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646:. A flip book is a small book with relatively springy pages, each having one in a series of animation images located near its unbound edge. The user bends all of the pages back, normally with the thumb, then by a gradual motion of the hand allows them to spring free one at a time. As with the phenakistoscope, zoetrope and praxinoscope, the illusion of motion is created by the apparent sudden replacement of each image by the next in the series, but unlike those other inventions, no view-interrupting shutter or assembly of mirrors is required and no viewing device other than the user's hand is absolutely necessary. Early film animators cited flip books as their inspiration more often than the earlier devices, which did not reach as wide an audience.
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conclusive evidence has been found (neither in artifacts nor in written sources). It is sometimes argued that these early series of images are too easily interpreted as "pre-cinema" by minds accustomed to films, comic books and other modern sequential images, while it is uncertain that the creators of these images envisioned anything like it. Fluid animation needs a proper breakdown of a motion into the separate images of very short instances, which could hardly be imagined before modern times. The notion of fractions of a second was underdeveloped until the nineteenth century, when photography and more precise measuring instruments were introduced, and philosophers started to replace the "mechanical" concepts of the
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Popular subjects for mechanical slides included the sails of a windmill turning, a procession of figures, a drinking man lowering and raising his glass to his mouth, a head with moving eyes, a nose growing very long, rats jumping in the mouth of a sleeping man. A more complex 19th century rackwork slide showed the then known eight planets and their satellites orbiting around the sun. Two layers of painted waves on glass could create a convincing illusion of a calm sea turning into a stormy sea tossing some boats about by increasing the speed of the manipulation of the different parts.
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132:, where animals are sometimes depicted with multiple legs in superimposed positions. It has been claimed that such superimposed figures were intended to be animated with the flickering light of a fire or of a passing torch, alternately illuminating different parts of the painted rock wall and thus revealing different parts of the motion. Changing one's viewing position can also cause an animated effect in the legs, necks and heads of many examples, due to specific
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cause has ceased." This was later seen as the basis for the theory of "persistence of vision" as the principle of how we see film as motion rather than the successive stream of still images actually presented to the eye. This theory has been discarded as the (sole) principle of the effect since 1912, but remains in many film history explanations. However, Roget's experiments and explanation did inspire further research by
547:(better known by the misspelling phenakistiscope or phenakistoscope) was the first animation device using rapid successive substitution of sequential pictures. The pictures are evenly spaced radially around a disc, with small rectangular apertures at the rim of the disc. The animation could be viewed through the slits of the spinning disc in front of a mirror. It was invented in November or December 1832 by the Belgian
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240:(circa 400 BCE) has been described as displaying analysis of motion and representing phases of movement, structured rhythmic and melodically with counterpoints like a symphony. It has been claimed that parts actually form a coherent animation if the figures are shot frame by frame. Although the structure follows a unique time-space continuum, it has narrative strategies.
555:. Plateau first published about his invention in January 1833. The publication included an illustration plate of a fantascope with 16 frames depicting a pirouetting dancer. The phénakisticope was successful as a novelty toy and within a year many sets of stroboscopic discs were published across Europe, with almost as many different names for the device - including
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rotating the praxinoscope shows the sequential images one by one, resulting in fluid animation. The praxinoscope allowed a much clearer view of the moving image compared to the zoetrope, since the zoetrope's images were actually mostly obscured by the spaces in between its slits. In 1879, Reynaud registered a modification to the praxinoscope patent to include the
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a few lines that come close to the basic principles of animation: "...when the first image perishes and a second is then produced in another position, the former seems to have altered its pose. Of course, this must be supposed to take place very swiftly: so great is their velocity, so great the store
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that had silhouettes projected on its thin paper sides that appeared to chase each other. This was called the "trotting horse lamp" as it would typically depict horses and horse-riders. The cut-out silhouettes were attached inside the lantern to a shaft with a paper vane impeller on top, rotated by
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projector that he used in his popular lectures between 1880 and 1895. In the 1880s the images were painted onto the glass in dark contours. Later discs made between 1892 and 1894 had outlines drawn by Erwin F. Faber that were photographically printed on the disc and then coloured by hand, but these
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became a popular magic lantern show, especially in
England in the 1830s and 1840s. These typically had a landscape changing from a winter version to a spring or summer variation by slowly diminishing the light from one version while introducing the aligned projection of the other slide. Another use
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in 1659. His sketches for magic lantern slides have been dated to that year and are the oldest known document concerning the magic lantern. One encircled sketch depicts Death raising his arm from his toes to his head, another shows him moving his right arm up and down from his elbow and yet another
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in 1876 and patented it in 1877. It is similar to the zoetrope but instead of the slits in the cylinder it has twelve rectangular mirrors placed evenly around the center of the cylinder. Each mirror reflects another image of the picture strip placed opposite on the inner wall of the cylinder. When
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provided mathematical details about the appearing curvatures and added the observation that the spokes appeared motionless. Roget claimed that the illusion is due to the fact "that an impression made by a pencil of rays on the retina, if sufficiently vivid, will remain for a certain time after the
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Techniques to add motion to painted glass slides for the magic lantern were described since circa 1700. These usually involved parts (for instance, limbs) painted on one or more extra pieces of glass moved by hand or small mechanisms across a stationary slide which showed the rest of the picture.
