1117:. Small, fast moving prey may be caught by a flick of the tongue while larger items are grabbed with the jaws. Having no teeth, it swallows food whole in a series of gulps. It does not recognise its prey as such but will try to consume any small, dark coloured, moving object it encounters at night. A research study showed that it would snap at a moving 1 cm (0.4 in) piece of black paper as if it were prey but would disregard a larger moving piece. Toads seem to use visual cues for feeding and can see their prey at low light intensities where humans are unable to discern anything. Periodically, the common toad sheds its skin. This comes away in tattered pieces and is then consumed.
4192:
1261:
1205:
1070:
933:
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and they had reached 95% of their expected adult size. Some females that were on a biennial breeding cycle carried on growing rapidly for a longer time. Adjusting for differences in temperature and the length of the growing season, the toads grew and matured at much the same rate from the four colder localities. These juveniles reached maturity after 1.09 years for males and 1.55 years for females. However, the young toads from lowland France grew faster and longer to a much greater size taking an average 1.77 years for males and 2.49 years for females before reaching maturity.
1062:
1277:
and hence of prowess. Nevertheless, fights occur in some instances. In a study at one pond where males outnumbered females by four or five to one, it was found that 38% of the males won the right to mate by defeating rivals in combat or by displacing other males already mounted on females. Male toads generally outnumber female toads at breeding ponds. A Swedish study found that female mortality was higher than that of males and that 41% of females did not come to the breeding pond in the spring and missed a year before reproducing again.
1239:
1680:
1821:
1724:
91:
1308:) but they are a darker colour, being blackish above and dark grey below. They can be distinguished from the tadpoles of other species by the fact that the mouth is the same width as the space between the eyes, and this is twice as large as the distance between the nostrils. Over the course of a few weeks their legs develop and their tail gradually gets reabsorbed. By twelve weeks of age they are miniature toads measuring about 1.5 cm (0.6 in) long and ready to leave the pond.
1552:, special tunnels have been constructed so that toads can cross under roads in safety. In other places, local wildlife groups run "toad patrols", carrying the amphibians across roads at busy crossing points in buckets. The toads start moving at dusk and for them to travel far, the temperature needs to remain above 5 °C (41 °F). On a warm wet night they may continue moving all night but if it cools down, they may stop earlier. An estimate was made of the significance of
643:
217:
1317:
31:
1446:". This is because it has a wide distribution and is, over most of its range, a common species. It is not particularly threatened by habitat loss because it is adaptable and is found in deciduous and coniferous forests, scrubland, meadows, parks and gardens. It prefers damp areas with dense foliage. The major threats it faces include loss of habitat locally, the drainage of wetlands where it breeds, agricultural activities, pollution, and mortality on roads.
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66:
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1292:. The males are enthusiastic, will try to grasp fish or inanimate objects and often mount the backs of other males. Sometimes several toads form a heap, each male trying to grasp the female at the base. It is a stressful period and mortality is high among breeding toads. A successful male stays in amplexus for several days and, as the female lays a long, double string of small black
1342:. This slows growth rates and reduces stamina and fitness. Larger juveniles at metamorphosis always outgrow smaller ones that have been reared in more crowded ponds. Even when they have heavy worm burdens, large juveniles grow faster than smaller individuals with light worm burdens. After several months of heavy worm infection, some juveniles in a study were only half as heavy as
1053:. The common toad is found at altitudes of up to 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) in the southern part of its range. It is largely found in forested areas with coniferous, deciduous and mixed woodland, especially in wet locations. It also inhabits open countryside, fields, copses, parks and gardens, and often occurs in dry areas well away from standing water.
1257:. They find their way to these by using a suite of orientation cues, including olfactory and magnetic cues, but also visual cues help guide their journeys. Toads experimentally moved elsewhere and fitted with tracking devices have been found to be able to locate their chosen breeding pond when the displacement exceeded three kilometres (two miles).
1384:
juveniles from different altitudes and latitudes, the specimens studied being from Norway, Germany, Switzerland, the
Netherlands and France. At first the growth rates for males and females was identical. By the time they became mature their growth rate had slowed down to about 21% of the initial rate
873:
The common toad can reach about 15 cm (6 in) in length. Females are normally stouter than males and southern specimens tend to be larger than northern ones. The head is broad with a wide mouth below the terminal snout which has two small nostrils. There are no teeth. The bulbous, protruding
1276:
The males arrive first and remain in the location for several weeks while the females only stay long enough to mate and spawn. Rather than fighting for the right to mate with a female, male toads may settle disputes by means of the pitch of their voice. Croaking provides a reliable sign of body size
1527:
Many toads are killed by traffic while migrating to their breeding grounds. In Europe they have the highest rate of mortality from roadkill among amphibians. Many of the deaths take place on stretches of road where streams flow underneath showing that migration routes often follow water courses. In
1143:
When attacked, the common toad adopts a characteristic stance, inflating its body and standing with its hindquarters raised and its head lowered. Its chief means of defence lies in the foul tasting secretion that is produced by its paratoid glands and other glands on its skin. This contains a toxin
1510:
and reduced fitness as compared to nearby rural populations. The researchers demonstrated this by genetic analysis and by noting the greater number of physical abnormalities among urban as against rural tadpoles when raised in a controlled environment. It was considered that long term depletion in
1687:
The toad has long been considered to be an animal of ill omen or a connection to a spirit world. This may have its origins in the fact that it is at home both on land and in the water. It may cause repugnance because of its drab, wart-like skin, its slow movements and the way it emerges from some
1556:
in toad populations in the
Netherlands. The number of females killed in the spring migration on a quiet country road (ten vehicles per hour) was compared with the number of strings of eggs laid in nearby fens. A 30% mortality rate was found, with the rate for deaths among males likely to be of a
1252:
in spring and there is a mass migration towards the breeding sites. The toads converge on certain ponds that they favour while avoiding other stretches of water that seem eminently suitable. Adults use the same location year after year and over 80% of males marked as juveniles have been found to
1080:
The common toad usually moves by walking rather slowly or in short shuffling jumps involving all four legs. It spends the day concealed in a lair that it has hollowed out under foliage or beneath a root or a stone where its colouring makes it inconspicuous. It emerges at dusk and may travel some
1719:
tells how an old woman, a supposed witch, cursed her landlord and all his possessions when he demanded the unpaid rent for her cottage. Soon afterwards, a large toad fell on his wife and caused her to collapse. The toad was thrown into the fire but escaped with severe burns. Meanwhile, the old
1355:
of various strengths. It was found that at certain concentrations, which were well above any normally found in the field, growth was increased and metamorphosis accelerated, but at others, there was no significant difference between the experimental tadpoles and controls. Nevertheless, certain
886:
on the first three fingers. He uses these to grasp the female when mating. The hind legs are short relative to other frogs' legs and the hind feet have long, unwebbed toes. There is no tail. The skin is dry and covered with small wart-like lumps. The colour is a fairly uniform shade of brown,
952:
43:
40:
2373:
Recuero E.; Canestrelli D.; Voeroes J.; Szabó, K.; Poyarkov, N. A.; Arntzen, J. W.; Crnobrnja-Isailovic, J.; Kidov A. A.; Cogălniceanu, D.; Caputo, F. P.; Nascetti, G.; Martínez-Solano, I. (2012). "Multilocus species tree analyses resolve the radiation of the widespread
42:
1303:
hatch out after 10 days. At first they cling to the remains of the strings and feed on the jelly. They later attach themselves to the underside of the leaves of water weed before becoming free swimming. The tadpoles at first look similar to those of the common frog
882:. The head joins the body without a noticeable neck and there is no external vocal sac. The body is broad and squat and positioned close to the ground. The fore limbs are short with the toes of the fore feet turning inwards. At breeding time, the male develops
921:
Common toads can live for many years and have survived for fifty years in captivity. In the wild, common toads are thought to live for about ten to twelve years. Their age can be determined by counting the number of annual growth rings in the bones of their
800:) seems to have arisen more recently. It is believed that the range of the ancestral form extended into Asia but that isolation between the eastern and western species complexes occurred as a result of the development of the Central Asian Deserts during the
1296:, he fertilises them with his sperm. As the pair wander piggyback around the shallow edges of the pond, the gelatinous egg strings, which may contain 1,500 to 6,000 eggs and be 3 to 4.5 metres (10 to 15 ft) in length, get tangled in plant stalks.
