward during the half-

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was created from a revision of this article dated 8 April 2021

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could be built to land people and material on Mars. A space elevator on

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announced a plan to establish a settlement on Mars by 2117, led by the

246: 199: 97: 72:

and is covered by fine, toxic dust, making the surface more toxic than

9676: 7925: 7572:"SpaceX Billionaire Elon Musk Wants A Martian Colony Of 80,000 People" 5743: 4921:

Real Martians: How to Protect Astronauts from Space Radiation on Mars.

3010:"Sorry, Elon: Mars is not a legal vacuum – and it's not yours, either" 2966:"Moving to Mars: The Feasibility and Desirability of Mars Settlements" 2786: – Human habitats located in environments inhospitable for humans 1979:

Space colonization in general has been discussed as a continuation of

1453:, has suggested an alternative relay architecture based on highly non- 411:, it is not known if Martian gravity would have a similar effect. The 9392: 9332: 9268: 8902: 8765: 8293: 7047: 6556:"Phobos and Mars orbit as a base for asteroid exploration and mining" 6469: 5619:"Space radiation between Earth and Mars poses a hazard to astronauts" 4712:"NASA's Journey to Mars – Pioneering Next Steps in Space Exploration" 4181:"Toxic Mars: Astronauts Must Deal with Perchlorate on the Red Planet" 4085:"Global warming and climate forcing by recent albedo changes on Mars" 2853: 2742: – Proposed concepts for the human colonization of the asteroids 2681: 2643: 2631: 2346: 2112: 2058: 2035: 1965: 1926: 1768: 1683: 1354: 1210: 1154: 1078: 760: 635: 234: 156: 53: 8590: 7763:

The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must

7158:"Finally, some details about how NASA actually plans to get to Mars" 7043:"President Obama's Space Legacy: Mars, Private Spaceflight and More" 5182:

The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must

5060: 3981:"Sunlight on Mars – Is There Enough Light on Mars to Grow Tomatoes?" 3332:

The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must

2822: – Scientific assessments on the microbial habitability of Mars 2771: – Cancer causing exposure to ionizing radiation in spaceflight 2087:

The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must

768:

contains high levels of toxins which are hazardous to human health.

9342: 9054: 9035: 8907: 8202: 8086: 7189:"NASA Reveals New Gateway Logo for Artemis Lunar Orbit Way Station" 6900: 6296:"Recycled rockets: SpaceX calls time on expendable launch vehicles" 6091:, Lunar and Planetary Institute, October 2–4, 1999, Houston, Texas. 5867: 5393: 4989: 4965:, Scientific Reports, volume 7, Article number: 1832. 12 May 2017. 2888: 2677: 2294: 2272: 2228: 2108: 1972: 1618: 563: 207: 40:

is the proposed process of establishing and maintaining control of

5599:

Starlight: Directed Energy for Relativistic Interstellar Missions.

1324:

Fuels or other energy source for use with surface transportation;

1284: 982:

studies of the genetic problems involved in the longer journey to

945: 891:

Much remains to be learned about space radiation. In 2003, NASA's

872:) would significantly lower the colonists' exposure to radiation. 104:

conditions are weak for electricity generation, and resources for

8545: 8234: 7668: 6554:

Taylor, Anthony J.; McDowell, Jonathan C.; Elvis, Martin (2022).

6327:"Reducing the Cost of Space Travel with Reusable Launch Vehicles" 2900: – Hypothetical modification of Mars into a habitable planet 2864: 2180: 1746: 1742: 1652: 1449:'s Advanced Space Concepts Laboratory, in collaboration with the 1182: 1055: 1043: 934: 6841:

Cushing, G. E.; Titus, T. N.; Wynne1, J. J.; Christensen, P. R.

5911:

Gangale, T. (2005). "MarsSat: Assured Communication with Mars".

5882:"During Solar Conjunction, Mars Spacecraft Will Be on Autopilot" 5846:

Landis (2001). "Mars Rocket Vehicle Using In Situ Propellants".

2626: 1553:

Before any people are transported to Mars on the notional 2020s

9625: 8110: 6672: 6640: 6608: 6142:

Broadcast 2212: Special Edition, interview with Gwynne Shotwell

5608:

UCSB Experimental Cosmology Group. Accessed on 9 November 2019.

4083:

Fenton, Lori K.; Geissler, Paul E.; Haberle, Robert M. (2007).

2792: – Astronautical use of materials harvested in outer space 1857: 1841: 1615: 1610:

per launch of up to 22,800 kg (50,300 lb) payload to

1558: 1439: 1329: 1214: 925:

of plasma to protect astronauts and spacecraft from radiation.

861: 781: 755:. The longest time spent outside the protection of the Earth's 706:. The atmospheric pressure at the highest altitudes reached by 673: 580: 7920: 7664:"Buzz Aldrin joins university, forming 'master plan' for Mars" 7505:

Minkel, JR. "Sex and Pregnancy on Mars: A Risky Proposition."

3745:

Hecht, M. H. (2002). "Metastability of Liquid Water on Mars".

2050: 1860:

image of a lava tube skylight entrance on the Martian volcano

8239: 7724: 2856: – Attempts by various countries to land a human on Mars 1738: 1640:

Alternative funding approaches might include the creation of

1047: 175:

Flying humans to Mars has been a recurring popular idea, but

73: 29:

approaching Mars, a concept colonyship of the in-development

4748:"Speech Monitoring of Cognitive Deficits and Stress – NSBRI" 4209: 1786:

orbiter, which is set to reach the asteroid by August 2029.

579:

of 25.19°, similar to Earth's 23.44°. As a result, Mars has

9615: 8413: 7993: 7935: 7415:"We need to change the way we talk about space exploration" 7030:

Commercial Space Exploration: Ethics, Policy and Governance

6888:

Queens University Belfast scientist helps NASA Mars project

6465:"Potato-Shaped Mars Moon Phobos May be a Captured Asteroid" 6230: 5341:"Minimum number of Settlers for Survival on Another planet" 3786: 2446: 1779: 1730: 1588:

Post-settlement: self-sufficient society (long-term future)

1178: 1150: 777: 658: 260: 148: 41: 7846:

Ice, mineral-rich soil could support human outpost on Mars

6698: 5302:

Weinersmith, Kelly; Weinersmith, Zach (November 7, 2023).

3446:"The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body" 1916: 714:

Human survival on Mars would require living in artificial

695:

in the Mars Simulation Laboratory (MSL) maintained by the

8144: 6881: 6840: 3921:

Atmospheric Effects on the Utility of Solar Power on Mars

3909: 2377: 1412: 913: 751:, and the most accrued time in space is 878 days by 527: 268: 152: 6100: 5963:"Sun-Mars Libration Points and Mars Mission Simulations" 5817:"SpaceX advances drive for Mars rocket via Raptor power" 4783:

Korean Journal of Aerospace & Environmental Medicine

4463: 3953:

Sharonov, V. V. (1957). "1957SvA.....1..547S Page 547".

3782:"NASA Mars Spacecraft Reveals a More Dynamic Red Planet" 3627:"Dr. David Whitehouse – Ammonia on Mars could mean life" 2964:

Puumala, Mikko M.; Sivula, Oskari; Lehto, Kirsi (2023).

1999:" has been criticized as an unreflected continuation of 1585:

In-settlement: permanent settlement (medium-term future)

1153:, where the same face stays facing the planet at ~6,028 1058:

and an increasing amount of fuel, and is difficult with

8382: 4620:"Students Work to Find Ways to Drill for Water on Mars" 2893: