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reward, sexual experience can also lead to activation of plasticity-related signaling cascades. ... In some people, there is a transition from "normal" to compulsive engagement in natural rewards (such as food or sex), a condition that some have termed behavioral or non-drug addictions (Holden, 2001; Grant et al., 2006a). ... the transcription factor delta FosB is increased during access to high fat diet (Teegarden and Bale, 2007) or sucrose (Wallace et al, 2008). ...To date, there is very little data directly measuring the effects of food on synaptic plasticity in addiction-related neurocircuitry. ... Following removal of sugar or fat access, withdrawal symptoms including anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors emerge (Colantuoni et al, 2002; Teegarden and Bale, 2007). After this period of "abstinence", operant testing reveals "craving" and "seeking" behavior for sugar (Avena et al, 2005) or fat (Ward et al, 2007), as well as "incubation of craving" (Grimm et al, 2001; Lu et al, 2004; Grimm et al, 2005), and "relapse" (Nair et al, 2009b) following abstinence from sugar. In fact, when given a re-exposure to sugar after a period of abstinence, animals consume a much greater amount of sugar than during previous sessions (Avena et al., 2005).
290:. This sense of loss of control may impede function during work due to disorganized thoughts, leading to a decrease in efficiency. Another indication is craving food despite being full. One may set rules to try to eat healthy, but find themselves frustrated when they are overruled by their cravings. A large indicator of loss of control due to food addiction is knowing one has a medical problem caused by their behaviors, but not being able to stop consuming the foods, further compromising one's health.
275:, as its core and only defining feature. There are several potential signs that a person may be experiencing compulsive overeating. Common behaviors of compulsive overeaters include eating alone, consuming food quickly, gaining weight rapidly, and eating to the point of stomach discomfort. Other signs include significantly decreased mobility and withdrawal from activities due to weight gain. Emotional indicators can include feelings of guilt, a sense of loss of control, depression and mood swings.
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addiction in the context of substance use versus an addictive behavior. As we pointed out in this review, there is very little evidence to indicate that humans can develop a 'Glucose/Sucrose/Fructose Use
Disorder' as a diagnosis within the DSM-5 category Substance Use Disorders. We do, however, view both rodent and human data as consistent with the existence of addictive eating behavior.
1295:
We concur with Hone-Blanchet and
Fecteau (2014) that it is premature to conclude validity of the food addiction phenotype in humans from the current behavioral and neurobiological evidence gained in rodent models. ... To conclude, the society as a whole should be aware of the differences between
234:
Unlike individuals with bulimia nervosa, persons with compulsive overeating do not attempt to compensate for their bingeing with purging behaviors, such as fasting, laxative use, or vomiting. When a person suffering from compulsive overeating through binge eating experiences feelings of guilt after
202:
is defined as eating an unhealthy amount of food while feeling that one's sense of control has been lost. Food addiction initially presents in the form of cravings, which cause a feeling that one cannot cope without the food in question. As the disorder progresses, behavior is modified in order to
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et al, 2004), playing video games (Koepp et al, 1998; Hoeft et al, 2008) and the sight of appetizing food (Wang et al, 2004a) activate many of the same brain regions (i.e., the mesocorticolimbic system and extended amygdala) as drugs of abuse (Volkow et al, 2004). ... As described for food
230:
People who engage in binge eating may feel frenzied, and consume a large number of calories before stopping. Food binges may be followed by feelings of guilt and depression; for example, one might cancel their plans for the next day because one "feels fat." Binge eating also has implications on
250:
daily (far more than is healthy), resulting in a temporary release from psychological stress through an addictive high not unlike that experienced through drug abuse. Compulsive overeaters tend to show brain changes similar to those of drug addicts, a result of excessive consumption of highly
282:
is an emotional indicator of other symptoms that could be a result of having a food addiction. Hiding consumption of food includes behaviors such as eating in secret, eating late at night, eating in a vehicle, and hiding certain foods until ready to consume in private. Other signs of hiding
420:
Given the continued increase in obesity in the United States and the willingness of dentists to assist in prevention and interventional effort, experts in obesity intervention in conjunction with dental educators should develop models of intervention within the scope of dental
242:
In addition to binge eating, compulsive overeaters may also engage in "grazing" behavior, during which they continuously eat throughout the day. These actions result in an excessive overall number of calories consumed, even if the quantities eaten at any one time may be small.