610:
Although toads are usually solitary animals, in the breeding season, large numbers of toads converge on certain breeding ponds, where the males compete to mate with the females. Eggs are laid in gelatinous strings in the water and later hatch out into
958:
956:
953:
957:
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over time as measured by sperm motility. This type of sperm senescence does not occur at a genetically fixed rate, but rather is influenced by environmental conditions that include availability of mating partners and temperature.
1475:. Both otter and frog seem to be extending their ranges to higher altitudes. The common toad cannot be legally sold or traded in the United Kingdom but there is a slow decline in toad numbers and it has therefore been declared a
1634:
contains enough similar toxin to cause serious symptoms (or even death) in animals, including humans. Clinical effects include severe irritation and pain to eyes, mouth, nose and throat, cardiovascular and respiratory symptoms,
630:. It is threatened by habitat loss, especially by drainage of its breeding sites, and some toads get killed on the roads as they make their annual migrations. It has long been associated in popular culture and literature with
1700:, it was thought to possess magical powers. Even ordinary people made use of dried toads, their bile, faeces and blood. In some areas, the finding of a toad in a house was considered evidence that a witch was present. In the
1230:) is unusual in that it can climb up water plants and move around on its muscular foot. It sometimes clings to the toe of a common toad and this is believed to be one of the means by which it disperses to new locations.
910:). The former is usually smaller and has a yellow band running down its back while the latter has a distinctive mottled pattern. The paratoid glands of both are parallel rather than slanting as in the common toad. The
1711:
investigated witchcraft in the region and searched the houses of suspected witches for dressed toads. He found none. These witches were reputed to use undomesticated toads as ingredients in their liniments and brews.
1224:, attacks adult common toads. It lays its eggs on the toad's skin and when these hatch, the larvae crawl into the toad's nostrils and eat its flesh internally with lethal consequences. The European fingernail clam (
1350:
caused a decrease in food intake and some died. Another study investigated whether the use of nitrogenous fertilisers affects the development of common toad tadpoles. The toadlets were kept in dilute solutions of
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2067:
Dubois, Alain; Bour, Roger (2010). "The nomenclatural status of the nomina of amphibians and reptiles created by
Garsault (1764), with a parsimonious solution to an old nomenclatural problem regarding the genus
874:
eyes have yellow or copper coloured irises and horizontal slit-shaped pupils. Just behind the eyes are two bulging regions, the paratoid glands, which are positioned obliquely. They contain a noxious substance,
955:
1184:
have been observed to puncture the skin with their beak and then peck out the toad's liver, thus avoiding the toxin. The tadpoles also exude noxious substances which deter fish from eating them but not the
2270:
Garcia-Porta, J.; Litvinchuk, S. N.; Crochet, P. A.; Romano, A.; Lo-Valvo, M.; Lymberakis, P.; Carranza, S. (2012). "Molecular phylogenetics and historical biogeography of the west-palearctic common toads
2032:
A General System of Nature,: Through the Three Grand
Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into Their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties (Volume 1)
41:
2148:
1128:, Scotland, observed a common toad moving along the bottom of the lake at a depth of 324 feet (99 m). They were surprised to find that an air-breathing animal could survive in such a location.
804:. The exact taxonomic relationships between these species remains unclear. A serological investigation into toad populations in Turkey undertaken in 2001 examined the blood serum proteins of
1742:
of the toad was considered poisonous and was known as "sweltered venom" and it was believed that it could spit or vomit poisonous fire. Toads were associated with devils and demons and in
1577:
and his colleagues in 1922, and they succeeded in identifying its structure about 20 years later. Meanwhile, other researchers succeeded in isolating the same compound (and its parent
1081:
distance in the dark while hunting. It is most active in wet weather. By morning it has returned to its base and may occupy the same place for several months. It is voracious and eats
1461:
There are parts of its range where the common toad seems to be in decline. In Spain, increased aridity and habitat loss have led to a diminution in numbers and it is regarded as "
3825:
Pettit, G. R.; Kamano, Y.; Drasar, P.; Inoue, M.; Knight, J. C. (1987). "Steroids and related natural products. 104. Bufadienolides. 36. Synthesis of bufalitoxin and bufotoxin".
1720:
witch's cottage had caught fire and she was badly burnt. By next day, both toad and witch had died, and it was found that the woman's burns exactly mirrored those of the toad.
954:
3305:
Goater, Cameron P.; Semlitsch, Raymond D.; Bernasconi, Marco V. (1993). "Effects of body size and parasite infection on the locomotory performance of juvenile toads,
738:. It is found in France, the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb and grows to a larger size and has a spinier skin than its more northern counterparts with which it
1005:), the common toad is the fourth most common amphibian in Europe. It is found throughout the continent with the exception of Iceland, the cold northern parts of
837:
were being uplifted, an event which isolated the populations in the
Iberian Peninsula from those in the rest of Europe. The remaining European lineage split into
1958:
Agasyan, A.; Avisi, A.; Tuniyev, B.; Isailovic, J. C.; Lymberakis, P.; Andrén, C.; Cogalniceanu, D.; Wilkinson, J.; Ananjeva, N.; Üzüm, N.; et al. (2009).
3995:
1704:, the familiars were believed to be toads wearing elegant robes. These were herded by children who were being trained as witches. Between 1610 and 1612, the
1397:
in various holes in the ground, sometimes in basements, often in droves with other amphibians. Rarely they spend the winter in flowing waters with the
2217:
Müller, L.; Hellmich, W. (1935). "Mitteilungenyüber die
Herpetofauna der Iberischen Halbinsel. Über Salamandra salamandra almanzoris, n. ssp. und
4421:
772:, a group of closely related species which cannot be clearly demarcated. Several modern species are believed to form an ancient group of related
603:. The toad is an inconspicuous animal as it usually lies hidden during the day. It becomes active at dusk and spends the night hunting for the
713:
have been recognized over the years. The
Caucasian toad is found in the mountainous regions of the Caucasus and was at one time classified as
4483:
4643:
812:. It found that the differences between the two were not significant and that therefore the former should be synonymized with the latter.
3281:
3256:
2684:
1651:. There is no known anti-venom. Treatment consists of supporting respiratory and cardiovascular functions, prevention of absorption and
1600:
had succeeded in synthesizing the toad toxin constituents bufotalin, bufalitoxin and bufotoxin. The chemical formula of bufotoxin is C
2558:
1336:
at three to seven years old but there is great variability between populations. Juveniles are often parasitised by the lung nematode
4589:
4382:
4602:
4434:
1968:
1506:
It has been found that urban populations of common toad occupying small areas and isolated by development show a lower level of
607:
on which it feeds. It moves with a slow, ungainly walk or short jumps, and has greyish-brown skin covered with wart-like lumps.
1696:, for whom a coat-of-arms was invented emblazoned with three toads. It was known that the toad could poison people and, as the
1362:
3575:
4653:
4607:
4117:
4088:
4012:
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2827:
2662:
2638:
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4167:
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with the females being browner and the males greyer. The underside is a dirty white speckled with grey and black patches.
3968:
3938:
1620:, which, in small doses, increases the strength with which the heart muscle contracts; synthesized from foxglove plants (
1439:
932:
627:
2053:
Specimen medicum, exhibens synopsin
Reptilium emendatam cum experimentis circa venena et antidota Reptilium austriacorum
1811:", that when worn as a necklace or ring would warn the wearer of attempts to poison them. Shakespeare mentioned this in
815:
A study published in 2012 examined the phylogenetic relationships between the
Eurasian and North African species in the
4576:
2334:(Anura, Bufonidae) populations in Southern Marmara (Manyas, Bahkesir) and Eastern Black Sea (Çamhhemşin, Rize) regions"
1693:
1288:
The males mount the females' backs, grasping them with their fore limbs under the armpits in a grip that is known as
4361:
3419:
Xu, Q.; Oldham, R. S. (1997). "Lethal and sublethal effects of nitrogen fertilizer ammonium nitrate on common toad (
2072:(Amphibia, Anura), comments on the taxonomy of this genus, and comments on some nomina created by Laurenti (1768)".
4522:
4395:
2708:
2051:
1927:
887:
olive-brown or greyish-brown, sometimes partly blotched or banded with a darker shade. The common toad tends to be
2504:
2241:
2192:
4488:
4374:
1701:
918:) is also similar in appearance but it has a less rounded snout, damp smooth skin, and usually moves by leaping.
678:
619:
into tiny toads. The juveniles emerge from the water and remain largely terrestrial for the rest of their lives.
206:
4286:
3997:
Popular romances of the West of
England; or, the drolls, traditions, and superstitions of Old Cornwall, Volume 2
2788:
4281:
1492:
3649:
Santos, X.; Llorente, G. A.; Montori, A.; Carretero, M. A.; Franch, M.; Garriga, N.; Richter-Boix, A. (2007).