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Occasionally small shadow puppets had been used in phantasmagoria shows. Magic lantern slides with jointed figures set in motion by levers, thin rods, or cams and worm wheels were also produced commercially and patented in 1891. A popular version of these "Fantoccini slides" had a somersaulting
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dating back to prehistory. It evolved into more refined forms of shadow puppetry, mostly with flat jointed cut-out figures which are held between a source of light and a translucent screen. The shapes of the puppets sometimes include translucent color or other types of detailing. The history of
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shows that became popular in several parts of Europe between 1790 and the 1830s. Other techniques were developed to produce convincing ghost experiences. The lantern was handheld to move the projection across the screen (which was usually an almost invisible transparent screen behind which the
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when they are animated, resulting in short and crude animations that are not very lifelike. However, it's very unlikely that these images were intended to be somehow viewed as an animation. It is possible to imagine technology that could have been used in the periods of their creation, but no
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The older devices by their nature severely limit the number of images that can be included in a sequence without making the device very large or the images impractically small. The book format still imposes a physical limit, but many dozens of images of ample size can easily be accommodated.
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lanternist operated hidden in the dark). A ghost could seem to approach the audience or grow larger by moving the lantern away from the screen, sometimes with the lantern on a trolley on rails. Multiple lanterns made ghosts move independently and were occasionally used for
766:. Since the photographic detail and the realism of the images were among the best appreciated features of motion pictures, animation did not immediately find its place on the silver screen. When it eventually did, it soon gained enormous successes and was there to stay.
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with relatively short intervals between different phases of action. Each page has a picture inside a frame above the text, with great consistency in size and position throughout the book (with a consistent difference in size for the recto and verso sides of each page).
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In 1865, William Ensign
Lincoln invented the definitive zoetrope with easily replaceable strips of images. It also had an illustrated paper disc on the base, which was not always exploited on the commercially produced versions. Lincoln licensed his invention to
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effect to present the animated figures in an exchangeable background. Later improvements included the "Praxinoscope Ă projection" (marketed since 1882) which used a double magic lantern to project the animated figures over a still projection of a background.
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and the motion picture. These devices were used to entertain, amaze, and sometimes even frighten people. The majority of these devices didn't project their images, and could only be viewed by a one or a few persons at a time. They were largely considered
658:. It consists of a large circularly-bound flip book in a housing, with a viewing lens and a crank handle that drives a mechanism that slowly rotates the assembly of images past a catch, sized to match the running time of an entire reel of film.
510:) and became a popular toy. The pictures on either side of a small cardboard disc seem to blend into one combined image when it is twirled quickly by the attached strings. This is often used as an illustration of what has often been called "
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In July 1833, Simon
Stampfer described the possibility of using the stroboscope principle in a cylinder (as well as on looped strips) in a pamphlet accompanying the second edition of his version of the phénakisticope. British mathematician
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Shadow play has much in common with animation: people watching moving figures on a screen as a popular form of entertainment, usually a story with dialogue, sounds and music. The figures could be very detailed and very articulated.
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argued that most of the productions from before the 19th century that may look like animation are anecdotal; they lack "a cause-and-effect connection to what we now call animation" and are "thus useless to our historical discourse.