283:
consumption are avoiding social interactions to eat the specific foods that are craved. Other emotional indicators are inner guilt, which may consist of rationalizing why the food would be beneficial to consume, as well as feeling guilty shortly after consuming the food.
2440:"Eating Awareness Training" Molly Gregor, copyright 1983 "...reclaim (your) 'birthright', the right to eat without compulsion, obsession, or suffering. ...what the body wants, as much as it wants, whenever it wants." From the Preface by Thomas Lebherz, M.D.
351:
Compulsive overeating is treatable with nutritional assistance and medication. Psychotherapy may also be required, but recent research has shown this to be useful only as a complementary resource, with short-term effectiveness in moderate to severe cases.
405:
Many eating disorders are thought to be behavioral patterns that stem from emotional struggles; for the individual to develop lasting improvement and a healthy relationship with food, these behavioral obstacles need to be resolved.
293:
Food addiction has some physical signs and symptoms, including decreased energy; decreased ability for activity compared to the past or compared to others; decreased mental efficiency due to the lack of nutritive energy;
2335:
Treasure, Janet; Stein, Daniel; Maguire, Sarah (2014-09-29). "Has the time come for a staging model to map the course of eating disorders from high risk to severe enduring illness? An examination of the evidence".
337:. Other effects of obesity could be an increased risk for type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and certain cancers. Food addiction might be one supplementary explanation for the epidemic of obesity overall.
479:
However, with treatment and follow-ups, there is a 50% chance of recovery. Success in overcoming this disorder rests on following treatment directions and a properly supportive environment in which to recover.
468:, the chances for relapse are high. Those with a food addiction were most likely overweight in childhood, which may lead to treatment resistance depending on the amount of time gone untreated. Due to poor
2135:
Curran AE, Caplan DJ, Lee JY, Paynter L, Gizlice Z, Champagne C, Ammerman AS, Agans R (November 2010). "Dentists' attitudes about their role in addressing obesity in patients: a national survey".
198:
in 1956. It was continued to use throughout the late 1900s with more cases reported of the condition. In the 21st century, food addiction are often associated with eating disorders. The term
251:
processed food (most likely consisting of high amounts of saturated fat, which is more energy-rich). Unlike smoking, drugs, or alcoholism, people with food cravings are not under a type of
286:
Sense of loss of control may be indicated in many ways, such as expending more effort than usual to obtain specific foods, or spending unnecessary amounts of money on foods to satisfy
1882:
Johnson BA, Ait-Daoud N, Wang XQ, Penberthy JK, Javors MA, Seneviratne C, Liu L (December 2013). "Topiramate for the treatment of cocaine addiction: a randomized clinical trial".
476:, overeaters may relapse into their old habits even after completing various treatments. BED patients often report and acknowledge using substances daily as a coping mechanism.
1995:
Calandra C, Russo RG, Luca M (June 2012). "Bupropion versus sertraline in the treatment of depressive patients with binge eating disorder: retrospective cohort study".
173:; however, there is very little research on the synaptic plasticity from compulsive food consumption, a phenomenon which is known to be caused by ΞFosB overexpression.
2427:
329:
Obesity has been attributed to eating behavior or fast food, personality issues, depression, genetics, and also social and environmental conditions such as
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495:(i.e., the proportion of individuals in the population that developed the disorder during their lifetime) for food addiction in the United States as 2.8%.
1346:
Hebebrand J, Albayrak Γ, Adan R, Antel J, Dieguez C, de Jong J, Leng G, Menzies J, Mercer JG, Murphy M, van der Plasse G, Dickson SL (November 2014).