4648:
4620:
4470:
3716:
Gelder, J. J. (1973). "A quantitative approach to the mortality resulting from traffic in a population of
4309:
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1201:. These usually avoid the noxious secretion by puncturing the tadpole's skin and sucking out its juices.
2902:
Petkeviciute, R.; Stunzenas, V.; Staneviciute, G. (2004). "Cytogenetic and sequence comparison of adult
4182:
1931:
described the emergence of the common toad from hibernation as one of the most moving signs of spring.
687:
4527:
1708:
1260:
1369:
595:. It is one of a group of closely related animals that are descended from a common ancestral line of
3650:
819:
group and indicated a long evolutionary history for the group. Nine to thirteen million years ago,
1627:
1597:
1476:
686:. It later became apparent that this genus should be divided, and in 1768, the Austrian naturalist
1982:
1959:
1857:
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and its colour tends to be blotched rather than uniform. It is now considered to be a synonym of
90:
4514:
1511:
numbers and habitat fragmentation can reduce population persistence in such urban environments.
1069:
622:
The common toad seems to be in decline in part of its range, but overall is listed as being of "
4426:
4208:
4462:
4509:
1574:
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from south Azerbaijan and Iran, split from the main lineage. Further divisions occurred with
185:
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4255:
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3529:
3432:
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3029:"Magnetic orientation of the Common Toad: establishing an arena approach for adult anurans"
2860:
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unusual swimming patterns and a few deformities were found among the experimental animals.
789:
730:
725:
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Reading, C. J.; Loman, J.; Madsen, T. (1991). "Breeding pond fidelity in the common toad,
2906:(Digenea: Gorgoderidae) from the three-spined stickleback with larvae from two bivalves".
2566:
8:
4246:
4154:
3183:
Davies, N. B.; Halliday, T. R. (1979). "Competitive mate searching in male common toads,
2269:
1761:
1705:
1652:
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903:
858:
826:
55:
3733:
3651:"Evaluating factors affecting amphibian mortality on roads: the case of the common toad
3626:
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3631:
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3517:
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3401:
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3334:
3204:
3165:
3118:
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3028:
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2931:
2884:
2739:
2355:
2129:
1622:
1343:
1220:
1210:
1186:
229:
85:
2722:
Ewart, J. P. (1987). "Neuroethology of releasing mechanisms: Prey-catching in toads".
2056:(in Latin). Viennae: Joan. Thom. Nob. de Trattnern. pp. i–ii + 1–215, plates 1–5.
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3745:
3557:
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3393:
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3200:
3136:
Davies, N. B.; Halliday, T. R. (1978). "Deep croaks and fighting assessment in toads
3110:
3068:
3050:
3001:
2923:
2876:
2823:
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Larsen, Lis Olesen; Pedersen, Jan Nyholm (1981). "The snapping response of the toad,
2743:
2634:
2453:
2413:
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1871:
1507:
1471:
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mountain range is facing predation by otters and increased competition from the frog
1226:
888:
3800:
3757:
3648:
3635:
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3013:
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2133:
2001:
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3834:
3780:
3737:
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3621:
3583:
3547:
3537:
3487:
3440:
3377:
3326:
3196:
3169:
3157:
3102:
3058:
3040:
2993:
2962:
2915:
2868:
2770:
2731:
2600:
2587:
Hemelaar, A. S. M.; van Gelder, J. J. (1979). "Annual growth rings in phalanges of
2403:
2395:
2345:
2300:
2292:
2173:
Martens, R (1925). "Eine neue Eidechsengattung aus der Familie der Leposterniden".
2121:
2081:
1977:
1879:
toad and in the book he composes a ditty in his own praise which starts like this:
1876:
1466:
1447:
1352:
1347:
1338:
1026:
751:
592:
4322:
4260:
4020:
4496:
3542:
3234:
2030:
1862:
1732:
1697:
1537:
1462:
1333:
1254:
895:
850:
769:
615:. After several months of growth and development, these sprout limbs and undergo
600:
4475:
3883:
2530:
2399:
2296:
1238:
1061:
4369:
4356:
4173:
4035:
3223:"Studies conducted at Lund University on amphibian research recently published"
2036:
1957:
1813:
1664:
1566:
1545:
1496:
1455:
821:
801:
781:
755:
739:
3673:
2919:
2735:
2350:
2329:
2085:
4663:
4637:
4447:
4231:
3792:
3784:
3474:
Hemelaar, Agnes (1988). "Age, growth and other population characteristics of
3054:
3005:
2901:
2591:(Anura, Amphibia) from the Netherlands and their use for age determination".
2026:
1922:
1820:
1744:
1648:
1541:
1500:
1484:
1443:
1381:
1293:
682:
in 1758. In this work, he placed all the frogs and toads in the single genus
673:
623:
616:
438:
383:
202:
75:
70:
4581:
2774:
2604:
1450:, an infectious disease of amphibians, has been reported in common toads in
1131:
The annual life cycle of the common toad is divided into three periods: the
4196:
3771:
Chen, K. K.; Jensen, H.; Chen, A. L. (April 1932). "Action of Bufotoxins".
3749:
3561:
3397:
3072:
2927:
2880:
2417:
2372:
2314:
1828:
1640:
1177:
923:
667:
604:
3824:
3452:
3444:
3114:
3045:
2984:
L.) mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Wanderung zu den Laichgewässern".
2822:(in Polish). Vol. 2: Płazy. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.
1723:
4408:
4268:
4240:
1866:
1749:
1689:
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1402:
1398:
1394:
1265:
1249:
1149:
1132:
1094:
1073:
1006:
998:
990:
982:
943:
911:
883:
846:
580:
216:
3838:
2408:
2305:
30:
4594:
4501:
4387:
4296:
3741:
3499:
3389:
3381:
3338:
3106:
2997:
2872:
2125:
1426:
1194:
894:
Other species with which the common toad could be confused include the
706:
642:
631:
588:
4413:
4273:
2756:
4343:
3518:"Post-meiotic intra-testicular sperm senescence in a wild vertebrate"
3161:
1808:
1807:
It was also believed that there was a jewel inside a toad's head, a "
1668:
1660:
1636:
1631:
1582:
1570:
1488:
1198:
1190:
1125:
1110:
1082:
879:
875:
699:
152:
132:
102:
4202:
3491:
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seem to be unaffected by it. Other predators of adult toads include
4548:
4348:
4225:
4149:
3516:
Hettyey, A.; Vági, B.; Penn, D. J.; Hoi, H.; Wagner, R. H. (2012).
2586:
2104:
Birstein, V. J.; Mazin, A. L. (1982). "Chromosomal polymorphism of
1852:
1824:
1716:
1656:
1644:
1553:
1316:
1289:
1269:
1242:
1153:
1022:
965:
834:
122:
1033:
in Siberia and its southerly range includes parts of northwestern
4615:
1764:
1728:
1617:
1578:
1533:
1529:
1414:
1373:
1300:
1280:
1145:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1030:
1018:
969:
612:
576:
572:
3773:
Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine
3770:
3603:
2327:
2250:
Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 5.6
2221:, n. ssp., zwei neue Amphibienrassen aus der Sierra de Gredos".
2006:
Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 5.5
754:, a mountain range in central Spain. It has exceptionally large
4335:
2980:
Jungfer, Wolfgang (1943). "Beiträge zur Biologie der Erdkröte (
1767:
gave instructions on using a toad in the concoction of spells:
1739:
1549:
1480:
1106:
1090:
1034:
1009:, Ireland and a number of Mediterranean islands. These include
939:
718:
112:
2565:. The Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Trust. Archived from
1519:
1299:
The strings of eggs absorb water and swell in size, and small
1753:
1451:
1418:
1324:
1169:
1114:
1050:
1014:
1010:
773:
561:
3182:
3135:
1049:. A closely related variant lives in eastern Asia including
2103:
1189:. Aquatic invertebrates that feed on toad tadpoles include
1181:
1173:
1161:
1086:
596:
568:
162:
142:
3582:. Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Trust. Archived from
4059:
4010:
2948:
2793:
1757:
1165:
1157:
1102:
1098:
3352:
Goater, C. P.; Ward, P. I. (1992). "Negative effects of
3351:
3089:
Sinsch, Ulrich (1987). "Orientation behaviour of toads (
1865:. This has been dramatized by several authors including
849:. Very occasionally the common toad hybridizes with the
3695:
2761:, towards prey dummies at very low light intensities".
