730:(SIMS). The U-Pb method, can determine the location, and age of a columbite mineral group by the U/Pb ratio. This method is often paired with isotope dilution-thermal ionization mass spectrometry (ID-TIMS) to increase precision. The LA-ICP-MS method is used in situ to date columbite-tantalite minerals with less than five percent error on the isotopic ratio of uranium and lead. The SIMS method has a high spatial resolution and has a high accuracy in measuring lead isotopes in columbite minerals. The LA-ICP-MS and SIMS method are not commonly used due to the lack of certified reference material.
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1244:... In 1800–01, while he was arranging some minerals at the British Museum in Bloomsbury, he became particularly interested in a specimen which was described in Sir Hans Sloane's catalogue of the 'Metalls', no. 2029 from his collection, as 'a very heavy black stone with golden streaks ... from Nautneague. From Mr. Winthrop' ...
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can occur. In addition, long term health effects are common when mining coltan due to the presence of radioactive material within the mineral. In countries such as Sierra Leone, Liberia, and
Democratic Republic of Congo lucrative trading of minerals, such as coltan, has occurred due to lack of state
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that, in turn, affects ecosystems. Current technology, in the ore refining of columbite, is not selective which leads to impurities present in refined
Columbite samples. To remove impurities, a greater concentration of acid is required, leading to a greater potential of environmental hazards.
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and small-scale mining provides jobs for millions of people but typically has negative impacts to human health and the environment. This type of mining is executed by small groups of people, typically under a larger mining cooperation, with simple extraction equipment. This simple extraction
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Since columbite can form species with other minerals, the physical properties of the mineral can change. When ferrocolumbite is introduced to heat, an equal expansion of the ‘a’ and ‘b’ axis occurs. In addition, due to the size of the ions and the overall structure, ferrocolumbite is more
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have been observed. The overall composition of columbite influences the crystalline structure resulting in different formation processes. Currently, there are two prominent theories for the formation of columbite. One theory was developed due to a strong attraction of
762:
and small-scale mining of materials are common in regions such as Africa, Asia, Oceania, Central
American, and South America. While this type of mining is important for local economies and livelihood, it is often unregulated which leads to
309:, a high density, and is a niobate of iron and manganese. Niobite has many applications in areospace, construction and the medical industry. Dating columbite minerals is primarily completed by uranium lead (U-Pb) dating, a slow process.
332:
than columbite, more than 8.0 compared to columbite's 5.2. The formation of columbite depends on the concentrations of metals present that affect the crystalline structure of the mineral and the environmental impact.
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crystals which give approximate lengths of the crystal axes as a ≈ 14.27, b ≈ 5.73, and c ≈ 5.06 Å. Different columbite species such as manganocolumbite or ferrocolumbite can change the lengths of the crystal axes.
655:
It is possible that both theories work in conjunction with one another to form columbite minerals as well as different species of columbite such as mangancolumbite, ferrocolumbite, and yttrocolumbite.
1108:"Simultaneous determination of tantalum, niobium, thorium and uranium in placer columbite-tantalite deposits from the Akim Oda District of Ghana by epithermal instrumental neutron activation analysis"
974:"Simultaneous determination of tantalum, niobium, thorium and uranium in placer columbite-tantalite deposits from the Akim Oda District of Ghana by epithermal instrumental neutron activation analysis"
1404:
Balassone, Giuseppina; Danisi, Rosa
Micaela; Armbruster, Thomas; Altomare, Angela; Moliterni, Anna Grazia; Petti, Carmela; Mondillo, Nicola; Ghiara, Maria Rosaria; Saviano, Michele (2015-07-01).
652:, in Columbite minerals, occurs due to hydrothermal fluids. This theory suggests that hydrothermal fluids interact with columbite during formation and as a result irregular crystals are formed.
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for tapiolite. The largest documented single crystal of columbite consisted of plates 6 mm (0.24 in) thick measuring 76 cm × 61 cm (30 in × 24 in).
1554:"Ultrastructure of a Columbite-Tantalite Mineral from the Zhaojinggou Ta-Nb Deposit in the North China Craton: Direct Evidence of the Formation Mechanism of the Columbite-Group Minerals"
823:"Ultrastructure of a Columbite-Tantalite Mineral from the Zhaojinggou Ta-Nb Deposit in the North China Craton: Direct Evidence of the Formation Mechanism of the Columbite-Group Minerals"
551:
When niobite is extracted from columbite, in the ore refining process, applications can be observed in the aerospace, construction, and medical industry. In the aerospace industry,
1276:... Mr Hatchett found it to contain a metal, which, from its properties, could not be referred to any hitherto known; hence he was of opinion that it should be considered as
1354:
Abdel Gawad, Ahmed E.; Ali, Khaled; Eliwa, Hassan; Sayyed, M. I.; Khandaker, Mayeen Uddin; Bradley, David A.; Osman, Hamid; Elesawy, Basem H.; Hanfi, Mohamed Y. (2021-12-07).