1255:
Hebebrand J, Albayrak Γ, Adan R, Antel J, Dieguez C, de Jong J, Leng G, Menzies J, Mercer JG, Murphy M, van der Plasse G, Dickson SL (November 2014).
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have also proven very effective. Studies suggest that anti-obesity drugs, or moderate appetite suppressants, may be key to controlling binge eating.
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and orthodontic wiring have been shown to be efficient methods of weight control in obese patients, with a low incidence of serious complications.
54:
219:
by
Parylak et al. suggests that animal models given free access to food become more emotionally withdrawn once the food is unavailable due to the
1308:
Ho KS, Nichaman MZ, Taylor WC, Lee ES, Foreyt JP (November 1995). "Binge eating disorder, retention, and dropout in an adult obesity program".
227:, but that it is furthermore the body providing a stimulus so powerful as to numb the individual to the negative consequences of overeating.
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2286:"Exploring Relationships between Recurrent Binge Eating and Illicit Substance Use in a Non-Clinical Sample of Women over Two Years"
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Functional neuroimaging studies in humans have shown that gambling (Breiter et al, 2001), shopping (Knutson et al, 2007), orgasm (
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147:. A person cannot develop a trait that codes for an eating disorder. Professionals address psychological dependence by providing
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in humans and other animals. Those with eating addictions often overconsume such foods despite the adverse consequences (such as
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2884:
1421:
763:
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and through administering the YFAS (Yale Food
Addiction Scale) questionnaire, a diagnostic criteria of substance dependence.
17:
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is a medication that is approved by the Food and Drug
Administration for the treatment of an eating disorder, specifically
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refers to compulsive overeating; those who suffer from the condition engage in frequent episodes of uncontrollable eating (
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There is a higher chance of successful treatment in teenage populations, in which denial is less ingrained than adults.
3018:
1100:
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1818:
Liu Y, von Deneen KM, Kobeissy FH, Gold MS (June 2010). "Food addiction and obesity: evidence from bench to bedside".
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72:
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2110:
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1948:"Bupropion for overweight women with binge-eating disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial"
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2410:
Brownlee, Christen (2009). "Food fix: Neurobiology highlights similarities between obesity and drug addiction".
1759:
Adams, Rachel C.; Sedgmond, Jemma; Maizey, Leah; Chambers, Christopher D.; Lawrence, Natalia S. (2019-09-04).
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Meule, Adrian (2019-01-01), Cottone, Pietro; Sabino, Valentina; Moore, Catherine F.; Koob, George F. (eds.),
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stimulus for more food that results. This behavior may suggest that food addiction is not only a problem of
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Lu, Henry; Mannan, Haider; Hay, Phillipa; Lu, Henry Kewen; Mannan, Haider; Hay, Phillipa (2017-07-18).
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physical health, due to excessive intake of fats and sugars, which can cause numerous health problems.
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1348:""Eating addiction", rather than "food addiction", better captures addictive-like eating behavior"
1257:""Eating addiction", rather than "food addiction", better captures addictive-like eating behavior"
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has announced a new program designed to assist individuals struggling with food addiction.
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has also been observed, with the occurrence of withdrawal symptoms when substituting foods
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255:. Food addiction is more commonly associated with a behavioral addiction to a form of
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exist to help members recover from compulsive overeating and food addiction, such as
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is set to be introduced in
Ireland to minimise the consumption of harmful foods and
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Left untreated, food addiction can lead to chronic conditions and eventually death.
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and access to diverse foods. A lack of access to diverse foods could be caused by
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1733:"About Food Addiction: Signs, Symptoms, Causes & Articles For Treatment Help"
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for the treatment of binge eating disorder. Off-label medications, such as other
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1761:"Food Addiction: Implications for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Overeating"
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The
American Dental Association has sanctioned these suggestions, stating:
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High-sugar and high-fat foods have been shown to increase the expression of
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2016:
1981:
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10.1002/1098-108X(199511)18:3<291::AID-EAT2260180312>3.0.CO;2-Y
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As obesity continues to grow into a worldwide problem, solutions such as a
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1862:"Binge-eating disorder Treatment at Mayo Clinic - Diseases and Conditions"
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During binges, compulsive overeaters may consume between 5,000 and 15,000
1963:
1291:β’ Evidence for addiction to specific macronutrients is lacking in humans.