1380:
A comparison was made between the growth rate of newly
571:
found throughout most of Europe (with the exception of
4161:
3805:
Wieland and Alles isolated bufotoxin from the skin of
3606:"Loss of genetic diversity and fitness in Common Toad
3425:
Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
2475:"Toads of the world: first, (some) toads of the north"
2216:
1855:
is one of the main characters in the children's novel
4180:
2843:
Strijbosch, H. (1980). "Mortality in a population of
698:. The toads in this genus are included in the family
833:
splitting off about five million years ago when the
3418:
2447:
1499:, but during the 1990s, it became more abundant in
3970:Witch Hunts in Europe and America: An Encyclopedia
3940:Witch Hunts in Europe and America: An Encyclopedia
3515:
2986:Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Ökologie der Tiere
2146:
4042:. The museum of science, art and human perception
2066:
1483:, it is considered to be a "Rare Species" in the
776:from preglacial times. These are the spiny toad (
4635:
3356:(Nematoda) on the growth and survival of toads (
2528:
2239:
1999:
3909:Pagan Channel Islands: Europe's Hidden Heritage
3473:
3026:
2025:
1148:and is enough to deter many predators although
550:, or in Anglophone parts of Europe, simply the
3973:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 20–21.
3511:
3509:
3088:
3084:
3082:
2842:
2499:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2039:. Lackington, Allen, and Co. pp. 648–649.
1639:and seizures, increased salivation, vomiting,
3932:
3930:
3928:
3715:
2660:
2452:. Harper Collins Publishers. pp. 73–74.
2450:Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Europe
845:less than three million years ago during the
4033:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3282:"Common toad (Bufo bufo) - British Reptiles"
3257:"Common toad (Bufo bufo) - British Reptiles"
2813:
2811:
2721:
2685:"Common toad (Bufo bufo) - British Reptiles"
2263:
1983:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009.RLTS.T54596A11159939.en
1372:Tadpole development over a two-week period,
47:Common toad calls, recorded in Radnor, Wales
3604:Hitchings, S. P.; Beebee, T. J. C. (1998).
3506:
3079:
2631:The Observer's Book of British Wild Animals
2624:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2488:
2328:Tosunoğlua, Murat; Taskavak, Ertan (2001).
976:
3925:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2427:
2172:
2099:
2097:
2095:
1138:
1056:
215:
64:
29:
3943:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 7.
3869:
3625:
3610:populations isolated by inimical habitat"
3551:
3541:
3478:from different latitudes and altitudes".
3062:
3044:
3027:Landler, Lukas; Gollmann, Günter (2011).
2808:
2656:
2654:
2652:
2650:
2472:
2407:
2349:
2304:
1981:
1616:. Its physical effects resemble those of
1311:
1135:, the time of mating and feeding period.
665:The common toad was first given the name
3962:
3960:
2817:
2611:
2448:Arnold, Nicholas; Denys Ovenden (2002).
2049:
1995:
1993:
1842:Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
1819:
1722:
1678:
1674:
1518:
1323:
1315:
1279:
1259:
1237:
1203:
1076:eating adult common toad, Czech Republic
1068:
1060:
641:
38:
4103:
4078:
2979:
2424:
2092:
2043:
1969:The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
1846:Wears yet a precious jewel in his head.
1626:), digoxin is used in the treatment of
1442:considers the common toad as being of "
1065:A common toad adopts a defensive stance
4636:
3906:
3698:. Toad watch: Helping toads to survive
2647:
2628:
2060:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1569:and skin of the common toad is called
1320:Tadpoles, some with hind legs, Germany
1253:return to the pond at which they were
4207:
4206:
3966:
3957:
3936:
3093:) displaced from the breeding site".
2633:. Frederick Warne. pp. 213–217.
2466:
2380:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
2277:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
2108:: Karyotype and C-banding pattern of
1990:
1756:as a toad when he poured poison into
4621:967CCA7F-43E7-40F9-B0BA-571DB3F20210
4375:77277517-b91f-4f54-878e-37c6ec7c7b56
3993:
3662:Animal Biodiversity and Conservation
2665:. Surrey Amphibian and Reptile Group
2330:"A serological investigation of the
2252:. American Museum of Natural History
2008:. American Museum of Natural History
1671:may prove useful in its management.
1523:Tunnel under road for toads, Germany
1122:remotely operated underwater vehicle
690:placed the common toad in the genus
4644:IUCN Red List least concern species
4036:"Frogs: Frog myths across cultures"
3627:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1998.11030269.x
3095:Journal of Comparative Physiology A
2789:"Experts' 'important' find in loch"
2378:species group (Anura, Bufonidae)".
1940:
1797:Boil thou first i' the charmed pot.
1692:, the toad was associated with the
1440:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
1408:
1168:. Birds that feed on toads include
1037:in the northern mountain ranges of
878:, which is used to deter potential
734:. The spiny toad was classified as
628:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
13:
4060:Shakespeare, William (1599–1600).
4011:Shakespeare, William (1605–1606).
2967:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb03811.x
1912:But none of them know half as much
1893:But never a name went down to fame
646:Skeleton showing shoulder girdle;
14:
4675:
4142:
3279:
3254:
2682:
2539:Reptiles and Amphibians of the UK
2147:Kuzmin, Sergius L. (2008-09-19).
1731:showing a witch feeding her toad
1630:. The skin of the South American
1458:and may affect some populations.
4190:
4148:
1928:Some Thoughts on the Common Toad
1885:The world has held great heroes,
1769:
1565:The main substance found in the
1361:
1029:. Its easterly range extends to
950:
931:
89:
4126:
4097:
4072:
4053:
4027:
4004:
3987:
3900:
3845:
3818:
3764:
3709:
3688:
3642:
3614:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
3597:
3568:
3467:
3412:
3345:
3298:
3273:
3248:
3215:
3176:
3129:
3020:
2973:
2942:
2895:
2836:
2781:
2750:
2715:
2701:
2676:
2580:
2551:
2522:
2366:
2321:
2240:Frost, Darrel R. (2013-01-09).
2233:
2210:
2000:Frost, Darrel R. (2011-01-31).
1908:Know all there is to be knowed.
1838:Sweet are the uses of adversity
1781:In the poison'd entrails throw.
1433:
1388:
1233:
679:10th edition of Systema Naturae
4168:BBC Nature on the Common Toad.
4136:Secker and Warburg 1950 p. 202
2818:Juszczyk, Włodzimierz (1987).
2593:Netherlands Journal of Zoology
2185:
2166:
2140:
2110:B. b. verrucosissima
2019:
1789:Days and nights has thirty-one
1493:Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug
868:
1:
2724:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
1934:
1889:As history books have showed;
1793:Swelter'd venom sleeping got,
1248:The common toad emerges from
1120:In 2007, researchers using a
796:). The European common toad (
4654:Amphibians described in 1758
4066:, Act II, Scene I"
4017:, Act IV, Scene I"
3911:. Robert Hale. p. 118.
3827:Journal of Organic Chemistry
3543:10.1371/journal.pone.0050820
3233:. 2010-12-21. Archived from
3201:10.1016/0003-3472(79)90070-8
1777:Round about the cauldron go;
1688:dark hole. In Europe in the
1560:
591:, and in a small portion of
7:
4659:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
4019:. Poets.org. Archived from
2400:10.1016/j.ympev.2011.09.008
2297:10.1016/j.ympev.2011.12.019
1897:Compared with that of Toad!
1875:. Mr. Toad is a conceited,
1785:Toad, that under cold stone
1760:'s ear. The First Witch in
1573:. It was first isolated by
1514:
637:
10:
4680:
3967:Burns, William E. (2003).
3937:Burns, William E. (2003).
3857:Merriam-Webster Dictionary
2338:Italian Journal of Zoology
1655:to monitor the condition.
688:Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti
587:), in the western part of
4538:
4215:
4104:Grahame, Kenneth (1908).
4079:Grahame, Kenneth (1908).
3674:10.32800/abc.2007.30.0097
2920:10.1017/S0031182004006109
2736:10.1017/S0140525X00023128
2709:"AmphibiaWeb - Bufo bufo"
2529:Fairchild, G. J. (2003).
2351:10.1080/11250000109356402
2086:10.11646/zootaxa.2447.1.1
1346:. Their parasite-induced
843:Bufo verrucosissimus
806:Bufo verrucosissimus
672:by the Swedish biologist
299:Müller and Hellmich, 1935
235:
228:
224:Range map of common toad
223:
214:
191:
184:
86:Scientific classification
84:
62:
53:
37:
28:
23:
3785:10.3181/00379727-29-6141
3655:, near a breeding place"
2050:Laurenti, J. N. (1768).