1644:"Towards sustainable processing of columbite group minerals: elucidating the relation between dielectric properties and physico-chemical transformations in the mineral phase"
1452:"Towards sustainable processing of columbite group minerals: elucidating the relation between dielectric properties and physico-chemical transformations in the mineral phase"
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which can affect ground and surface water. To obtain pure columbite, a large quantity of waste rock is produced, leading to negative impacts to the surrounding environment.
1791:"Columbite U-Pb Geochronology of Kalu'an Lithium Pegmatites in Northern Xinjiang, China: Implications for Genesis and Emplacement History of Rare-Element Pegmatites"
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compressible than manganocolumbite. When manganocolumbite is introduced to heat, an expansion of the ‘a’ axis occurs resulting in an uneven change to the structure.
1733:"High-precision ID-TIMS cassiterite U–Pb systematics using a low-contamination hydrothermal decomposition: implications for LA-ICP-MS and ore deposit geochronology"
1689:
Baba, Alafara
Abdullahi; Jacob, Sunday O.; Olaoluwa, Daud T.; Abubakar, Abdulrahman; Womiloju, Adeola O.; Olasinde, Fausat T.; Abdulkareem, Aishat Y. (2018-04-23).
559:(HSLA) steel is created from niobite. In addition, niobite extracted from columbite can be used to create electronic components used in medical equipment such as
1405:
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which causes negative impacts to the environment and human health. Each country has different laws regarding the transportation of radioactive material.
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During the extraction of niobite or tantalum from columbite, strong acids at high temperatures are used that have negative impacts to the environment.
1982:
2012:
1600:"Effects of columbite/tantalite (COLTAN) mining activities on water quality in Edege-Mbeki mining district of Nasarawa state, North Central Nigeria"
788:"Effects of columbite/tantalite (COLTAN) mining activities on water quality in Edege-Mbeki mining district of Nasarawa state, North Central Nigeria"
620:, within columbite, to silicate melts found in the earth's crust or mantle. In addition, the presence of magma forms columbite by undergoing two
162:
Massive – Granular – Common texture observed in granite and other igneous rock; Striated - Parallel lines on crystal surface or cleavage face.
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and unsafe working conditions. Due to unregulated conditions, the mistreatment of artisanal miners, violence, illegal trading, and sometimes
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When
Winthrop was elected FRS in 1734 he gave Sir Hans Sloane, then President of the Society, a collection of about 600 minerals. ...'
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can be created. Super alloys from niobite create a low mass, and high resistance material often used in spacecrafts. In construction, some
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1997:
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Columbite forms opaque crystals that are black to dark brown in colour. The formation of the crystals vary based on the species present.
2002:
1011:
Chukanov, Nikita V.; Pasero, Marco; Aksenov, Sergey M.; Britvin, Sergey N.; Zubkova, Natalia V.; Yike, Li; Witzke, Thomas (2022-09-08).
449:, often with small concentrations of tantalum and iron. Manganocolumbite is often found in pegmatites, course-grained igneous rocks.
3056:
1168:"Art. V. Selections from an Ancient Catalogue of objects of Natural History, formed in New England more than one hundred years ago"
1789:
Feng, Yonggang; Liang, Ting; Zhang, Ze; Wang, Yiqian; Zhou, Yi; Yang, Xiuqing; Gao, Jinggang; Wang, Hui; Ding, Kun (August 2019).
3011:
388:
371:, in the United States. The occurrence of columbite in the United States was made known from a specimen presumably stemming from
1068:
P. Cerny et al. "The tantalite-tapiolite gap: natural assemblages versus experimental data" Canadian
Mineralogist 30 (1992) 587
1948:
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There are three applications to dating columbite group minerals each with advantages and disadvantages. These methods are
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3021:
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Zuo, Yushan; Gao, Zhengxi; Zuo, Lei; Zhang, Peng; Liu, Rui; Zhang, Qing; Zhang, Tingting (2022-12-03). Yang, Fan (ed.).