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110:
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Corsica JA, Pelchat ML (March 2010). "Food addiction: true or false?".
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satisfy the urge for the food. These behavioral changes can result in
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Behavioral addiction characterized by compulsory indulgence over foods
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In extreme cases food addiction can result in suicidal thoughts.
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1293:β’ 'Eating addiction' describes a behavioral addiction. ...
188:). The word was first used in a research-based publication the
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Saunders R (January 2004). ""Grazing": a high-risk behavior".
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2039:"Obesity Treatment at Mayo Clinic - Diseases and Conditions"
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2204:"New program to help people struggling with food addiction"
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1195:"Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions"
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In an individual diagnosed with an eating disorder such as
2227:"Perplexities of treatment resistance in eating disorders"
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1151:
513:
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1817:
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McElroy SL, Guerdjikova AI, Mori N, O'Melia AM (2012).
1621:"Foods of abuse? Nutritionists consider food addiction"
2172:"The Role of Dentistry in Treatment of ObesityβReview"
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is an FDA-approved appetite suppressant drug that is
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Community reinforcement approach and family training
2334:
1652:. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. p. 348.
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382:(SSRIs), have shown some efficacy, as have several
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may be too technical for most readers to understand
2111:"Factors That May Contribute to Eating Disorders"
1994:
431:Moreover, dental appliances such as conventional
3221:
491:A review on behavioral addictions estimated the
2388:"Sweet taste of success for soft drinks sector"
1647:
1533:Parylak SL, Koob GF, Zorrilla EP (July 2011).
1489:
235:their binges, that person can be said to have
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1754:
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1406:Compulsive Eating Behavior and Food Addiction
1310:The International Journal of Eating Disorders
769:Tooltip cAMP response element-binding protein
362:(i.e., used clinically) for the treatment of
2170:Al-Dhubhani MK, Al-Tarawneh AM (July 2015).
2052:
1811:
589:
1402:"Chapter 1 - A history of "food addiction""
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2206:. News-Medical-Life Sciences. June 6, 2018
2137:Journal of the American Dental Association
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1925:United States Food and Drug Administration
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426:Journal of the American Dental Association
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133:) associated with their overconsumption.
73:Learn how and when to remove this message
57:, without removing the technical details.
2409:
1703:"What Are The Effects of Food Addiction"
1588:
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413:and medical and nutritional counseling.
306:. Other physical signs and symptoms are
1091:Eating disorder not otherwise specified
514:Summary of addiction-related plasticity
380:selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
191:Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol
14:
3222:
1352:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
1264:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
734:Reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior
374:. This medication has been prescribed
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1674:"Food Addiction Signs and Treatments"
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267:A food addiction features compulsive
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55:make it understandable to non-experts
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3157:Discrimination against drug addicts
1492:Current Opinion in Gastroenterology
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3019:Tobacco cessation clinics in India
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1952:The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
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1414:10.1016/b978-0-12-816207-1.00001-9
1101:Food Addicts in Recovery Anonymous
109:food items. Such foods often have
25:
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2445:
2225:Halmi, Katherine A (2013-11-07).
1946:White MA, Grilo CM (April 2013).
1918:"Vyvanse Prescribing Information"
1575:
1535:"The dark side of food addiction"
1435:
1408:, Academic Press, pp. 1β13,
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3082:Low-threshold treatment programs
2949:Motivational enhancement therapy
2451:
2338:Early Intervention in Psychiatry
2176:Saudi Journal of Dental Research
1896:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.2295
1211:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010
34:
3162:Dopamine dysregulation syndrome
3152:Category:Vaccines against drugs
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2149:10.14219/jada.archive.2010.0075
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1365:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.08.016
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486:
259:that is not generally healthy.