1916:As intelligent Mr. Toad!
1904:The clever men at Oxford
1683:The Devil's coat of arms
1628:congestive heart failure
1598:Arizona State University
1596:By 1986, researchers at
1477:Biodiversity Action Plan
1465:". A population in the
1332:The common toad reaches
1208:Infected with larvae of
977:Distribution and habitat
742:. It is now accepted as
4110:The Wind in the Willows
4081:The Wind in the Willows
2847:resulting from the fly
2775:10.1163/156853882X00248
2605:10.1163/002829680X00069
1858:The Wind in the Willows
1709:Alonso de Salazar Frías
1139:Predators and parasites
1057:Behaviour and lifecycle
750:, is restricted to the
728:and is now accepted as
4000:. Hotten. p. 105.
3907:Peddle, S. V. (2007).
3480:Journal of Herpetology
2629:Stokeo, W. J. (1980).
1920:
1850:
1832:
1801:
1735:
1684:
1524:
1485:Bashkortostan Republic
1329:
1321:
1312:Development and growth
1285:
1273:
1245:
1215:
1077:
1066:
662:
521:Guérin-Méneville, 1838
470:Bufo vulgaris cinereus
256:Bufo (Bufo) grediscola
48:
4510:Paleobiology Database
4034:Wanner, Noel (2011).
3994:Hunt, Robert (1865).
3445:10.1007/s002449900188
3046:10.1186/1742-9994-8-6
2219:Bufo bufo gredosicola
1976:: e.T54596A11159939.
1881:
1834:
1823:
1773:
1726:
1682:
1675:Cultural significance
1522:
1479:priority species. In
1327:
1319:
1283:
1263:
1241:
1207:
1072:
1064:
995:Pelophylax esculentus
645:
585:Mediterranean islands
296:Bufo bufo gredosicola
259:Dubois and Bour, 2010
251:Dubois and Bour, 2010
46:
4649:Amphibians of Europe
4370:Fauna Europaea (new)
4162:Amphibians of Europe
4134:Shooting an Elephant
3033:Frontiers in Zoology
2820:Płazy i gady krajowe
2531:"Common Toad –
2151:Bufo verrucosissimus
1869:who called his play
1284:Egg strings, Belgium
1003:Lissotriton vulgaris
790:Japanese common toad
731:Bufo verrucosissimus
715:B. b. verrucosissima
518:Rana (Bufo) vulgaris
16:Species of amphibian
3839:10.1021/jo00392a014
3734:1973Oecol..13...93V
3534:2012PLoSO...750820H
3437:1997ArECT..32..298X
3374:1992Oecol..89..161G
3323:1993Oikos..66..129G
3154:1978Natur.274..683D
2865:1980Oecol..45..285S
2661:Daniel Winchester.
2392:2012MolPE..62...71R
2289:2012MolPE..63..113G
2275:species complex)".
1653:electrocardiography
904:European green toad
859:European green toad
822:Bufo eichwaldi
746:. The Gredos toad,
56:Conservation status
3742:10.1007/BF00379622
3382:10.1007/bf00317213
3107:10.1007/BF00605013
2998:10.1007/BF00421679
2955:Journal of Zoology
2873:10.1007/BF00346472
2849:Lucilia bufonivora
2559:"The common toad (
2477:. Tetrapod zoology
2223:Zool. Anz. Leipzig
2126:10.1007/BF00133292
1833:
1827:as illustrated by
1736:
1706:Spanish inquisitor
1685:
1623:Digitalis purpurea
1525:
1489:Tatarstan Republic
1330:
1322:
1286:
1274:
1246:
1221:Lucilia bufonivora
1216:
1211:Lucilia bufonivora
1187:great crested newt
1078:
1067:
889:sexually dimorphic
831:Bufo spinosus
810:Bufo spinosus
786:B. verrucosissimus
760:Bufo spinosus
717:. It has a larger
702:, the true toads.
663:
49:
4631:
4630:
4209:Taxon identifiers
4119:978-0-674-03447-1
4090:978-0-674-03447-1
4040:The Exploratorium
3980:978-0-313-32142-9
3950:978-0-313-32142-9
3918:978-0-7090-8248-4
3833:(16): 3573–3578.
3280:Trust, Woodland.
3255:Trust, Woodland.
3231:HighBeam Research
3148:(5672): 683–685.
2829:978-83-01-05696-4
2797:. BBC. 2007-05-05
2763:Amphibia-Reptilia
2683:Trust, Woodland.
2640:978-0-7232-1503-5
2459:978-0-00-219964-3
1872:Toad of Toad Hall
1805:
1804:
1508:genetic diversity
1472:Pelophylax perezi
1417:intra-testicular
1344:control juveniles
1227:Sphaerium corneum
1218:A parasitic fly,
959:
827:described species
748:B. b. gredosicola
721:and differs from
599:and which form a
540:
539:
530:
522:
514:
506:
498:
486:
474:
466:
458:
450:
442:
435:Bufo tuberculosus
431:
423:
415:
403:
395:
387:
380:Bufo ferruginosus
376:
368:
360:
352:
344:
332:
320:
308:
300:
292:
284:
276:
268:
260:
252:
79:
44:
4671:
4624:
4623:
4611:
4610:
4598:
4597:
4585:
4584:
4572:
4571:
4559:
4558:
4557:
4531:
4530:
4518:
4517:
4505:
4504:
4492:
4491:
4479:
4478:
4476:NHMSYS0000080159
4466:
4465:
4456:
4455:
4443:
4442:
4430:
4429:
4417:
4416:
4404:
4403:
4391:
4390:
4378:
4377:
4365:
4364:
4352:
4351:
4339:
4338:
4326:
4325:
4313:
4312:
4300:
4299:
4290:
4289:
4277:
4276:
4264:
4263:
4251:
4250:
4249:
4236:
4235:
4234:
4204:
4203:
4195:
4194:
4193:
4186:
4153:Data related to
4152:
4137:
4132:Orwell, George
4130:
4124:
4123:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4076:
4070:
4069:
4057:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4047:
4031:
4025:
4024:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3964:
3955:
3954:
3934:
3923:
3922:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3894:
3880:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3863:
3849:
3843:
3842:
3822:
3816:
3815:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3713:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3703:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3659:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3629:
3601:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3591:
3572:
3566:
3565:
3555:
3545:
3513:
3504:
3503:
3471:
3465:
3464:
3416:
3410:
3409:
3354:Rhabdias bufonis
3349:
3343:
3342:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3277:
3271:
3270:
3268:
3267:
3252:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3219:
3213:
3212:
3195:(4): 1253–1267.
3189:Animal Behaviour
3180:
3174:
3173:
3162:10.1038/274683a0
3133:
3127:
3126:
3086:
3077:
3076:
3066:
3048:
3024:
3018:
3017:
2992:(1–3): 117–157.