1307:"Occurrence and Composition of Columbite-(Fe) In the Reduced A-Type Desemborque Pluton, Graciosa Province (S-SE Brazil)"
1502:"Chemical composition of coexisting columbite-group minerals and cassiterite from the Black Mountain pegmatite, Maine"
1190:
Is this the
Columbite? ... it appeared that it had been sent ... to Sir Hans Sloane, by Mr. Winthrop of Massachusetts.
1691:"Processing of a Nigerian columbite-rich ilmenite ore for improved industrial application by sulphuric acid solution"
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Mr. Winthrop was grandson of the first governor of
Connecticut, great grandson of the first governor of Massachusetts
1406:"An insight into crystal chemistry and cation order of columbite-(Fe) and columbite-(Mn) from worldwide occurrences"
758:, the tantalum dominant species of columbite, is often mined artisanal due to its vast applications in electronics.
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rim. This theory is prominent due to the texture of the mineral during the fluid stage, and the magmatic fractional
3016:
2042:
95:
1642:
Sanchez-Segado, Sergio; Monti, Tamara; Katrib, Juliano; Kingman, Samuel; Dodds, Chris; Jha, Animesh (2017-12-21).
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Sanchez-Segado, Sergio; Monti, Tamara; Katrib, Juliano; Kingman, Samuel; Dodds, Chris; Jha, Animesh (2017-12-21).
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Dampare, S. B.; Nyarko, B. J. B.; Osae, S.; Akaho, E. H. K.; Asiedu, D. K.; Serfor-Armah, Y.; Nude, P. (2005).
187:
1883:"Coexistence between large-scale mining (LSM) and artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in Perú and Colombia"
1356:"Radiological Investigation on Sediments: A Case Study of Wadi Rod Elsayalla the Southeastern Desert of Egypt"
1246:
The donor was probably John
Winthrop (1681–1747), a great-grandson of the founder of Massachusetts Bay colony.
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and small scale miners with risks to the environment and human health due to unregulated working conditions.
1843:"The new kid on the old block: Coltan, conflict-prone minerals, and post-war reconstruction in Sierra Leone"
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527:
340:; they have the same chemical composition but different crystal symmetry: orthorhombic for columbite and
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may be present. This species of columbite is often found in pegmatites as course-grained igneous rocks.
3130:
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821:
Zuo, Yushan; Gao, Zhengxi; Zuo, Lei; Zhang, Peng; Liu, Rui; Zhang, Qing; Zhang, Tingting (2022-12-03).
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When mining columbite, contamination of ground and surface water are a concern due to the presence of
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2017:
372:
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Isah, Mohammed Engha; Abdulmumin, Nuhu Abdulkadir; Elaoyi, Paul D.; Audu, Ephraim (December 2019).
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and avid mineral collector. Amidst 600 other samples, it was donated by his namesake and grandson,
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Isah, Mohammed Engha; Abdulmumin, Nuhu Abdulkadir; Elaoyi, Paul D.; Audu, Ephraim (2019-12-09).
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Sub Conchoidal: Fractures developed in brittle materials characterized by semi-curving surfaces.
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are used in the ore refining processes between temperatures of 250-300C. These acids can cause
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355:, making it radioactive. Coltan, a tantalum dominate species of columbite, is often mined by
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a new genus, to which he gave the name Columbium, in honour of the discoverer of America
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Columbite minerals have the potential to be radioactive due to trace amounts of
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that occurs during formation. Another prominent theory of the formation of
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or coltan in many mineral guides. However, tantalite has a much greater
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Siachoque, Astrid; Garcia, Rodolfo; Vlach, Silvio R.F. (2020-05-04).
1206:"Charles Hatchett FRS (1765–1847), Chemist and Discoverer of Niobium"
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1013:"Columbite supergroup of minerals: nomenclature and classification"
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in this specimen, which he named columbium in honour of explorer
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510:. This mineral forms due to pegmatites and rare-metal granites.
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Griffith, William P.; Morris, Peter J.T. (22 September 2003).
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441:. Manganocolumbite has a chemical formula of (Mn, Fe)(Nb, Ta)
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1881:
Rodríguez-Novoa, Felipe; Holley, Elizabeth (January 2023).
671:. Radioactive minerals are unstable due to the emission of
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Face centered crystal structure of columbite (orthorhombic)
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atoms surround an oxygen atom. Overall, Columbite forms
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group that is an ore of niobium. It has a submetallic
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1841:
Akiwumi, Fenda A.; Hollist, Arthur O. (April 2016).