97:characterized primarily by the
1832:10.1080/02791072.2010.10400686
1589:Goldberg J (August 21, 2014).
1526:
1483:
1301:
176:
13:
1:
2785:Adverse childhood experiences
1820:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
1619:Siegfried, Tom (2021-07-28).
1551:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.04.063
1144:
451:Ontario Health Insurance Plan
340:
117:), and markedly activate the
3014:Nicotine replacement therapy
2999:Intensive outpatient program
2987:Residential treatment center
2927:Cognitive behavioral therapy
1927:. Shire US Inc. January 2015
1504:10.1097/mog.0b013e328336528d
707:conditioned place preference
594:Tooltip medium spiny neurons
456:
7:
2612:Internet addiction disorder
1063:
314:, digestive disorders, and
10:
3261:
3047:List of twelve-step groups
2189:10.1016/j.sjdr.2014.11.005
1737:www.eatingdisorderhope.com
1461:10.1381/096089204772787374
1193:Olsen CM (December 2011).
344:
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113:, fat, and salt contents (
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3112:Supervised injection site
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3042:Addiction recovery groups
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2994:Heroin-assisted treatment
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2954:Motivational interviewing
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2041:. Mayo Clinic. 2013-06-07
2009:10.1007/s11126-011-9192-0
1997:The Psychiatric Quarterly
1864:. Mayo Clinic. 2012-04-03
1648:Nolen-Hoeksema S (2014).
1634:10.1146/knowable-072721-1
1539:Physiology & Behavior
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1002:
945:
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758:Neurochemical plasticity
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217:Physiology & Behavior
2795:Psychological dependence
2629:Digital media addictions
2244:10.1186/1471-244x-13-292
472:and lack of control and
400:Anti-obesity medications
384:atypical antidepressants
137:Psychological dependence
3097:Needle exchange program
3087:Managed alcohol program
3065:Category:Harm reduction
2424:10.1002/scin.5591681012
553:High fat or sugar food
502:have been suggested. A
3117:Tobacco harm reduction
2937:Contingency management
2904:Alcohol detoxification
2617:Internet sex addiction
1096:Food Addicts Anonymous
620:Behavioral plasticity
429:
409:Treatment can include
253:substance use disorder
3179:Motivational salience
3107:Stimulant maintenance
3092:Moderation Management
3004:Methadone maintenance
1650:(ab)normal Psychology
1071:Binge eating disorder
625:Escalation of intake
530:behavioral plasticity
474:environmental factors
418:
366:. The antidepressant
364:binge eating disorder
273:binge eating behavior
237:binge eating disorder
205:binge eating disorder
18:Compulsive overeaters
3230:Behavioral addiction
3102:Responsible drug use
2959:Motivational therapy
2624:Video game addiction
2460:at Wikimedia Commons
1964:10.4088/JCP.12m08071
1117:Overeaters Anonymous
946:Changes in striatal
444:Overeaters Anonymous
440:twelve-step programs
167:medium spiny neurons
95:behavioral addiction
3026:Twelve-step program
2909:Drug detoxification
2790:Physical dependence
2290:Behavioral Sciences
2078:10.2147/TCRM.S25574
1707:Authority Nutrition
997:synaptic plasticity
679:self-administration
650:cross-sensitization
519:
493:lifetime prevalence
194:by American doctor
3184:Incentive salience
3172:Inhibitory control
3147:Category:Addiction
3137:Addiction medicine
2932:Relapse prevention
2869:Tanning dependence
2394:. 14 October 2016.