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Between the 1840s and 1870s several abstract magic lantern effects were developed. This included the chromatrope which projected dazzling colorful geometrical patterns by rotating two painted glass discs in opposite directions.
514:", presumably referring to the effect in which the impression of a single image persists although in reality two different images are presented with interruptions. It is unclear how much of the effect relates to
518:. Although a thaumatrope can also be used for two-phase animation, no examples are known to have been produced with this effect until long after the phénakisticope had established the principle of animation.
53:(since circa 1659) offered popular shows with projected images on a screen, moving as the result of manipulation by hand and/or minor mechanics. In 1833, the stroboscopic disc (better known as the
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were probably never used in the lectures. The painted figures were largely transposed from the photographs, but many fanciful combinations were made and sometimes imaginary elements were added.
283:, said to "give an impression of movement" to a series of human or animal figures on them, but these accounts are unclear and may only refer to the actual movement of the figures through space.
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of particles in any single moment of sensation, to enable the supply to come up." This was in the context of dream images, rather than images produced by an actual or imagined technology.
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monkey with arms attached to a mechanism that made it tumble with dangling feet. Fantoccini slides are named after the
Italian word for puppets like marionettes or jumping jacks.
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film base was developed, a technology that would become the foundation for over a century of film. Humans have probably attempted to depict motion long before the development of
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shadow puppetry is uncertain, but seems to have originated in Asia, possibly in the 1st millennium BCE. Clearer records seem to go back to around 900 CE. It later spread to the
276:(1452–1519) show anatomical studies with four different angles of the muscles of shoulder, arm and neck of a man. The four drawings can be read as a rotating movement.
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started his elaborate shadow shows in 1771 and performed them until his death in 1800. His heirs continued until their theatre closed in 1870. SĂ©raphin sometimes used
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There are several examples of early sequential images that may seem similar to series of animation drawings. Most of these examples would only allow an extremely low
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https://commons.wikimedia.org/File:Animated_vase_information_panel_-_Shar-e_Soukhteh_-_3rd_millennium_BC_-_National_museum_of_Iran_-_Inventory_number_13261.JPG
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heated air rising from a lamp. Some versions added extra motion with jointed heads, feet or hands of figures triggered by a transversely connected iron wire.
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detailed how to project a magic lantern image on smoke to create a transparent, shimmering image of a hovering ghost. This technique was used in the
567:(Parisian publisher Giroux & Cie). Plateau also proposed that 16 plaster models could be used for the purpose of animation, an early example of
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Archaeological finds of small paleolithic discs with a hole in the middle and drawings on both sides have been claimed to be a kind of prehistoric
989:"Upper Palaeolithic Installation Art: Topography, Distortion, Animation and Participation in the Production and Experience of Cantabrian Cave Art"
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Five paintings of the head of a deer in the cave of
Lascaux have been interpreted as the depiction of one moving animal in different positions.
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784:"Marc Azéma, La Préhistoire du cinéma. Origines paléolithiques de la narration graphique et du cinématographe. Paris, Errance, 2011"
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have moving parts, but these and other paper materials that can be manipulated into motion are usually not regarded as animation.
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475:(1821) raised interest in optical illusions of curved spokes in rotating wheels seen through vertical apertures. In 1824,
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and seems not to have reached Europe before the 17th century. It became popular in France at the end of the 18th century.
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at the time. Many of these devices are still built by and for film students learning the basic principles of animation.
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Explanation of an optical deception in the appearance of the spokes of a wheel when seen through vertical apertures
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with optician King, Jr in
Bristol but it "met with some impediment probably in the sketching of the figures".
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suggested a cylindrical variation of
Plateau's phénakisticope in January 1834. Horner planned to publish this
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Die stroboscopischen
Scheiben; oder, Optischen Zauberscheiben: Deren Theorie und wissenschaftliche Anwendung
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around 1885 turned out to be a very welcome medium for experimenters who hoped to create motion pictures.
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cemetery, features a very long series of images that apparently depict the sequence of events in a
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depicting an eight-legged boar, which has been interpreted as an early attempt at depicting motion
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taking his skull off his neck and placing it back. Dotted lines indicate the intended movements.
