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the coating to a depth of approximately 0.15 microns, or 7.5 percent of the coating thickness. Measurements were repeated five times on uncoated steel and 12 times on coated steel. As a reference, the uncoated bearing steel had a hardness of
Rockwell C 60. The average microhardness measured was 7,133 N/mm for the uncoated steel and 9,571 N/mm for the coated steel, suggesting the coating had a microhardness of approximately 34 percent harder than Rockwell C 60. A measurement of the plastic deformation, or permanent indentation scar, caused by the micro-indenter, indicated an elasticity of 35 percent for steel and 86 percent for the DLC. Measurement of plastic deformation is used for Vickers hardness measurements. As expected, the greater "closing" of the indentation scar for the coating suggested much higher Vickers hardness, in a ratio of greater than two times that of the uncoated steel, and therefore rendering Vickers hardness calculations not meaningful.
212:, or some combination of these at the atomic scale can force sp bonded carbon atoms closer together into sp bonds. This must be done vigorously enough that the atoms cannot simply spring back apart into separations characteristic of sp bonds. Usually techniques either combine such a compression with a push of the new cluster of sp bonded carbon deeper into the coating so that there is no room for expansion back to separations needed for sp bonding; or the new cluster is buried by the arrival of new carbon destined for the next cycle of impacts. It is reasonable to envisage the process as a "hail" of projectiles that produce localized, faster,
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coronary artery stents, reducing the incidence of thrombosis. The implantable human heart pump can be considered the ultimate biomedical application where DLC coating is used on blood contacting surfaces of the key components of the device. At hardness index, soft DLC coatings have shown better biocompatibility levels than hard DLC coatings, which may help to choose appropriate DLC coating for specific biomechanical applications, such as load-carrying or non-load carrying implants.
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bonded volumes. Measurements would be low. Conversely, if the probing stylus enters a film thick enough to have several layers of nodules so it cannot be spread laterally, or if it enters on top of a cobblestone in a single layer, then it will measure not only the real hardness of the diamond bonding, but an apparent hardness even greater because the internal compressive stress in those nodules would provide further resistance to penetration of the material by the stylus.
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320:"diamond-like" coating on 304 stainless steel after various durations of tumbling in a slurry of 240 mesh SiC abrasive. The first 100 min shows a burnishing away from the coating of an overburden of soft carbons than had been deposited after the last cycle of impacts converted bonds to sp. On the uncoated part of the sample, about 5 μm of steel were removed during subsequent tumbling while the coating completely protected the part of the sample it covered.
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267:, the largest engineering association in Western Europe issued an authoritative report VDI2840 in order to clarify the existing multiplicity of confusing terms and trade names. It provides a unique classification and nomenclature for diamond-like-carbon (DLC) and diamond films. It succeeded in reporting all information necessary to identify and to compare different DLC films which are offered on the market. Quoting from that document:
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ways, depending upon the particular "art" of the production process. The most simple is to exploit the natural chemical bonding that happens in cases in which incident carbon ions supply the material to be impacted into sp bonded carbon atoms and the impacting energies that are compressing carbon volumes condensed earlier. In this case the first carbon ions will impact the surface of the item to be coated. If that item is made of a
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573:. Virtually all of the multi-bladed razors used for wet shaving have the edges coated with hydrogen-free DLC to reduce friction, preventing abrasion of sensitive skin. It is also being used as a coating by some weapon manufacturers/custom gunsmiths. Some forms have been certified in the EU for food service and find extensive uses in the high-speed actions involved in processing novelty foods such as
92:. By mixing these polytypes at the nanoscale, DLC coatings can be made that at the same time are amorphous, flexible, and yet purely sp bonded "diamond". The hardest, strongest, and slickest is tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C). Ta-C can be considered to be the "pure" form of DLC, since it consists almost entirely of sp bonded carbon atoms. Fillers such as
183:) are rapidly cooled or quenched on relatively cold surfaces. In those cases cubic and hexagonal lattices can be randomly intermixed, layer by atomic layer, because there is no time available for one of the crystalline geometries to grow at the expense of the other before the atoms are "frozen" in place in the material.