2977:
2971:
2970:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2815:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2785:
2779:
2778:
2754:
2748:
2747:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2658:
2645:
2644:
2626:
2609:
2608:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2574:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2516:
2501:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2482:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2445:
2422:
2421:
2411:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2353:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2308:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2257:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2214:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2204:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2170:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2101:
2090:
2089:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2035:. Translated by
2023:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2013:
1997:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1955:
1770:
1698:witch's familiar
1575:Heinrich Wieland
1467:Sierra de Gredos
1448:Chytridiomycosis
1409:Sperm senescence
1365:
1353:ammonium nitrate
1339:Rhabdias bufonis
1328:Tadpole close-up
1027:Balearic Islands
961:
960:
935:
752:Sierra de Gredos
661:
657:
653:
649:
593:Northwest Africa
528:
520:
512:
504:
496:
484:
472:
464:
456:
454:Bufo ventricosus
449:Bonnaterre, 1789
448:
446:Bufo ventricosus
437:
429:
421:
413:
401:
393:
382:
375:Steenstrup, 1846
374:
366:
358:
350:
342:
330:
318:
306:
304:Bufo carbunculus
298:
290:
282:
274:
266:
258:
250:
248:Bufo (Bufo) bufo
219:
197:
94:
93:
73:
68:
67:
45:
33:
21:
20:
4679:
4678:
4674:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4669:
4668:
4634:
4633:
4632:
4627:
4619:
4614:
4606:
4601:
4593:
4588:
4580:
4575:
4567:
4562:
4553:
4552:
4547:
4534:
4526:
4521:
4513:
4508:
4500:
4497:Observation.org
4495:
4487:
4482:
4474:
4469:
4461:
4459:
4451:
4446:
4438:
4433:
4425:
4420:
4412:
4407:
4399:
4394:
4386:
4381:
4373:
4368:
4360:
4355:
4347:
4342:
4334:
4329:
4321:
4316:
4308:
4303:
4295:
4293:
4285:
4280:
4272:
4267:
4259:
4254:
4245:
4244:
4239:
4230:
4229:
4224:
4211:
4201:
4191:
4189:
4181:
4172:Information at
4166:Information at
4160:Information at
4145:
4140:
4131:
4127:
4120:
4102:
4098:
4091:
4077:
4073:
4058:
4054:
4045:
4043:
4032:
4028:
4009:
4005:
3992:
3988:
3981:
3965:
3958:
3951:
3935:
3926:
3919:
3905:
3901:
3892:
3890:
3882:
3881:
3870:
3861:
3859:
3851:
3850:
3846:
3823:
3819:
3769:
3765:
3714:
3710:
3701:
3699:
3694:
3693:
3689:
3657:
3647:
3643:
3602:
3598:
3589:
3587:
3574:
3573:
3569:
3514:
3507:
3492:10.2307/1564332
3472:
3468:
3417:
3413:
3350:
3346:
3331:10.2307/3545205
3303:
3299:
3290:
3288:
3278:
3274:
3265:
3263:
3253:
3249:
3240:
3238:
3221:
3220:
3216:
3181:
3177:
3134:
3130:
3087:
3080:
3025:
3021:
2978:
2974:
2947:
2943:
2900:
2896:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2816:
2809:
2800:
2798:
2787:
2786:
2782:
2755:
2751:
2720:
2716:
2707:
2706:
2702:
2693:
2691:
2681:
2677:
2668:
2666:
2659:
2648:
2641:
2627:
2612:
2585:
2581:
2572:
2570:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2543:
2541:
2527:
2523:
2514:
2512:
2503:
2502:
2489:
2480:
2478:
2473:Naish, Darren.
2471:
2467:
2460:
2446:
2425:
2371:
2367:
2326:
2322:
2268:
2264:
2255:
2253:
2238:
2234:
2215:
2211:
2202:
2200:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2175:Senckenbergiana
2171:
2167:
2158:
2156:
2145:
2141:
2102:
2093:
2065:
2061:
2048:
2044:
2027:von Linné, Carl
2024:
2020:
2011:
2009:
1998:
1991:
1956:
1941:
1937:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1877:anthropomorphic
1863:Kenneth Grahame
1849:
1844:
1840:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1677:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1563:
1557:similar order.
1538:the Netherlands
1528:some places in
1517:
1463:near threatened
1436:
1411:
1391:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1314:
1306:Rana temporaria
1236:
1141:
1113:and even small
1059:
987:Rana temporaria
979:
972:
962:
951:
946:
936:
916:Rana temporaria
896:natterjack toad
871:
851:natterjack toad
770:species complex
756:paratoid glands
726:morphologically
659:
655:
651:
648:1: suprascapula
647:
640:
601:species complex
536:
533:
422:Schneider, 1799
372:Bufo commutatus
351:Schneider, 1799
307:Bonaparte, 1835
275:Latreille, 1801
241:
240:
210:
199:
193:
180:
88:
80:
69:
65:
58:
39:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4677:
4667:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4629:
4628:
4626:
4625:
4612:
4599:
4586:
4573:
4560:
4544:
4542:
4536:
4535:
4533:
4532:
4519:
4506:
4493:
4480:
4467:
4457:
4444:
4431:
4418:
4405:
4392:
4379:
4366:
4357:Fauna Europaea
4353:
4340:
4327:
4314:
4301:
4291:
4278:
4265:
4252:
4237:
4221:
4219:
4213:
4212:
4200:
4199:
4177:
4176:
4174:Astolinto form
4170:
4164:
4158:
4157:at Wikispecies
4144:
4143:External links
4141:
4139:
4138:
4125:
4118:
4096:
4089:
4071:
4064:As you like it
4052:
4026:
4023:on 2007-01-10.
4003:
3986:
3979:
3956:
3949:
3924:
3917:
3899:
3868:
3844:
3817:
3763:
3708:
3687:
3641:
3620:(3): 269–283.
3596:
3576:"Common Toad:
3567:
3528:(12): e50820.
3505:
3486:(4): 369–388.
3466:
3431:(3): 298–303.
3411:
3368:(2): 161–165.
3344:
3317:(1): 129–136.
3297:
3286:Woodland Trust
3272:
3261:Woodland Trust
3247:
3227:Science Letter
3214:
3175:
3128:
3101:(5): 715–727.
3078:
3019:
2972:
2961:(2): 201–211.
2941:
2914:(6): 771–778.
2904:Phyllodistomum
2894:
2859:(2): 285–286.
2835:
2828:
2807:
2780:
2769:(4): 321–327.
2749:
2730:(3): 337–405.
2714:
2700:
2689:Woodland Trust
2675:
2646:
2639:
2610:
2599:(1): 129–135.
2579:
2550:
2521:
2509:: Common toad"
2487:
2465:
2458:
2423:
2365:
2344:(2): 165–168.
2320:
2283:(1): 113–130.
2262:
2232:
2209:
2184:
2165:
2139:
2091:
2059:
2042:
2037:William Turton
2018:
1989:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1901:
1882:
1835:
1814:As You Like It
1803:
1802:
1774:
1702:Basque Country
1676:
1673:
1665:cholestyramine
1649:hallucinations
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1591:Bufo japonicus
1567:parotoid gland
1562:
1559:
1546:Northern Italy
1516:
1513:
1497:Irkutsk Oblast
1456:United Kingdom
1435:
1432:
1410:
1407:
1390:
1387:
1368:
1367:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1313:
1310:
1235:
1232:
1195:diving beetles
1140:
1137:
1058:
1055:
978:
975:
974:
973:
963:
949:
947:
937:
930:
870:
867:
839:Bufo bufo
817:Bufo bufo
802:Middle Miocene
798:Bufo bufo
782:Caucasian toad
736:B. b. spinosus
660:4: procoracoid
639:
636:
567:"toad"), is a
538:
537:
535:
534:
532:
531:
529:Linnaeus, 1758
523:
515:
507:
505:Laurenti, 1768
499:
487:
475:
467:
459:
457:Laurenti, 1768
451:
443:
432:
424:
416:
404:
396:
388:
377:
369:
361:
353:
345:
333:
321:
309:
301:
293:
288:Bufo bufo bufo
285:
277:
269:
261:
253:
244:
238:
237:
236:
233:
232:
226:
225:
221:
220:
212:
211:
200:
189:
188:
182:
181:
174:
172:
168:
167:
160:
156:
155:
150:
146:
145:
140:
136:
135:
130:
126:
125:
120:
116:
115:
110:
106:
105:
100:
96:
95:
82:
81:
63:
60:
59:
54:
51:
50:
35:
34:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4676:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4641:
4639:
4622:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4591:
4587:
4583:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4565:
4561:
4556:
4550:
4546:
4545:
4543:
4541:
4537:
4529:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4292:
4288:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4248:
4242:
4238:
4233:
4227:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4205:
4198:
4188:
4187:
4184:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4169:
4165:
4163:
4159:
4156:
4151:
4147:
4146:
4135:
4129:
4121:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4100:
4092:
4086:
4082:
4075:
4068:. Anvari.org.
4067:
4065:
4056:
4041:
4037:
4030:
4022:
4018:
4016:
4007:
3999:
3998:
3990:
3982:
3976:
3972:
3971:
3963:
3961:
3952:
3946:
3942:
3941:
3933:
3931:
3929:
3920:
3914:
3910:
3903:
3889:
3888:Textfiles.com
3885:
3884:"Toad toxins"
3879:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3858:
3854:
3848:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3821:
3814:
3812:
3808:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3767:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3712:
3697:
3691:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3668:(1): 97–104.
3667:
3663:
3656:
3654:
3645:
3637:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3609:
3600:
3586:on 2011-09-05
3585:
3581:
3579:
3571:
3563:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3512:
3510:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3470:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3423:) tadpoles".
3422:
3415:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3348:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3301:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3262:
3258:
3251:
3237:on 2013-05-13
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3218:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3179:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3083:
3074:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3023:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2988:(in German).