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La Préhistoire du cinéma: Origines paléolithiques de la narration graphique et du cinématographe
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Ancient
Chinese records contain several mentions of devices, including one made by the inventor
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Illustrations of
Michael Faraday's experiments with rotating wheels with cogs or spokes (1831)
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Artistic display of motion could be easily accomplished in theatrical disciplines, including
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Walt Disney, the Art of Animation: The Story of the Disney Studio Contribution to a New Art
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was possibly the first to record motion on such rolls of film around 1888, followed by
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Bulletins de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique
1182:"(PDF) Classical Moments--Time in the Parthenon Frieze | Jenifer Neils - Academia.edu"
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A pottery bowl dated to 2500 to 2000 BCE and discovered at the archaeological site of
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Moving images were possibly projected with the magic lantern since its invention by
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National Museum of Iran, inventory number 13261, "Late half of 3rd Mill. BC", see:
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Slide with a fantoccini trapeze artist and a chromatrope border design (circa 1880)
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Belgique, Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de (1849).
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Christiaan Huygens' 1659 sketches for a projection of Death taking off his head
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A roll-out view of the five images on the circumference of a goblet found at
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Sakamoto, Takashi; Pettitt, Paul; Ontañon-Peredo, Roberto (October 2020).
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For the history of animation after the development of celluloid film, see
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1789:"KODAK FILM HISTORY | Chronology of Motion Picture Films - 1889 to 1939"
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65:, which decades later would also provide the basis for cinematography.
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The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
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Prudhommeau, Germaine (February 1956). "À l'origine du dessin animé".
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created a large zoetrope with a series of plaster models based on his
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1326:"Pour des representations par le moyen de verres convexes Ă la lampe"
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showed the gradual change of, for instance, groves into cathedrals.
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The earliest projection of images was most likely done in primitive
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Animated cartoons; how they are made, their origin and development
1357:"Magic lantern - collection of moving magic lantern slides part 1"
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Animation: A World History: Volume I: Foundations - the Golden Age
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Numerous devices that successfully displayed animated images were
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showed elaborate, successful "Ombres Chinoises" shows. The famous
915:
Nah, Ho-Won (2016). "Desperately Seeking an Icon (with 8 Legs)".
73:
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Chronological Index of Patents Applied for and Patents Granted
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1889:
Needham, Joseph (1962). "Science and Civilization in China".
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was published by W. Phillips (in anonymous association with
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1830:. Cornell University Library. New York, C. Scribner's sons.
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History of animation before the emergence of celluloid film
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that eventually brought about the invention of animation.
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Early examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon of
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Phantasmagoria: The Secret History of the Magic Lantern
1244:(in German). Stuttgart: Workshop Ludwig Henfflin. 1470.
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illustration of the Kineograph in Linnett's 1868 patent
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Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and The Arts
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A History of Chinese Science and Technology, Volume 3
1051:"Animation in Palaeolithic art: a pre-echo of cinema"
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The development of flexible waxed paper or celluloid
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with theories about "microtime". Animation historian
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68:
3144:
List of animated television series by episode count
1735:"COMPLEAT EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE - ZOOPRAXISCOPE STORY"
358:produced 45 different shows between 1885 and 1896.
221:approximately 4000 years old, found in the tomb of
147:Copy of a series of prehistoric paintings from the
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1064:(332). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 316–324.
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1653:. G.E. Eyre and W. Spottiswoode. 1869. p. 65
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654:, patented in 1894 and sometimes still found in
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3139:List of animated films by box office admissions
1617:The Advertising Age Encyclopedia of Advertising
1342:The Magic Lantern and Moving Images before 1800
114:, have been created at least since antiquity.
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762:(eventually introduced in 1893) and Lumière's
602:who first advertised it on December 15, 1866.
1963:
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650:Inventors stretched even that limit with the
531:Prof. Stampfers Stroboscopische Scheibe No. X
1758:Thames, The Royal Borough of Kingston upon.
1517:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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140:principles observed in real moving animals.
1893:. Vol. IV. Cambridge University Press.
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782:Bretèque, François Amy de la (2013-04-01).
1970:
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1872:Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898–1928
551:and almost simultaneously by the Austrian
413:in the composition of complicated scenes.
247:(c. 99 BCE – c. 55 BCE) wrote in his poem
121:into a still drawing can be recognised in
110:. Mechanically animated figures, known as
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788:1895. Mille Huit Cent Quatre-vingt-quinze
727:sequences painted on glass discs for the
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1874:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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286:Since before 1000 CE, the Chinese had a
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1900:The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Cinemas
1614:McDonough, John; Egolf, Karen (2015).