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utility of locating a particular DLC material onto a 2-dimensional map on which the X-axis described the fraction of hydrogen in the material and the Y-axis described the fraction of sp bonded carbon atoms. The highest quality of diamond-like properties was affirmed to be correlated with the proximity of the map
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hardness measurement method. Microhardness testing of uncoated steel was limited to an indentation depth of approximately 1.2 microns. This same bearing steel was then coated with a 2.0 micron thickness DLC coating. Microhardness testing on the coated steel was then conducted, limiting indentation of
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methods in which a finely pointed stylus of natural diamond is forced into the surface of a specimen. If the sample is so thin that there is only a single layer of nodules, then the stylus may enter the DLC layer between the hard cobblestones and push them apart without sensing the hardness of the sp
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with the additional possibility to switch on and off the radiation in the prescribed pattern for the X-rays being used. DLC has proved to be an excellent coating to prolong the life of and reduce complications with replacement hip joints and artificial knees. It also has been successfully applied to
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a layer of carbide will be formed that is later bonded to the DLC grown on top of it. Other methods of bonding include such strategies as depositing intermediate layers that have atomic spacings that grade from those of the substrate to those characteristic of sp bonded carbon. In 2006 there were as
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street with the cobbles being nodules or clusters of sp bonded carbon. Depending upon the particular "recipe" being used, there are cycles of deposition of carbon and impact or continuous proportions of new carbon arriving and projectiles conveying the impacts needed to force the formation of the sp
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on 304 stainless steel is 66. This means that one-μm thickness (that is ≈5% of the thickness of a human hair-end) would increase service lifetime for the article it coated from a week to over a year and two-μm thickness would increase it from a week to 85 years. These are measured values; though in
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Within the "cobblestones", nodules, clusters, or "sponges" (the volumes in which local bonding is sp) bond angles may be distorted from those found in either pure cubic or hexagonal lattices because of intermixing of the two. The result is internal (compressive) stress that can appear to add to the
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that are designed to prevent wear during launch, orbit, and re-entry of land-launched space vehicles. DLC provides lubricity at ambient atmosphere and at vacuum unlike graphite, which requires moisture to be lubricious. Isolated carbon particles embedded diamond-like carbon coatings are the recent
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An amorphous diamond—one that lacks the crystalline structure of diamond, but is every bit as hard—has been created by a
Stanford-led team of researchers. ... That uniform super-hardness, combined with the light weight that is characteristic of all forms of carbon—including diamond—could open up
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The same internal stress that benefits the hardness of DLC materials makes it difficult to bond such coatings to the substrates to be protected. The internal stresses try to "pop" the DLC coatings off of the underlying samples. This challenging downside of extreme hardness is answered in several
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These bonds can occur not only with crystals - in other words, in solids with long-range order - but also in amorphous solids where the atoms are in a random arrangement. In this case there will be bonding only between a few individual atoms and not in a long-range order extending over a large
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is made from carbon that is bonded purely by the diamond-like sp bonds, but also includes chemically bonded hydrogen, it is not surprising to learn that fractions of hydrogen remaining in DLC films degrade them almost as much as do residues of sp bonded carbon. The VDI2840 report confirmed the
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DLC coatings can result in materials that have no long-range crystalline order. Without long range order there are no brittle fracture planes, so such coatings are flexible and conformal to the underlying shape being coated, while still being as hard as diamond. In fact this property has been
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of sp bonded carbon atoms. Sometimes there are lattice defects or inclusions of atoms of other elements that give color to the stone, but the lattice arrangement of the carbons remains cubic and bonding is purely sp. The internal energy of the cubic polytype is slightly lower than that of the
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to benefit from the unique electrical properties of DLC. At low voltages and low temperatures electrodes coated with DLC can emit enough electrons to be arranged into disposable, micro-X-ray tubes as small as the radioactive seeds that are introduced into arteries or tumors in conventional