2987:
2983:
2976:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2945:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2839:
2831:
2825:
2821:
2814:
2812:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2784:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2753:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2710:
2704:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2664:
2663:"Common Toad"
2657:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2642:
2636:
2632:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2583:
2569:on 2008-11-21
2568:
2564:
2562:
2554:
2540:
2536:
2534:
2525:
2511:. AmphibiaWeb
2510:
2508:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2476:
2469:
2461:
2455:
2451:
2444:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2369:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2333:
2324:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2266:
2251:
2247:
2246:Daudin, 1803"
2245:
2244:Bufo spinosus
2236:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2213:
2199:. AmphibiaWeb
2198:
2196:
2195:Bufo spinosus
2188:
2180:
2176:
2169:
2155:. AmphibiaWeb
2154:
2152:
2143:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2063:
2055:
2054:
2046:
2038:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2022:
2007:
2003:
1996:
1994:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1963:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1939:
1932:
1930:
1929:
1925:in his essay
1924:
1923:George Orwell
1918:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1762:Shakespeare's
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1746:
1745:Paradise Lost
1741:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1718:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1681:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1624:
1619:
1599:
1594:
1592:
1588:
1587:Japanese toad
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1542:Great Britain
1539:
1535:
1531:
1521:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1502:
1501:Moscow Oblast
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1444:least concern
1441:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1393:Common toads
1386:
1383:
1382:metamorphosed
1375:
1370:
1364:
1357:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1340:
1335:
1326:
1318:
1309:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1256:
1251:
1244:
1240:
1231:
1229:
1228:
1223:
1222:
1213:
1212:
1206:
1202:
1200:
1199:water boatmen
1196:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1178:birds of prey
1175:
1171:
1167:
1166:domestic cats
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1136:
1134:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1075:
1071:
1063:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
971:
967:
948:
945:
941:
934:
929:
928:
927:
925:
919:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
900:Bufo calamita
897:
892:
890:
885:
881:
877:
866:
864:
860:
856:
855:Bufo calamita
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
825:, a recently
824:
823:
818:
813:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
768:is part of a
767:
763:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
744:Bufo spinosus
741:
737:
733:
732:
727:
724:
720:
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712:
708:
703:
701:
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693:
689:
685:
681:
680:
675:
674:Carl Linnaeus
671:
669:
644:
635:
633:
629:
625:
624:least concern
620:
618:
617:metamorphosis
614:
608:
606:
605:invertebrates
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
563:
559:
558:
553:
549:
548:European toad
545:
527:
524:
519:
516:
511:
508:
503:
502:Bufo vulgaris
500:
497:Lessona, 1877
495:
494:obtusirostris
491:
490:Bufo vulgaris
488:
485:Lessona, 1877
483:
479:
478:Bufo vulgaris
476:
473:Lataste, 1880
471:
468:
463:
462:Bufo vinearum
460:
455:
452:
447:
444:
440:
436:
433:
430:Rivière, 1886
428:
427:Bufo spelaeus
425:
420:
417:
414:Lataste, 1880
412:
408:
405:
400:
399:Bufo palmarum
397:
392:
389:
385:
381:
378:
373:
370:
367:Günther, 1859
365:
364:Bufo communis
362:
357:
356:Bufo communis
354:
349:
348:Bufo cinereus
346:
341:
337:
336:Bufo cinereus
334:
329:
325:
324:Bufo cinereus
322:
317:
313:
312:Bufo cinereus
310:
305:
302:
297:
294:
289:
286:
281:
278:
273:
272:Bufo Rouselei
270:
265:
264:Bufo Roeselii
262:
257:
254:
249:
246:
245:
243:
242:
234:
231:
227:
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213:
208:
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187:
186:Binomial name
183:
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114:
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108:
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101:
98:
97:
92:
87:
83:
77:
72:
71:Least Concern
61:
57:
52:
36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
4539:
4216:
4178:
4133:
4128:
4109:
4106:"Chapter 10"
4099:
4080:
4074:
4063:
4055:
4044:. Retrieved
4039:
4029:
4021:the original
4014:
4006:
3996:
3989:
3969:
3939:
3908:
3902:
3891:. Retrieved
3887:
3860:. Retrieved
3856:
3847:
3830:
3826:
3820:
3811:B. bufo bufo
3810:
3806:
3804:
3779:(907): 907.
3776:
3772:
3766:
3728:(1): 93–95.
3725:
3721:
3717:
3711:
3700:. Retrieved
3696:"What we do"
3690:
3665:
3661:
3652:
3644:
3617:
3613:
3607:
3599:
3588:. Retrieved
3584:the original
3577:
3570:
3525:
3521:
3483:
3479:
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3469:
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3424:
3420:
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3357:
3353:
3347:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3300:
3289:. Retrieved
3285:
3275:
3264:. Retrieved
3260:
3250:
3239:. Retrieved
3235:the original
3226:
3217:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3178:
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3141:
3137:
3131:
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2911:
2908:Parasitology
2907:
2903:
2897:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2838:
2819:
2799:. Retrieved
2792:
2783:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2752:
2727:
2723:
2717:
2703:
2692:. Retrieved
2688:
2678:
2667:. Retrieved
2630:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2582:
2571:. Retrieved
2567:the original
2560:
2553:
2542:. Retrieved
2538:
2532:
2524:
2513:. Retrieved
2506:
2479:. Retrieved
2468:
2449:
2409:10261/143470
2386:(1): 71–86.
2383:
2379:
2375:
2368:
2341:
2337:
2331:
2323:
2306:10261/113807
2280:
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2272:
2265:
2254:. Retrieved
2249:
2243:
2235:
2226:
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2218:
2212:
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2194:
2187:
2178:
2174:
2168:
2157:. Retrieved
2150:
2142:
2120:(2): 93–98.
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2062:
2052:
2045:
2031:
2021:
2010:. Retrieved
2005:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1926:
1921:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1902:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1870:
1856:
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1837:
1836:
1829:Paul Bransom
1812:
1806:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1775:
1743:
1737:
1714:
1686:
1641:hyperkalemia
1621:
1595:
1590:
1564:
1526:
1505:
1470:
1460:
1437:
1434:Conservation
1422:
1415:post-meiotic
1412:
1399:common frogs
1392:
1389:Winter sleep
1379:
1337:
1331:
1305:
1298:
1287:
1275:
1247:
1234:Reproduction
1225:
1219:
1217:
1209:
1150:grass snakes
1142:
1133:winter sleep
1130:
1119:
1095:caterpillars
1079:
1002:
994:
986:
980:
920:
915:
908:Bufo viridis
907:
899:
893:
884:nuptial pads
872:
863:Bufo viridis
862:
854:
842:
838:
830:
820:
816:
814:
809:
805:
797:
794:B. japonicus
793:
785:
777:
765:
764:
759:
747:
743:
735:
729:
722:
714:
710:
704:
695:
694:, naming it
691:
683:
677:
666:
664:
621:
609:
564:
556:
555:
551:
547:
543:
541:
525:
517:
513:Gistel, 1868
510:Pegaeus bufo
509:
501:
493:
489:
482:acutirostris
481:
477:
469:
465:Lesson, 1841
461:
453:
445:
434:
426:
418:
410:
406:
402:Cuvier, 1829
398:
394:Schinz, 1833
391:Bufo minutus
390:
379:
371:
363:
355:
347:
339:
335:
327:
323:
315:
311:
303:
295:
287:
283:Schinz, 1833
280:Bufo alpinus
279:
271:
267:Daudin, 1802
263:
255:
247:
194:
192:
177:B. bufo
176:
175:
163:
24:Common toad
18:
4409:iNaturalist
4269:AmphibiaWeb
4241:Wikispecies
4112:. Methuen.
4083:. Methuen.
3853:"Bufotoxin"
3807:B. vulgaris
3608:(Bufo bufo)
2002:"Bufonidae"
1867:A. A. Milne
1750:John Milton
1715:An English
1690:Middle Ages
1585:) from the
1403:green frogs
1266:mating ball
1250:hibernation
1164:, and even
1074:Grass snake
1007:Scandinavia
999:smooth newt
991:edible frog
983:common frog
944:Oxfordshire
912:common frog
869:Description
847:Pleistocene
778:B. spinosus
740:intergrades
656:3: clavicle
583:, and some
581:Scandinavia
579:, parts of
544:common toad
419:Bufo rubeta
407:Bufo rubeta
359:Bruch, 1862
291:Poche, 1912
4638:Categories
4555:Q109525973
4046:2012-08-23
3893:2012-05-26
3862:2012-05-26
3702:2012-04-30
3590:2012-05-04
3291:2023-03-21
3266:2023-03-21
3241:2012-04-18
2801:2014-07-31
2694:2023-03-11
2669:2012-05-03
2573:2012-05-04
2544:2012-03-16
2515:2012-05-04
2481:2012-06-23
2256:2013-01-24
2203:2012-09-17
2181:: 170–171.