1195:Wade, Nicholas J. (January 31, 2000).
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1846:"Oldest Animation Discovered In Iran"
1567:"From Daedaleum to Zoetrope (Part 1)"
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1153:Bendazzi, Giannalberto (2015-10-23).
1049:Azéma, Marc; Rivère, Florent (2012).
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3112:Films with live action and animation
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1222:Plateau, Joseph (August 23, 1827).
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350:was developed, several theaters in
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2204:Modern TV cable and streaming era
1859:"The Visual Linguist: Burnt City
1587:. December 15, 1866. p. 366.
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945:Azéma, Marc (September 2, 2015).
343:mechanisms to automate the show.
69:Early approaches to motion in art
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1857:Cohn, Neil (February 15, 2006).
1465:Roget, Peter Mark (1824-12-09).
1435:"Luikerwaal - Fantoccini Slides"
1389:"Luikerwaal - Mechanical Slides"
993:Cambridge Archaeological Journal
974:"Early Humans Made Animated Art"
1891:Physics and Physical Technology
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972:Zorich, Zach (March 27, 2014).
852:. University of Chicago Press.
243:The Roman poet and philosopher
1837:
1710:"Le Praxinoscope Ă projection"
1303:. Springer. pp. 308–310.
980:
965:
866:
849:A Tenth of a Second: A History
846:Canales, Jimena (2010-01-15).
839:
812:
775:
300:
1:
3134:Most expensive animated films
2789:Direct manipulation animation
2440:Barrier-grid and stereography
1844:Ball, Ryan (March 12, 2008).
917:Cartoon and Animation Studies
769:
735:
673:(1878) praxinoscope animation
617:Flip book (kineograph) (1868)
2680:Non-photorealistic rendering
264:(circa 1470) has sequential
7:
2312:International Animation Day
1902:. Oxford University Press.
1824:Lutz, Edwin George (1920).
1297:Yongxiang Lu (2014-10-20).
1198:A Natural History of Vision
790:(in French) (69): 169–172.
723:had circa 70 of his famous
337:François Dominique Séraphin
10:
3233:
2782:Linear Animation Generator
2685:Physically based animation
1600:From Daedaleum to Zoetrope
1378:. The Projection Box, 2006
929:10.7230/KOSCAS.2016.45.417
879:Animation: A World History
739:
713:
681:
620:
578:
536:
495:
456:
452:
381:
315:
3166:
3035:
2964:
2837:
2762:
2712:
2618:
2570:
2551:
2473:
2430:
2423:
2371:Children's animated films
2320:
2218:
2101:
1993:
1986:
1620:. Routledge. p. 81.
1597:Herbert, Stephen. (n.d.)
1407:. 1835-07-18. p. 13.
1228:– via Google Books.
1211:– via Google Books.
1070:10.1017/s0003598x00062785
1005:10.1017/S0959774320000153
961:– via Google Books.
825:. Routledge. p. 63.
2280:Animation film festivals
1870:Crafton, Donald (1993).
1739:www.stephenherbert.co.uk
1532:Stampfer, Simon (1833).
882:. CRC Press. p. 7.
819:Buchan, Suzanne (2013).
502:In April 1825 the first
136:distortions that mimick
33:covers the period up to
3102:Twelve basic principles
3022:Instructional animation
2700:Virtual cinematography
2297:Highest-grossing films
2199:Early TV broadcast era
1898:Rojas, Carlos (2013).
1865:. The Visual Linguist.
1339:Rossell, Deac (2005).
674:
632:
600:Milton Bradley and Co.
534:
522:Phénakistiscope (1833)
468:
438:introduced well before
379:
371:
313:
272:A page of drawings by
211:
174:
152:
128:, for instance in the
86:
77:Copy of a prehistoric
3017:Independent animation
3007:Educational animation
1923:. Simon and Schuster.
1604:Retrieved 2014-05-31.
1324:Huygens, Christiaan.