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1266:. Edinburgh: Bell and Bradfute (et al.). p. 582
1731:Tapster, Simon; Bright, Joshua W. G. (2020-12-18).
1500:Wise, Michael A.; Brown, Cathleen D. (2011-12-01).
1174:. New Haven: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. p. 282
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682:in waste rock. In addition, waste rock can lead to
518:Columbite atoms form an octahedral structure where
1788:
1166:Winthrop, John (1844). Silliman, Benjamin (ed.).
1133:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
583:rocks. Columbite minerals are mainly composed of
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1219:(3). London: The Royal Society Publishing: 359.
1213:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
978:Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry
460:The iron-rich member of the columbite group is
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1410:Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Abhandlungen
724:inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
1935:, Routledge, pp. 313–334, 2016-12-05,
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1604:Bulletin of the National Research Centre
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1129:"Observations on Columbium and Tantalum"
792:Bulletin of the National Research Centre
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312:Columbite has the same composition and
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456:Ferrocolumbite; a species of columbite
422:Yttrocolumbite; a species of columbite
367:This mineral group was first found in
347:Columbite contains varying amounts of
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1847:The Extractive Industries and Society
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892:"IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols"
889:
776:and small-scale mining in the area.
437:and the manganese-dominant analogue
413:
1865:
375:(1606–1676), first Governor of the
13:
3057:Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS)
1929:"Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining"
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579:and alluvial deposits, as well as
429:Columbite forms a series with the
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1966:
1188:... (p.290:) A black mineral ...
490:-rich columbite with the formula
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1972:
1526:10.1127/0935-1221/2011/0023-2102
1172:The Amer. J. Science and Arts 47
734:Artisanal and small scale mining
241:
27:
3037:Magmatic nickel-copper-iron-PGE
3027:Kambalda-type komatiitic nickel
1921:
1907:10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.103162
1707:10.30556/imj.Vol21.No1.2018.674
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728:secondary ion mass spectrometry
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3047:Sedimentary exhalative (SedEx)
1988:New International Encyclopedia
1506:European Journal of Mineralogy
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472:, and small concentrations of
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3022:Iron oxide copper gold (IOCG)
1263:System of Mineralogy, Vol. II
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961:Columbite-(Fe) on Mindat.org
575:Columbite is often found in
570:
513:
336:Columbite is a polymorph of
7:
950:Columbite-(Fe) Mineral Data
856:
393:Fellow of the Royal Society
391:of London, upon becoming a
10:
3147:
3121:Minerals in space group 60
3012:Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc
2018:Collier's New Encyclopedia
1859:10.1016/j.exis.2015.06.002
1668:10.1038/s41598-017-18272-3
1476:10.1038/s41598-017-18272-3
720:uranium lead (U-Pb) dating
565:nuclear magnetic resonance
561:magnetic resonance imaging
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1758:10.5194/gchron-2-425-2020
1695:Indonesian Mining Journal
1617:10.1186/s42269-019-0237-0
990:10.1007/s10967-005-0860-0
805:10.1186/s42269-019-0237-0
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1941:10.4324/9781315541501-17
1260:Jameson, Robert (1805).
1127:Smith, Edgar F. (1905).
2552:, mineral mixtures and
2003:Encyclopædia Britannica
1081:P. C. Rickwood (1981).
599:where trace amounts of
557:high-strength low-alloy
402:discovered the element
3106:Manganese(II) minerals
2006:(11th ed.). 1911.
1422:10.1127/njma/2015/0285
1225:10.1098/rsnr.2003.0216
1083:"The largest crystals"
1017:Mineralogical Magazine
896:Mineralogical Magazine
750:, basins, and minimal
742:equipment can include
539:
457:
423:
225:5.3–7.3, Average = 6.3
152:Black, brownish black.
70:, or in oxide formula
3116:Orthorhombic minerals
3062:Orogenic gold deposit
3007:Banded iron formation
1977:Texts on Wikisource:
1090:American Mineralogist
624:processes. The first
537:
455:
421:
363:History and etymology
238:Other characteristics
96:Strunz classification
1571:10.1155/2022/8125419
1373:10.3390/app112411884
1058:mindat.org Tantalite
1029:10.1180/mgm.2022.105
840:10.1155/2022/8125419
659:Environmental impact
632:core and the second
408:Christopher Columbus
3081:Minerals portal
3017:Heavy mineral sands
2509:Minerals portal
1933:Breaking New Ground
1899:2023RePol..8003162R
1807:2019Mine....9..456F
1749:2020GeChr...2..425T
1660:2017NatSR...718016S
1518:2011EJMin..23..817W
1468:2017NatSR...718016S
1332:10.3390/min10050411
1323:2020Mine...10..411S
917:10.1180/mgm.2021.43
908:2021MinM...85..291W
890:Warr, L.N. (2021).