1778:10.3390/nu11092086
1129:β excessive hunger
932:ΞΌ-opioid receptors
926:ΞΌ-opioid receptors
920:ΞΊ-opioid receptors
915:ΞΌ-opioid receptors
909:ΞΌ-opioid receptors
839:dopamine signaling
557:Sexual intercourse
518:
263:Signs and symptoms
123:excess weight gain
3240:Hyperalimentation
3217:
3216:
3167:Cognitive control
3125:
3124:
3009:Smoking cessation
2964:Physical exercise
2879:
2878:
2865:Non-drug stimuli
2764:
2763:
2608:Internet-related
2456:Media related to
2350:10.1111/eip.12170
2303:10.3390/bs7030046
1625:Knowable Magazine
1423:978-0-12-816207-1
1199:Neuropharmacology
1111:Hyperalimentation
1061:
1060:
1039:nucleus accumbens
1009:nucleus accumbens
994:Mesocorticolimbic
899:Altered striatal
810:nucleus accumbens
777:nucleus accumbens
583:nucleus accumbens
562:Physical exercise
550:Psychostimulants
542:
171:nucleus accumbens
83:
82:
75:
16:(Redirected from
3252:
3235:Eating disorders
3207:
3206:
2894:
2893:
2775:
2774:
2700:G9a-like protein
2516:
2515:
2488:
2481:
2474:
2465:
2464:
2455:
2437:
2432:
2396:
2395:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2315:
2305:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2264:
2246:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2090:
2080:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2035:
2029:
2028:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1975:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1922:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1869:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1798:
1780:
1756:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1743:
1729:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1714:
1699:
1688:
1687:
1685:
1684:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1616:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1591:"Food Addiction"
1586:
1573:
1572:
1562:
1530:
1524:
1523:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1444:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1397:
1388:
1387:
1377:
1367:
1343:
1334:
1333:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1279:
1261:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1222:
1190:
1040:
1010:
901:opioid signaling
811:
778:
770:
766:
595:
591:
540:
520:
517:
427:
356:Lisdexamfetamine
149:behavior therapy
91:eating addiction
78:
71:
67:
64:
58:
38:
37:
30:
21:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3213:
3195:
3191:Sober companion
3121:
3075:Reagent testing
3051:
3030:
2974:
2968:
2919:
2913:
2888:
2886:
2875:
2804:
2760:
2647:Transcriptional
2639:
2633:
2560:
2546:Methylphenidate
2541:Methamphetamine
2505:
2492:
2448:
2443:
2430:
2405:
2403:Further reading
2400:
2399:
2392:The Irish Times
2386:
2385:
2381:
2333:
2329:
2282:
2278:
2223:
2219:
2209:
2207:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2168:
2164:
2143:(11): 1307β16.
2133:
2129:
2119:
2117:
2109:
2108:
2104:
2057:
2053:
2044:
2042:
2037:
2036:
2032:
1993:
1989:
1944:
1940:
1930:
1928:
1920:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1890:(12): 1338β46.
1884:JAMA Psychiatry
1880:
1876:
1867:
1865:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1816:
1812:
1757:
1750:
1741:
1739:
1731:
1730:
1721:
1712:
1710:
1701:
1700:
1691:
1682:
1680:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1646:
1642:
1617:
1610:
1600:
1598:
1587:
1576:
1531:
1527:
1488:
1484:
1449:Obesity Surgery
1445:
1436:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1398:
1391:
1344:
1337:
1306:
1302:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1259:
1253:
1249:
1191:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1113:β overnutrition
1086:Eating disorder
1081:Bulimia nervosa
1066:
1038:
1036:
1033:Dendritic spine
1008:
956:
948:opioid peptides
917:
906:
809:
807:
776:
774:
772:phosphorylation
768:
705:
704:Psychostimulant
677:
676:Psychostimulant
648:
647:Psychostimulant
593:
581:
570:
563:
527:
525:neuroplasticity
516:
489:
459:
428:
425:
372:bulimia nervosa
349:
343:
327:
265:
213:bulimia nervosa
196:Theron Randolph
179:
158:, an addiction
101:consumption of
79:
68:
62:
59:
51:help improve it
48:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3258:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3211:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3193:
3188:
3187:
3186:
3176:
3175:
3174:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3133:
3131:
3127:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3067:
3061:
3059:
3057:Harm reduction
3053:
3052:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3038:
3036:
3035:Support groups
3032:
3031:
3029:
3028:
3023:
3022:
3021:
3016:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2978:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2934:
2923:
2921:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2900:
2898:
2897:Detoxification
2891:
2881:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2834:Benzodiazepine
2831:
2826:
2821:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2781:
2779:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2758:
2757:
2756:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2716:
2709:
2702:
2697:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2643:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2591:
2589:Palatable food
2586:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2570:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2522:
2520:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2491:
2490:
2483:
2476:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2458:Food addiction
2447:
2446:External links
2444:
2442:
2441:
2438:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2397:
2379:
2344:(3): 173β184.