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measurements have reported hardness as great as 50% more than values for natural crystalline diamond. Since the stylus is blunted in such cases or even broken, actual numbers for hardness that exceed that of natural diamond are meaningless. They only show that the hard parts of an optimal
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properties. DLC is very resistant to abrasive and adhesive wear making it suitable for use in applications that experience extreme contact pressure, both in rolling and sliding contact. DLC is often used to prevent wear on razor blades and metal cutting tools, including lathe inserts and
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material will break natural diamond rather than the inverse. Nevertheless, from a practical viewpoint it does not matter how the resistance of a DLC material is developed, it can be harder than natural diamond in usage. One method of testing the coating hardness is by means of the
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As implied by the name, diamond-like carbon (DLC), the value of such coatings accrues from their ability to provide some of the properties of diamond to surfaces of almost any material. The primary desirable qualities are hardness, wear resistance, and slickness (DLC film
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production methods are slow enough that the lattice structure has time to grow in the lowest energy (cubic) form that is possible for sp bonding of carbon atoms. In contrast, DLC is typically produced by processes in which high energy precursive carbons (e.g. in
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Roderique, John O., Anderson, Charles R., Kamo, Lloyd S. "Racing
Applications and Validation of a Hard Carbon Thin Film Coating", Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pennsylvania, Bi-Annual Motorsports Conference, Indianapolis, IN, December, 2002, pp.
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However, which properties are added to a surface and to what degree depends upon which of the 7 forms are applied, and further upon the amounts and types of diluents added to reduce the cost of production. In 2006 the
Association of German Engineers,
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is a number that characterizes the type of DLC, the type of abrasion, the substrate material and μ is the thickness of the DLC coating in μm. For "low-impact" abrasion (pistons in cylinders, impellers in pumps for sandy liquids, etc.),
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versions of the classic combinations of heat and pressure that produce natural and synthetic diamond. Because they occur independently at many places across the surface of a growing film or coating, they tend to produce an analog of a
581:, for example on automobile dashboards. DLC coatings are widely used for lithium based energy storage batteries to improve their performance. DLC can increase retention capacity by 40% and cycle life by 400% for lithium batteries.
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number of atoms. The bond types have a considerable influence on the material properties of amorphous carbon films. If the sp type is predominant the film will be softer, if the sp type is predominant the film will be harder.
1123:
ZIA, Abdul Wasy; Zhou, Zhifeng; Po-wan, Shum.; Lawrence Li, Kwak Yan (24 January 2017). "The effect of two-step heat treatment on hardness, fracture toughness, and wear of different biased diamond-like carbon coatings".
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The wear, friction, and electrical properties of DLC make it an appealing material for medical applications. DLC has proved to have excellent bio-compatibility as well. This has enabled many medical procedures, such as
203:
image of a gold-coated replica of a ta-C "diamond-like" coating. Structural elements are not crystallites but are nodules of sp-bonded carbon atoms. The grains are so small that the surface appears mirror smooth to the
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Zia, Abdul Wasy; Zhou, Zhifeng; Li, Lawrence Kwok-Yan (2017). "A new approach to create isolated carbon particles by sputtering: A detailed parametric study and a concept of carbon particles embedded carbon coatings".
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with a high value of resistivity. Perhaps more interesting is that if prepared in the "medium" cobblestone version such as shown in the above figure, electricity is passed through it by a mechanism of hopping
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A new interface design between DLC-coated silicon wafer and metal is reported to increase the durability of DLC-coated silicon wafer against high contact stress from approximately 1.0 GPa to beyond 2.5 GPa.
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Wasy, Abdul; Balakrishnan, G.; Lee, S. H.; Kim, J. K.; Kim, D. G.; Kim, T. G.; Song, J. I. (2014). "Argon plasma treatment on metal substrates and effects on diamond-like carbon (DLC) coating properties".
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There are environmental arguments that a sustainable economy ought to encourage products to be engineered for durability—in other words, to have planned durability (the opposite of planned obsolescence).
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Zia, Abdul Wasy; Lee, Seunghun; Kim, Jong-kuk; Kim, Tae Gyu; Song, Jung II (2014). "Evaluation of bias voltage effect on diamond-like carbon coating properties deposited on tungsten carbide cobalt".