433:-dominant analogue
387:, President of the
369:Haddam, Connecticut
326:columbite-tantalite
1816:10.3390/min9080456
1648:Scientific Reports
1456:Scientific Reports
1184:... (p.282:)
699:soil acidification
684:acid mine drainage
636:process creates a
628:process creates a
540:
458:
424:
377:Connecticut Colony
249:, non-fluorescent.
230:Optical properties
122:Dipyramidal (mmm)
3131:Tantalum minerals
3101:Iron(II) minerals
3088:
3087:
2995:
2994:
2516:
2515:
2241:
2240:
2116:Manganoan calcite
1950:978-1-315-54150-1
726:(LA-ICP-MS), and
722:, laser ablation
691:Hydrofluoric acid
506:mineral found in
414:Columbite species
271:niobite-tantalite
260:
259:
3138:
3111:Niobium minerals
3079:
3078:
3077:
3032:Lateritic nickel
2988:
2976:
2964:
2952:
2940:
2928:
2905:
2893:
2881:
2856:
2844:
2832:
2820:
2808:
2796:
2784:
2772:
2760:
2748:
2736:
2724:
2699:
2687:
2675:
2663:
2651:
2639:
2627:
2615:
2599:
2587:
2567:
2566:
2543:
2536:
2529:
2520:
2519:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2453:Manganese nodule
2207:Manganotantalite
2131:
2130:
2052:
2045:
2038:
2029:
2028:
2022:
2007:
1992:
1976:
1960:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1887:Resources Policy
1878:
1863:
1862:
1838:
1829:
1828:
1818:
1786:
1771:
1770:
1760:
1728:
1719:
1718:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1639:
1630:
1629:
1619:
1595:
1584:
1583:
1573:
1549:
1538:
1537:
1497:
1488:
1487:
1447:
1434:
1433:
1401:
1386:
1385:
1375:
1360:Applied Sciences
1351:
1345:
1344:
1334:
1302:
1283:
1282:
1273:
1271:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1241:
1239:
1210:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1181:
1179:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1139:(180): 151–158.
1124:
1118:
1117:
1115:
1114:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1087:
1078:
1072:
1066:
1060:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1008:
1002:
1001:
969:
963:
958:
952:
947:
941:
936:
930:
929:
919:
887:
868:List of minerals
852:
842:
817:
807:
501:
500:
499:
492:(Y,U,Fe)(Nb,Ta)O
439:manganocolumbite
400:Charles Hatchett
330:specific gravity
314:crystal symmetry
300:
245:
221:Specific gravity
192:
80:
72:(Fe,Mn)O·Nb
69:
57:
56:(repeating unit)
31:
19:
18:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3091:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3075:
3073:
3066:
3042:Porphyry copper
2991:
2982:
2970:
2958:
2946:
2934:
2922:
2908:
2899:
2887:
2875:
2859:
2850:
2838:
2826:
2814:
2802:
2790:
2778:
2766:
2754:
2742:
2730:
2718:
2702:
2693:
2681:
2669:
2657:
2645:
2633:
2621:
2605:
2593:
2581:
2556:
2547:
2517:
2512:
2503:
2501:
2494:
2425:
2397:
2294:
2237:
2165:
2120:
2087:
2064:
2056:
2010:
1995:
1980:
1969:
1964:
1963:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1879:
1866:
1839:
1832:
1787:
1774:
1729:
1722:
1687:
1683:
1640:
1633:
1596:
1587:
1550:
1541:
1498:
1491:
1448:
1437:
1402:
1389:
1352:
1348:
1303:
1286:
1269:
1267:
1258:
1254:
1237:
1235:
1208:
1202:
1198:
1177:
1175:
1164:
1160:
1125:
1121:
1112:
1110:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1085:
1079:
1075:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1052:
1009:
1005:
970:
966:
959:
955:
948:
944:
939:Mineralienatlas
937:
933:
888:
884:
879:
873:
859:
782:
780:Further reading
752:heavy machinery
736:
716:
707:water pollution
661:
642:crystallization
634:crystallization
626:crystallization
622:crystallization
573:
549:
516:
498:
495:
494:
493:
491:
471:
467:
462:ferrocolumbite,
448:
444:
416:
383:(1681–1747) to
365:
299:
293:
278:
190:
127:: (2/m 2/m 2/m)
123:
79:
75:
71:
68:
64:
60:
55:
54:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3144:
3134:
3133:
3128:
3126:Oxide minerals
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3086:
3085:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3003:
3001:
2997:
2996:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2989:
2977:
2965:
2953:
2941:
2929:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2894:
2882:
2869:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2845:
2833:
2821:
2809:
2797:
2785:
2773:
2761:
2749:
2737:
2725:
2712:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2700:
2688:
2676:
2664:
2652:
2640:
2628:
2616:
2600:
2588:
2575:
2573:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2546:
2545:
2538:
2531:
2523:
2514:
2513:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2492:
2486:
2476:
2469:Zincobotryogen
2466:
2456:
2450:
2440:
2439:(borosilicate)
2433:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2407:
2405:
2399:
2398:
2396:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2304:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2251:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2239:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2214:(calvonigrite)
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2192:Ferrotantalite
2189:
2187:Ferrocolumbite
2184:
2179:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2137:
2135:
2128:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2097:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2085:
2080:
2074:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2055:
2054:
2047:
2040:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2008:
1993:
1968:
1967:External links
1965:
1962:
1961:
1949:
1920:
1864:
1853:(2): 316–319.