2159:2012-09-17
2012:2012-08-24
1935:References
1495:, and the
1427:senescence
1425:undergoes
1268:(multiple
1124:to survey
1111:earthworms
997:) and the
981:After the
964:In a pond
938:Swimming,
902:) and the
788:) and the
707:subspecies
652:2: scapula
632:witchcraft
589:North Asia
343:Koch, 1872
331:Koch, 1872
319:Koch, 1872
4540:Rana bufo
4287:Bufo-bufo
4261:Bufo_bufo
4247:Bufo bufo
4217:Bufo bufo
4155:Bufo bufo
3793:1535-3699
3722:Oecologia
3718:Bufo bufo
3653:Bufo bufo
3578:Bufo bufo
3476:Bufo bufo
3421:Bufo bufo
3362:Oecologia
3358:Bufo bufo
3307:Bufo bufo
3185:Bufo bufo
3138:Bufo bufo
3091:Bufo bufo
3055:1742-9994
3006:0720-213X
2982:Bufo bufo
2951:Bufo bufo
2853:Oecologia
2845:Bufo bufo
2759:Bufo bufo
2744:144997714
2589:Bufo bufo
2561:Bufo bufo
2533:Bufo bufo
2507:Bufo bufo
2376:Bufo bufo
2332:Bufo bufo
2273:Bufo bufo
2106:Bufo bufo
1962:Bufo bufo
1809:toadstone
1752:depicted
1733:familiars
1717:folk tale
1669:lidocaine
1661:phenytoin
1637:paralysis
1632:cane toad
1583:bufotalin
1571:bufotoxin
1561:Bufotoxin
1191:dragonfly
1154:hedgehogs
1126:Loch Ness
924:phalanges
880:predators
876:bufotoxin
857:) or the
700:Bufonidae
696:Bufo bufo
626:" in the
557:Bufo bufo
526:Rana Bufo
411:robustior
195:Bufo bufo
171:Species:
153:Bufonidae
109:Kingdom:
103:Eukaryota
4549:Wikidata
4427:10193774
4294:BioLib:
4226:Wikidata
3801:87161465
3758:22706445
3750:28307986
3636:85117769
3562:23226542
3522:PLOS ONE
3461:35907368
3406:12236487
3398:28312868
3209:54259148
3123:26102029
3073:21418651
3039:(1): 6.
3014:46354366
2936:13313062
2928:15648700
2889:32817424
2881:28309542
2418:21964513
2360:83966131
2315:22214922
2229:: 49–57.
2134:37853177
2114:Genetica
2080:: 1–52.
2029:(1806).
1853:Mr. Toad
1825:Mr. Toad
1657:Atropine
1645:cyanosis
1554:roadkill
1515:Roadkill
1454:and the
1348:anorexia
1334:maturity
1301:tadpoles
1290:amplexus
1270:amplexus
1243:Amplexus
1214:, Poland
1193:larvae,
1083:woodlice
1025:and the
1023:Sardinia
966:Burgwald
835:Pyrenees
705:Various
638:Taxonomy
613:tadpoles
316:hybridus
230:Synonyms
203:Linnaeus
149:Family:
133:Amphibia
123:Chordata
119:Phylum:
113:Animalia
99:Domain:
76:IUCN 3.1
4616:ZooBank
4608:1103349
4595:8415029
4528:1350162
4388:5217160
4232:Q146375
4015:Macbeth
3730:Bibcode
3682:4570914
3553:3513296
3530:Bibcode
3500:1564332
3453:9096079
3433:Bibcode
3390:4219866
3370:Bibcode
3339:3545205
3319:Bibcode
3170:4222519
3150:Bibcode
3115:3119823
3064:3072941
2861:Bibcode
2388:Bibcode
2285:Bibcode
2074:Zootaxa
1765:Macbeth
1729:woodcut
1618:digoxin
1579:steroid
1534:Belgium
1530:Germany
1423:B. bufo
1374:Germany
1255:spawned
1146:bufagin
1144:called
1107:spiders
1091:beetles
1047:Tunisia
1043:Algeria
1039:Morocco
1031:Irkutsk
1019:Corsica
989:), the
970:Germany
780:), the
766:B. bufo
723:B. bufo
711:B. bufo
676:in the
577:Iceland
573:Ireland
560:, from
159:Genus:
139:Order:
129:Class:
74: (
4515:387464
4440:173480
4414:326296
4362:177878
4349:BUFOBU
4336:333310
4310:101499
4183:Portal
4116:
4087:
3977:
3947:
3915:
3799:
3791:
3756:
3748:
3680:
3634:
3560:
3550:
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3451:
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3388:
3337:
3229:. via
3207:
3168:
3142:Nature
3121:
3113:
3071:
3061:
3053:
3012:
3004:
2934:
2926:
2887:
2879:
2826:
2742:
2637:
2456:
2416:
2358:
2313:
2132:
1831:, 1913
1740:saliva
1550:Poland
1491:, the
1487:, the
1481:Russia
1395:winter
1170:herons
1035:Africa
940:Otmoor
719:genome
441:, 1826
386:, 1826
328:medius
4582:10882
4577:EUNIS
4569:4RDKJ
4523:WoRMS
4460:NAS:
4453:54596
4422:IRMNG
4197:Frogs
3797:S2CID
3775:. 7.
3754:S2CID
3678:S2CID
3658:(PDF)
3632:S2CID
3496:JSTOR
3457:S2CID
3402:S2CID
3386:JSTOR
3335:JSTOR
3311:Oikos
3205:S2CID
3166:S2CID
3119:S2CID
3010:S2CID
2932:S2CID
2885:S2CID
2740:S2CID
2356:S2CID
2130:S2CID
1861:, by
1754:Satan
1727:1579
1694:Devil
1452:Spain
1419:sperm
1182:Crows
1174:crows
1099:flies
1087:slugs
1051:Japan
1015:Crete
1011:Malta
597:toads
562:Latin
492:var.
480:var.
439:Risso
409:var.
384:Risso
340:minor
326:var.
314:var.
143:Anura
4664:Bufo
4603:ITIS
4590:GBIF
4489:8384
4484:NCBI
4448:IUCN
4435:ITIS
4401:1952
4396:GISD
4383:GBIF
4344:EPPO
4323:NP2D
4305:BOLD
4114:ISBN
4085:ISBN
3975:ISBN
3945:ISBN
3913:ISBN
3789:ISSN
3746:PMID
3720:L".
3558:PMID
3449:PMID
3394:PMID
3360:)".
3111:PMID
3069:PMID
3051:ISSN
3002:ISSN
2924:PMID
2877:PMID
2824:ISBN
2635:ISBN
2454:ISBN
2414:PMID
2311:PMID
2078:2447
2070:Bufo
1974:2009
1738:The
1667:and
1647:and
1548:and
1438:The
1413:The
1401:and
1294:eggs
1264:The
1197:and
1176:and
1162:mink
1158:rats
1115:mice
1103:ants
1045:and
841:and
808:and
774:taxa
692:Bufo
684:Rana
670:bufo
668:Rana
569:toad
565:bufo
552:toad
542:The
338:var.
239:List
207:1758
164:Bufo
4564:CoL
4502:442
4471:NBN
4331:EoL
4318:CoL
4297:322
4282:ASW
4274:127
4256:ADW
3835:doi
3809:or
3781:doi
3738:doi
3670:doi
3622:doi
3548:PMC
3538:doi
3488:doi
3441:doi
3378:doi
3327:doi
3309:".
3197:doi
3187:".
3158:doi
3146:274
3140:".
3103:doi
3099:161
3059:PMC
3041:doi
2994:doi
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2959:225
2953:".
2916:doi
2912:129
2869:doi
2851:".
2794:BBC
2771:doi
2732:doi
2601:doi
2404:hdl
2396:doi
2346:doi
2301:hdl
2293:doi
2227:112
2122:doi
2112:".
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1978:doi
1758:Eve
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2242:"
2206:.
2197:"
2193:"
2179:7
2162:.
2153:"
2149:"
2136:.
2124::
2088:.
2084::
2015:.
1986:.
1980::
1964:"
1960:"
1612:O
1610:4
1608:N
1604:H
1304:(
1001:(
993:(
985:(
914:(
906:(
898:(
861:(
853:(
792:(
784:(
554:(
209:)
201:(
78:)
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