2327:
2276:
2231:BMC Psychiatry
2217:
2195:
2162:
2127:
2102:
2051:
2030:
1987:
1938:
1909:
1874:
1853:
1810:
1748:
1719:
1689:
1665:
1658:
1640:
1608:
1574:
1525:
1482:
1434:
1422:
1389:
1335:
1300:
1247:
1205:(7): 1109β22.
1149:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1140:
1138:Sugar industry
1135:
1133:SMART Recovery
1130:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1000:
999:
990:
989:
987:
981:
975:
973:
967:
961:
950:
943:
942:
940:
937:
934:
928:
922:
911:
903:
896:
895:
893:
887:
881:
879:
865:
851:
841:
831:
830:
828:
826:
824:
821:
818:
815:
812:
799:
798:
796:
793:
790:
788:
785:
782:
779:
760:
759:
755:
754:
752:
749:
746:
744:
742:
739:
736:
730:
729:
727:
724:
721:
718:
715:
712:
709:
701:
700:
698:
695:
692:
690:
687:
684:
681:
673:
672:
670:
667:
664:
661:
658:
657:Not applicable
655:
652:
644:
643:
641:
639:
637:
635:
632:
629:
626:
622:
621:
617:
616:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
574:
573:
566:
559:
554:
551:
548:
544:
543:
538:
532:
515:
512:
488:
485:
458:
455:
423:
342:
339:
326:
323:
264:
261:
257:processed food
182:Food addiction
178:
175:
107:hyperpalatable
87:food addiction
81:
80:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3257:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3210:
3202:
3201:
3198:
3192:
3189:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3180:
3177:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3128:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3076:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3070:Drug checking
3068:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3058:
3054:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3033:
3027:
3024:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2971:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2916:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2901:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2882:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2686:
2685:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2654:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2495:Reinforcement
2489:
2484:
2482:
2477:
2475:
2470:
2469:
2466:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2449:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2418:(10): 155β6.
2417:
2413:
2408:
2407:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2331:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2205:
2199:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2116:
2112:
2106:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2040:
2034:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2003:(2): 177β85.
2002:
1998:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1926:
1919:
1913:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1878:
1863:
1857:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1826:(2): 133β45.
1825:
1821:
1814:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1755:
1753:
1738:
1734:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1679:
1675:
1669:
1661:
1659:9781308211503
1655:
1651:
1644:
1635:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1613:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1570:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1545:(1): 149β56.
1544:
1540:
1536:
1529:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1486:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1455:(1): 98β102.