1830:
1772:
1743:(2): 425–441.
1720:
1681:
1631:
1585:
1539:
1512:(5): 817–828.
1489:
1435:
1416:(3): 275–287.
1387:
1346:
1284:
1252:
1196:
1158:
1119:
1099:
1073:
1061:
1050:
1003:
964:
953:
942:
931:
902:(3): 291–320.
881:
880:
878:
875:
871:
870:
865:
858:
855:
854:
853:
818:
781:
778:
765:illegal mining
735:
732:
715:
712:
660:
657:
572:
569:
548:
545:
515:
512:
496:
484:Yttrocolumbite
469:
465:
446:
442:
435:ferrotantalite
415:
412:
364:
361:
297:
291:
265:, also called
258:
257:
255:
251:
250:
239:
235:
234:
231:
227:
226:
223:
217:
216:
215:Blackish brown
213:
207:
206:
203:
197:
196:
193:
184:
183:
180:
174:
173:
170:
164:
163:
160:
154:
153:
150:
146:
145:
144:Identification
141:
140:
135:
129:
128:
120:
114:
113:
108:
106:Crystal system
102:
101:
98:
92:
91:
88:
82:
81:
77:
73:
66:
62:
58:
48:
47:
45:Oxide minerals
42:
38:
37:
33:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3143:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3083:
3082:
3069:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3004:
3002:
3000:Deposit types
2998:
2986:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2957:
2954:
2950:
2945:
2942:
2938:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2911:
2903:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2886:
2883:
2879:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2854:
2849:
2846:
2842:
2837:
2834:
2830:
2825:
2822:
2818:
2813:
2810:
2806:
2801:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2786:
2782:
2777:
2774:
2770:
2765:
2762:
2758:
2753:
2750:
2746:
2741:
2738:
2734:
2729:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2705:
2697:
2692:
2689:
2685:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2653:
2649:
2644:
2641:
2637:
2632:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2592:
2589:
2585:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2544:
2539:
2537:
2532:
2530:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2511:
2510:
2497:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2480:
2477:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2393:Zircophyllite
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2363:Pyroxferroite
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2338:Glaucochroite
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2265:Lithiophilite
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2244:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2123:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2111:Rhodochrosite
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2060:
2053:
2048:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2034:
2033:
2030:
2020:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1970:
1952:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1835:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1737:Geochronology
1734:
1727:
1725:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1638:
1636:
1627:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1494:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1366:(24): 11884.