874:Giannalberto Bendazzi
756:William K. L. Dickson
701:, which utilized the
690:Charles-Émile Reynaud
669:
630:
588:William George Horner
529:
512:persistence of vision
466:
459:Persistence of vision
377:
369:
308:
195:
185:(associated with the
168:
146:
100:Giannalberto Bendazzi
96:Scientific Revolution
76:
61:principles of modern
3212:History of animation
2997:Animated documentary
2829:Whiteboard animation
2722:Traditional puppetry
2366:Adult animated films
2275:Biologist simulators
2238:Animation department
1917:Thomas, Bob (1958).
1760:"Eadweard Muybridge"
1585:Colman's rural world
742:History of animation
710:Zoopraxiscope (1879)
699:Praxinoscope Théâtre
613:of birds in flight.
575:Zoetrope (1833/1866)
516:positive afterimages
432:19th century devices
312:figures, circa 1780.
31:history of animation
18:history of animation
3070:Character animation
2850:Character animation
2388:Children's animated
1764:www.kingston.gov.uk
1554:. 1834. p. 36.
1507:(in French). Hayez.
1448:J.M. (1820-12-01).
1275:, pp. 123–124.
822:Pervasive Animation
678:Praxinoscope (1877)
638:patented the first
636:John Barnes Linnett
607:Étienne-Jules Marey
440:the 1888 advent of
151:, Musée d'Aquitaine
3097:Creature animation
3027:Virtual newscaster
2972:Abstract animation
2804:Ink-wash animation
2794:Humanoid animation
2777:Audio-Animatronics
2341:Lost or unfinished
2265:Animation database
2243:Animation director
1850:Animation Magazine
1565:Herbert, Stephen.
1482:Herbert, Stephen.
1260:gallery.nen.gov.uk
725:chronophotographic
721:Eadweard Muybridge
675:
633:
553:Simon von Stampfer
535:
492:Thaumatrope (1825)
471:An article in the
469:
390:Christiaan Huygens
380:
372:
314:
212:
175:
153:
138:squash and stretch
87:
3199:
3198:
2960:
2959:
2887:Erasure animation
2708:
2707:
2450:Limited animation
2393:Computer-animated
2331:Computer-animated
2253:Animation studios
2214:
2213:
1909:978-0-19-998844-0
1685:"Le Praxinoscope"
1484:"The Thaumatrope"
797:10.4000/1895.4624
748:photographic film
671:Le singe musicien
667:
656:amusement arcades
611:chronophotographs
508:John Ayrton Paris
402:Edmé-Gilles Guyot
362:The Magic Lantern
288:revolving lantern
274:Leonardo da Vinci
57:) introduced the
3224:
3184:
3174:
3173:
3154:anime franchises
3129:Cartoon violence
3117:highest grossing
3012:Erotic animation
2987:Animated cartoon
2754:Supermarionation
2727:Digital puppetry
2648:Facial animation
2568:
2567:
2428:
2427:
2301:Opening weekends
1991:
1990:
1972:
1965:
1958:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1932:
1924:
1913:
1894:
1885:
1866:
1853:
1832:
1831:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1804:
1798:. Archived from
1793:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1775:
1766:. Archived from
1755:
1749:
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1746:
1745:
1731:
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1186:
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1180:Neils, Jenifer.
1177:
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894:
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864:
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843:
837:
836:
816:
810:
809:
799:
779:
688:French inventor
668:
477:Peter Mark Roget
417:Dissolving views
346:Around the time
238:Parthenon Frieze
130:Cave of Altamira
3232:
3231:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3217:History of film
3202:
3201:
3200:
3195:
3162:
3124:Cartoon physics
3043:Animation music
3031:
2992:Animated sitcom
2982:Adult animation
2956:
2937:Special effects
2833:
2758:
2704:
2614:
2555:
2547:
2469:
2419:
2398:Direct-to-video
2316:
2210:
2097:
1982:
1976:
1936:
1935:
1926:
1925:
1910:
1882:
1840:
1835:
1822:
1818:
1808:
1806:
1805:on May 15, 2013
1802:
1791:
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1771:
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1741:
1733:
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1728:
1719:
1717:
1714:emilereynaud.fr
1708:
1707:
1703:
1694:
1692:
1689:emilereynaud.fr
1683:
1682:
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1670:
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1412:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1374:Heard, Mervyn.
1373:
1364:
1355:
1354:
1350:
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1093:
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1047:
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1028:
985:
981:
970:
966:
959:
951:. Éd. errance.