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Zia, Abdul Wasy; Wang, YI-QI; Lee, Seunghun (2015). "Effect of
Physical and Chemical Plasma Etching on Surface Wettability of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites for Bone Plate Applications".
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Usman, Muhammad; Zhou, Zhifeng; Zia, Abdul Wasy; Li, Kwok Yan (21 March 2023). "Silicon wafer as a feasible candidate for tribological characterization of thin coatings under high contact stress?".
430:, which could lead to loss of function due to a change in hardness. The final, end use temperature of a coated component should be kept below the temperature at which a PVC DLC coating is applied.
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Wasy, A.; Balakrishnan, G.; Lee, S.; Kim, J.-K.; Kim, T. G.; Song, J. I. (2015). "Thickness dependent properties of diamond-like carbon coatings by filtered cathodic vacuum arc deposition".
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and in guiding material flows in packaging foodstuffs with plastic wraps. DLC coats the cutting edges of tools for the high-speed, dry shaping of difficult exposed surfaces of wood and
20:
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Currently there are about 100 outsource vendors of DLC coatings that are loaded with amounts of graphite and hydrogen and so give much lower g-numbers than 66 on the same substrates.
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Despite the favorable tribological properties of DLC it must be used with caution on ferrous metals. If it is used at higher temperatures, the substrate or counter face may
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coated electrodes into vacuum or into other solids with application of modest levels of applied voltage. This has supported important advances in medical technology.
892:
Yu Lin, Li Zhang, Ho-kwang Mao, Paul Chow, Yuming Xiao, Maria
Baldini, Jinfu Shu, and Wendy L. Mao. "Amorphous diamond: A high-pressure superhard carbon allotrope".
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Zia, Abdul Wasy; Zhou, Zhifeng; Li, Lawrence Kwok-Yan (2017). "A preliminary wear studies of isolated carbon particles embedded diamond-like carbon coatings".
407:, cam followers, and shafts in the automobile industry. The coatings reduce wear during the 'break-in' period, where drive train components may be starved for
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In a microhardness test of a DLC coating (without metal added), a case-hardened 9310 bearing steel was tested using a diamond-tipped indenter tool supplied by
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and others are approximations that are degraded by diluents such as hydrogen, sp bonded carbon, and metals. Valuable properties of materials that are
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the (X,Y) coordinates of a particular material to the upper left corner at (0,1), namely 0% hydrogen and 100% sp bonding. That "pure" DLC material is
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the case of the 2 μm coating the lifetime was extrapolated from the last time the sample was evaluated until the testing apparatus itself wore out.
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as a catalyst and a considerable percentage of hydrogen can remain in the finished DLC material. When it is recalled that the soft plastic,
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There are several methods for producing DLC, which rely on the lower density of sp than sp carbon. So the application of pressure, impact,
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A secondary determinant of quality was found to be the fractional content of hydrogen. Some of the production methods involve hydrogen or
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embedded simultaneous to DLC deposition. The isolated particles were in-situ created through rapid plasma quenching with Helium pulses.
259:, interlayer thickness, etc. Moreover, the heat treatment also change the coating properties such as hardness, toughness and wear rate.
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between pockets of conductive material isolated in an insulator. The result is that such a process makes the material something like a
96:, graphitic sp carbon, and metals are used in the other 6 forms to reduce production expenses or to impart other desirable properties.
823:
Evtukh, A.A.; et al. (2001). "Silicon doped diamond-like carbon films as a coating for improvement of electron field emission".
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C.B. Collins, F. Davanloo; et al. (1993). "Noncrystalline films with the chemistry, bonding, and properties of diamond".
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on a
Vickers hardness test vs diamonds rate at around 70 to 100 GPa. It was hard enough to scratch the surface of a diamond.