1365:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1281:
1279:
1265:
1264:
1256:
1249:
1247:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1207:
1200:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1123:
1109:
1103:
1095:
1091:
1084:
1077:
1071:
1070:free download
1065:
1059:
1054:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1007:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
968:
962:
957:
951:
946:
940:
935:
927:
923:
918:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
886:
882:
874:
869:
866:
864:
861:
860:
850:
846:
841:
836:
832:
828:
824:
819:
815:
811:
806:
801:
797:
793:
789:
784:
783:
777:
775:
770:
766:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
740:
731:
729:
725:
721:
711:
708:
704:
703:air pollution
700:
696:
695:sulfuric acid
692:
687:
685:
681:
676:
674:
670:
666:
656:
653:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
568:
566:
562:
558:
554:
544:
536:
532:
529:
525:
521:
511:
509:
505:
489:
485:
481:
479:
475:
463:
454:
450:
440:
436:
432:
427:
420:
411:
409:
405:
401:
396:
394:
390:
389:Royal Society
386:
382:
381:John Winthrop
378:
374:
373:John Winthrop
370:
360:
358:
354:
350:
345:
343:
339:
334:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
310:
308:
304:
301:, is a black
296:
290:
286:
282:
276:
272:
268:
264:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
222:
218:
214:
212:
208:
204:
202:
198:
194:
189:
185:
181:
179:
175:
171:
169:
165:
161:
159:
158:Crystal habit
155:
151:
147:
142:
139:
136:
134:
130:
126:
121:
119:
118:Crystal class
115:
112:
109:
107:
103:
99:
97:
93:
89:
87:
83:
59:
53:
49:
46:
43:
39:
34:
30:
25:
20:
16:Mineral group
3072:
2752:Chalcopyrite
2618:
2554:ore deposits
2550:Ore minerals
2500:
2343:Jeffersonite
2308:Babingtonite
2270:Natrophilite
2016:
2001:
1986:
1954:, retrieved
1932:
1923:
1890:
1886:
1850:
1846:
1798:
1794:
1740:
1736:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1654:(1): 18016.
1651:
1647:
1607:
1603:
1561:
1557:
1509:
1505:
1462:(1): 18016.
1459:
1455:
1413:
1409:
1363:
1359:
1349:
1314:
1310:
1277:
1275:
1268:. Retrieved
1262:
1255:
1245:
1243:
1236:. Retrieved
1216:
1212:
1199:
1189:
1185:
1183:
1176:. Retrieved
1171:
1161:
1136:
1132:
1122:
1111:. Retrieved
1102:
1093:
1089:
1076:
1064:
1053:
1023:(1): 18–33.
1020:
1016:
1006:
981:
977:
967:
956:
945:
934:
899:
895:
885:
872:
833:: e8125419.
830:
826:
795:
791:
769:child labour
737:
717:
688:
680:heavy metals
677:
662:
654:
574:
553:super alloys
550:
547:Applications
541:
528:orthorhombic
517:
483:
482:
461:
459:
438:
428:
425:
397:
366:
346:
335:
318:orthorhombic
311:
274:
270:
266:
262:
261:
205:Sub-metallic
137:
111:Orthorhombic
2836:Pentlandite
2812:Molybdenite
2579:Cassiterite
2491:(tungstate)
2388:Zakharovite
2373:Spessartine
2318:Brownleeite
2285:Triploidite
2255:Childrenite
2218:Romanèchite
2212:Psilomelane
2151:Manganosite
2141:Hausmannite
2106:Kutnohorite
1701:(1): 9–19.
1280:. ...'
1270:15 February
1238:12 February
1178:12 February
772:control of
504:radioactive
385:Hans Sloane
247:Radioactive
133:Space group
3095:Categories
2980:Wolframite
2956:Sperrylite
2865:Carbonates
2848:Sphalerite
2817:molybdenum
2764:Chalcocite
2667:Pyrolusite
2479:Wolframite
2421:Rambergite
2411:Alabandite
2358:Piemontite
2328:Chloritoid
2290:Zanazziite
2260:Graftonite
2247:Phosphates
2228:Todorokite
2177:Birnessite
2161:Pyrolusite
2093:Carbonates
1956:2024-04-06
1893:: 103162.
1801:(8): 456.
1317:(5): 411.
1113:2021-02-02
1096:: 885–907.
877:References
798:(1): 179.
563:(MRI) and
508:Mozambique
342:tetragonal
254:References
188:Mohs scale
125:H-M symbol
86:IMA symbol
2968:Scheelite
2949:beryllium
2937:aluminium
2897:Malachite
2890:magnesium
2885:Magnesite
2878:magnesium
2788:Cobaltite
2728:Argentite
2716:Acanthite
2691:Uraninite
2679:Tantalite
2672:manganese
2655:Magnetite
2619:Columbite
2489:Hübnerite
2483:tungstate
2463:sulfosalt
2459:Samsonite
2455:(various)
2443:Geigerite
2383:Tephroite
2368:Rhodonite
2353:Ottrelite
2348:Knebelite
2333:Eudialyte
2323:Calderite
2300:Silicates
2275:Purpurite
2223:Tantalite
2202:Jacobsite
2146:Manganite
2083:Tusionite
2078:Sussexite
2059:Manganese
2013:Columbite
1998:Columbite
1983:Columbite
1915:0301-4207
1825:2075-163X
1767:2628-3697
1715:2527-8797
1676:2045-2322
1626:2522-8307
1580:1468-8123
1558:Geofluids
1534:0935-1221
1484:2045-2322
1430:0077-7757
1382:2076-3417
1341:2075-163X
1233:144857368
1145:0003-049X
1045:252172669
1037:0026-461X
984:: 53–59.