1454:
1450:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1425:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1394:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1342:
1340:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1297:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1258:
1251:
1244:
1239:
1236:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1150:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1006:
1001:
998:
995:
991:
988:
986:
982:
980:
976:
974:
972:
968:
966:
962:
960:
955:
951:
949:
944:
941:
938:
935:
933:
929:
927:
923:
921:
916:
912:
910:
904:
902:
897:
894:
892:
888:
886:
882:
880:
878:
874:
870:
866:
864:
860:
856:
852:
850:
846:
842:
840:
837:
832:
829:
827:
825:
822:
819:
816:
813:
805:
800:
797:
794:
791:
789:
786:
783:
780:
773:
767:
761:
756:
753:
750:
747:
745:
743:
740:
737:
735:
731:
728:
725:
722:
719:
716:
713:
710:
708:
702:
699:
696:
693:
691:
688:
685:
682:
680:
674:
671:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
651:
645:
642:
640:
638:
636:
633:
630:
627:
623:
618:
615:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
592:
587:
584:
580:expression in
579:
575:
572:
569:Environmental
565:
558:
545:
537:
531:
526:
521:
511:
509:
505:
501:
496:
494:
484:
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471:
470:mental health
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248:food calories
244:
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187:
183:
174:
172:
168:
165:
161:
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152:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
132:
131:heart disease
128:
124:
120:
119:reward system
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
77:
74:
66:
63:February 2017
56:
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41:
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2718:
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2593:Sex-related
2588:
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2412:Science News
2411:
2391:
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2198:
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2114:
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2033:
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1313:
1309:
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1198:
1076:Binge eating
905:No change or
497:
490:
487:Epidemiology
482:
478:
463:
460:
448:
437:
430:
419:
415:
411:talk therapy
408:
404:
354:
350:
335:food deserts
328:
320:
312:irritability
308:restlessness
292:
285:
277:
266:
245:
241:
233:
229:
225:self-control
200:binge eating
199:
189:
186:binge eating
181:
180:
153:
141:low in sugar
135:
90:
86:
84:
69:
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2918:Behavioral
2829:Barbiturate
2824:Amphetamine
2602:Pornography
2597:Intercourse
2531:Amphetamine
2497:disorders:
2120:October 27,
1931:24 February
1771:(9): 2086.
1601:October 27,
1358:: 295β306.
1270:: 295β306.
957:No change:
802:Sensitized
331:walkability
300:hypersomnia
280:consumption
177:Description
3224:Categories
3142:Allen Carr
2982:Drug rehab
2973:Treatment
2889:management
2885:Treatment
2819:Alcoholism
2800:Withdrawal
2770:Dependence
2688:Epigenetic
2640:mechanisms
2573:Financial
2566:Behavioral
2503:dependence
2237:(1): 292.
2071:: 219β41.
2045:2014-02-01
1868:2014-02-01
1742:2017-02-28
1713:2017-02-28
1683:2017-02-28
1429:2024-04-15
1145:References
1127:Polyphagia
1122:Overeating
1035:density in
1003:Number of
971:enkephalin
959:enkephalin
669:Attenuated
666:Attenuated
571:enrichment
536:reinforcer
433:jaw wiring
386:, such as
368:fluoxetine
347:Jaw wiring
345:See also:
341:Management
271:, such as
269:overeating
221:anxiogenic
111:high sugar
99:compulsive
2920:therapies
2809:Disorders
2511:Addiction
2499:addiction
2358:1751-7885
2296:(3): 46.
2253:1471-244X
1787:2072-6643
1765:Nutrients
1595:WebMD.com
1375:2164/4057
1235:Komisaruk
1005:dendrites
985:dynorphin
979:dynorphin
965:dynorphin
954:dynorphin
939:No change
936:No change
564:(aerobic)
504:sugar tax
500:sugar tax
457:Prognosis
421:practice.
396:bupropion
392:trazodone
388:mianserin
376:off-label
360:indicated
316:headaches
162:, in the
160:biomarker
103:palatable
3209:Category
3130:See also
2975:programs
2854:Nicotine
2844:Cannabis
2839:Caffeine
2778:Concepts
2638:Cellular
2582:Shopping
2577:Gambling
2551:Nicotine
2434:17072118
2374:44847818
2366:25263388
2322:28718830
2271:24199597
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2157:21037188
2097:22654518
2025:27991416
2017:21927936
1982:23656848
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1805:31487791
1569:21557958
1512:20042860
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1469:14980042
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1286:25205078
1229:21459101
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1064:See also
836:striatal
834:Altered
806:response
804:dopamine
547:Opiates
534:Type of
523:Form of
438:Several
424:β
304:insomnia
288:cravings
127:diabetes
3245:Obesity
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2536:Cocaine
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1473:S2CID
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2318:PMID
2267:PMID
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2013:PMID
1978:PMID
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