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The increase in lifetime of articles coated with DLC that wear out because of abrasion can be described by the formula
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Applications of DLC typically utilize the ability of the material to reduce abrasive wear. Tooling components, such as
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often use DLC in this manner. DLC is also used in the engines of modern supersport motorcycles, Formula 1 racecars,
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may have the structure of a cobblestone street, or the nodules may "melt together" to make something more like a
141:. It is also a semi-conductor with a bandgap range of 1.5 to 2.2 eV. The material demonstrated a hardness of 113
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development in this area. The wear rate of amorphous DLC can be reduced up to 60% by embedding isolated carbon
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exciting areas of application, such as cutting tools and wear-resistant parts for all kinds of transportation.
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The various forms of DLC can be applied to almost any material that is compatible with a vacuum environment.
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Kržan, B.; et al. (2009). "Tribological behavior of tungsten-doped DLC coating under oil lubrication".
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745:"High-Pressure Tetrahedral Amorphous Carbon Synthesized by Compressing Glassy Carbon at Room Temperature"
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or the cobbles may be so small as to be nearly invisible to imaging. A classic "medium" morphology for a
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Zia, Abdul Wasy; Hussain, Syed Asad; Rasul, Shahid; Bae, Dowon; Pitchaimuthu, Sudhagar (November 2023).
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announced a super-hard amorphous diamond under conditions of ultrahigh pressure. The diamond lacks the
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IVMC 2001. Proceedings of the 14th
International Vacuum Microelectronics Conference (Cat. No.01TH8586)
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atoms. The reason that there are different types is that even diamond can be found in two crystalline
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Effect of
Diamond like Carbon Coating Thickness on Stainless Steel Substrate by Abdul Wasy Zia et al
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66:. DLC is usually applied as coatings to other materials that could benefit from such properties.
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Zia, Abdul Wasy; Anestopoulos, Ioannis; Panayiotidis, Mihalis I.; Birkett, Martin (2023-02-10).
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A Co-alloy valve part from a producing oil well (30 mm diameter), coated on the right side with
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A ta-C thin film on silicon (15 mm diameter) exhibiting regions of 40 nm and 80 nm thickness.
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1315:"Soft diamond-like carbon coatings with superior biocompatibility for medical applications"
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In 2006, the market for outsourced DLC coatings was estimated as about €30,000,000 in the
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Naturally occurring diamond is almost always found in the crystalline form with a purely
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Journal of Vacuum
Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures
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in order to determine its practical value. However, a different electrical property of
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866:"Amorphous Diamond, a New Super-Hard Form of Carbon Created Under Ultrahigh Pressure"
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against polished steel ranges from 0.05 to 0.20 ). DLC properties highly depends on
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DLC exists in seven different forms. All seven contain significant amounts of sp
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many successful recipes for bonding DLC coatings as there were sources of DLC.
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951:"DLC Coatings - Diamond-Like Carbon Coatings - Titankote - HIPIMS technology"
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Lijie Tan, Hongwei Sheng, Hongbo Lou, Benyuan Cheng (February 6, 2020).
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517: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1282:"Progress in diamond-like carbon coatings for lithium-based batteries"
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hardness measured for a sample of DLC. Hardness is often measured by
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1420:"Selected Manuscripts we published on Noncrystalline Diamond Films"
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DLC coatings are often used to prevent wear due to their excellent
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455:. In this type of conduction of electricity the electrons move by
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1398:"Built to last: The environmental impact of planned durability"
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and growth rates from molten material in both natural and bulk
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937:"Achieving ultralow nanoscale wear of one atom per micrometer"
908:"World's strongest glass can scratch the surface of a diamond"
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exploited to study atom-by-atom wear at the nanoscale in DLC.
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on plots of bonding ratios and hydrogen content it can be an
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In 2021, Chinese researchers announced AM-III, a super-hard,
1428:: Recent applications of DLC at the nanoscale (1 March 2010)
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475:. Such high values allow for electrons to be emitted from
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material that displays some of the typical properties of
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image of surfaces at the edge of a 1 μm thick layer of
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platters and hard-disk read heads to protect against
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126:but has the light weight characteristic of
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677:(2002). "Diamond-like amorphous carbon".
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533:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1426:"Diamond-like tip better than the best"
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442:If a DLC material is close enough to
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1422:: Bibliography of early work on DLC
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918:from the original on 2021-08-10
864:Louis Bergeron (Oct 17, 2011).