926:235729616
849:1468-8115
827:Geofluids
814:2522-8307
774:artisanal
760:Artisanal
739:Artisanal
673:radiation
585:magnesium
577:pegmatite
571:Formation
514:Structure
398:In 1801,
395:in 1737.
338:tapiolite
322:tantalite
275:columbate
263:Columbite
61:(Fe,Mn)Nb
22:Columbite
2985:tungsten
2973:tungsten
2961:platinum
2873:Dolomite
2776:Cinnabar
2708:Sulfides
2684:tantalum
2648:titanium
2643:Ilmenite
2631:Hematite
2612:tantalum
2596:chromium
2591:Chromite
2447:arsenate
2416:Hauerite
2403:Sulfides
2378:Sugilite
2313:Braunite
2280:Triplite
2197:Galaxite
2182:Bixbyite
2101:Ankerite
2062:minerals
1795:Minerals
1311:Minerals
998:97891922
857:See also
744:pickaxes
650:tantalum
638:tantalum
618:tantalum
609:scandium
605:titanium
597:tantalum
581:granitic
524:tantalum
478:tungsten
431:tantalum
191:hardness
178:Fracture
172:Distinct
168:Cleavage
41:Category
3052:Uranium
2932:Bauxite
2781:mercury
2740:Bornite
2696:uranium
2624:niobium
2608:niobium
2473:sulfate
2437:Axinite
2156:Nsutite
2070:Borates
2021:. 1921.
1991:. 1905.
1895:Bibcode
1803:Bibcode
1745:Bibcode
1656:Bibcode
1564:: 1–9.
1514:Bibcode
1464:Bibcode
1319:Bibcode
904:Bibcode
748:shovels
669:thorium
665:uranium
646:niobium
630:niobium
614:niobium
593:niobium
567:(NMR).
520:niobium
502:, is a
488:yttrium
486:is the
404:niobium
357:artisan
353:uranium
349:thorium
303:mineral
267:niobite
100:4.DB.35
52:Formula
36:General
2925:barium
2920:Baryte
2902:copper
2841:nickel
2824:Pyrite
2800:Galena
2793:cobalt
2769:copper
2757:copper
2745:copper
2733:silver
2721:silver
2603:Coltan
2571:Oxides
2134:Simple
2126:Oxides
1947:
1913:
1823:
1765:
1713:
1674:
1624:
1578:
1532:
1482:
1428:
1380:
1339:
1231:
1153:983511
1151:
1143:
1043:
1035:
996:
924:
863:Coltan
847:
812:
756:Coltan
714:Dating
705:, and
607:, and
595:, and
307:luster
211:Streak
201:Luster
2944:Beryl
2913:Other
2430:Other
2233:Umber
2170:Mixed
1610:(1).
1229:S2CID
1209:(PDF)
1149:JSTOR
1086:(PDF)
1041:S2CID
994:S2CID
922:S2CID
320:) as
149:Color
2853:zinc
2829:iron
2805:lead
2660:iron
2636:iron
2610:and
2562:Ores
1945:ISBN
1911:ISSN
1821:ISSN
1763:ISSN
1711:ISSN
1672:ISSN
1622:ISSN
1576:ISSN
1562:2022
1530:ISSN
1480:ISSN
1426:ISSN
1378:ISSN
1337:ISSN
1272:2015
1240:2015
1192:...'
1180:2015
1141:ISSN
1033:ISSN
845:ISSN
831:2022
810:ISSN
693:and
667:and
648:and
616:and
589:iron
476:and
464:FeNb
351:and
273:and
138:Pbcn
2584:tin
2015:".
2000:".
1985:".
1937:doi
1903:doi
1855:doi
1811:doi
1753:doi
1703:doi
1664:doi
1612:doi
1566:doi
1522:doi
1472:doi
1418:doi
1414:192
1368:doi
1327:doi
1221:doi
1025:doi
986:doi
982:265
912:doi
835:doi
800:doi
601:tin
522:or
474:tin
90:Clb
3097::
1943:,
1931:,
1909:.
1901:.
1891:80
1889:.
1885:.
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289:Nb
285:Mn
281:Fe
269:,
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