723:"Name Index of Carbon Coatings"
502:needs additional citations for
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349:Fisher Scientific International
1414:"Diamond-like carbon coatings"
1332:10.1016/j.ceramint.2023.02.085
1200:10.1016/j.triboint.2017.04.008
1138:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2017.01.089
1080:10.1179/1743294414Y.0000000254
1033:Surface and Interface Analysis
1006:Advances in Polymer Technology
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701:10.1016/S0927-796X(02)00005-0
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234:film is shown in the figure.
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906:Lavars, Nick (2021-08-10).
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369:-forming substance such as
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1299:10.1016/j.est.2023.108803
1286:Journal of Energy Storage
646:Chemical vapor deposition
414:DLCs may also be used in
955:www.richterprecision.com
833:10.1109/IVMC.2001.939770
761:10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c00247
114:In 2011, researchers at
1216:Tribology International
1188:Tribology International
798:Tribology International
651:Cathodic arc deposition
360:Bonding of DLC coatings
173:cathodic arc deposition
1319:Ceramics International
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1457:Thin film deposition
1442:Allotropes of carbon
1152:"Pressemitteilungen"
729:on January 20, 2007.
656:Poly(hydridocarbyne)
600:from the inside, out
511:improve this article
245:friction coefficient
222:bonds. As a result,
1452:Superhard materials
1376:1993JVSTB..11.1936C
1325:(11): 17203–17211.
1253:. 524–525: 204839.
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1068:Surface Engineering
181:ion beam deposition
116:Stanford University
52:Diamond-like carbon
416:chameleon coatings
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177:sputter deposition
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1018:10.1002/adv.21480
842:978-0-7803-7197-2
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399:. DLC is used in
257:coating thickness
249:plasma processing
164:synthetic diamond
155:cubic orientation
90:hexagonal lattice
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60:amorphous carbon
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575:potato chips
571:head crashes
544:
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504:verification
501:
483:Applications
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453:conductivity
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392:tribological
389:
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25:tribological
1400:. GreenBiz.
1370:(5): 1936.
1132:: 118–125.
409:lubrication
219:cobblestone
120:crystalline
86:lonsdaleite
1436:Categories
1292:: 108803.
1222:: 97–107.
1162:2006-10-26
922:2021-08-10
875:2011-10-21
662:References
589:employing
551:drill bits
469:emissivity
438:Electrical
238:Properties
192:Production
71:hybridized
1349:256791554
1341:0272-8842
1267:257674099
1194:: 42–47.
1088:137302298
977:: 55–62.
912:New Atlas
851:135559981
769:214245976
709:135487365
687:CiteSeerX
624:for pure
579:aluminium
567:hard-disk
523:July 2022
448:insulator
428:carburize
386:Tribology
214:nanoscale
210:catalysis
185:Amorphous
135:fullerene
78:polytypes
27:purposes.
1447:Coatings
1053:94457995
991:98549070
916:Archived
640:See also
615:, where
547:endmills
401:bearings
305:Hardness
301:follow.
94:hydrogen
88:, has a
1372:Bibcode
1224:Bibcode
1012:: n/a.
613:f = (g)
367:carbide
278:methane
179:and in
169:plasmas
124:diamond
103:History
64:diamond
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767:
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563:NASCAR
255:, DLC
228:sponge
128:carbon
74:carbon
1345:S2CID
1263:S2CID
1084:S2CID
1049:S2CID
987:S2CID
847:S2CID
765:S2CID
705:S2CID
559:molds
379:steel
175:, in
1337:ISSN
1251:Wear
1176:6-7.
837:ISBN
783:link
626:ta-C
557:and
555:dies
477:ta-C
473:ta-C
465:ta-C
444:ta-C
405:cams
337:ta-C
318:ta-C
299:ta-C
295:ta-C
291:ta-C
232:ta-C
224:ta-C
204:eye.
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1380:doi
1327:doi
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513:by
377:in
373:or
314:STM
265:VDI
201:SEM
143:GPa
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