943:
936:
913:
909:
901:
897:
890:
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860:
844:
840:
833:
817:
813:
780:
776:
772:
744:
738:
718:
712:
686:
680:
661:
642:in 1868 as the
625:
619:
583:
577:
563:(Stampfer) and
561:The Stroboscope
541:
539:phenakistiscope
524:
500:
494:
482:Michael Faraday
461:
455:
434:
411:superimposition
386:
364:
320:
303:
250:De rerum natura
187:Helmand culture
179:Shahr-e Sukhteh
171:Shahr-e Sukhteh
71:
55:phenakistiscope
24:
12:
11:
5:
3230:
3220:
3219:
3214:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3193:
3188:
3178:
3167:
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3136:
3131:
3126:
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3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3056:
3055:
3053:Mickey Mousing
3050:
3039:
3037:
3036:Related topics
3033:
3032:
3030:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2968:
2966:
2962:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2927:Straight ahead
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2907:Paint-on-glass
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2847:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2824:Squigglevision
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2799:Idle animation
2796:
2791:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2779:
2768:
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2757:
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2677:
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2675:
2670:
2665:
2658:Motion capture
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2624:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2610:Onion skinning
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
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2576:
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2565:
2549:
2548:
2546:
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2521:
2511:
2506:
2496:
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2494:
2479:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2467:
2465:Exposure sheet
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2436:
2434:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2383:Adult animated
2375:
2374:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2336:Feature-length
2333:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2294:
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2292:
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2250:
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2222:
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2216:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2189:The Golden Age
2186:
2180:United States
2178:
2176:United Kingdom
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2105:
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2090:
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2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1984:
1983:
1975:
1974:
1967:
1960:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1914:
1908:
1895:
1886:
1880:
1867:
1854:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1816:
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1750:
1726:
1701:
1676:
1664:
1640:
1626:
1606:
1590:
1576:
1557:
1541:
1524:
1493:
1474:
1457:
1440:
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1410:
1394:
1380:
1362:
1348:
1331:
1316:
1309:
1289:
1277:
1265:
1247:
1231:
1214:
1207:
1187:
1172:
1165:
1145:
1127:
1115:
1103:
1091:
1041:
1026:
999:(4): 665–688.
979:
964:
957:
934:
907:
895:
888:
865:
858:
838:
831:
811:
773:
771:
768:
740:Main article:
737:
734:
714:Main article:
711:
708:
703:Pepper's ghost
692:developed the
682:Main article:
679:
676:
621:Main article:
618:
615:
579:Main article:
576:
573:
565:Phénakisticope
549:Joseph Plateau
545:phénakisticope
537:Main article:
523:
520:
496:Main article:
493:
490:
486:Joseph Plateau
457:Main article:
454:
451:
442:celluloid film
433:
430:
406:phantasmagoria
382:Main article:
363:
360:
348:cinematography
333:Ottoman Empire
316:Main article:
302:
299:
201:burial chamber
196:Drawing of an
126:cave paintings
70:
67:
45:. Much later,
43:cinematography
22:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3229:
3218:
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3209:
3207:
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3048:Bouncing ball
3046:
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3018:
3015:
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3008:
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2988:
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2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2892:Hydrotechnics
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2882:Drawn-on-film
2880:
2878:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2851:
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2843:
2842:
2840:
2838:Other methods
2836:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
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2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2809:Magic Lantern
2807:
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2800:
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2783:
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2778:
2775:
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2773:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2742:Virtual human
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2729:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2711:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2668:hand tracking
2666:
2664:
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2660:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
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2639:
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2517:
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2512:
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2507:
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2500:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2488:clay painting
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1571:Wheel of Life
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1488:Wheel of Life
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1423:. 1845-01-04.
1422:
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1404:The Spectator
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1359:. Luikerwaal.
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1208:9780262731294
1204:
1201:. MIT Press.
1200:
1199:
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1183:
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1166:9781317520832
1162:
1159:. CRC Press.
1158:
1157:
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1142:. 2011-02-15.
1141:
1140:Lessing Photo
1137:
1136:"Egypt Thomb"
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764:Cinematograph
761:
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729:zoopraxiscope
726:
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83:Altamira Cave
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52:
51:magic lantern
48:
44:
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36:
32:
29:
21:
19:
3149:anime series
3107:Motion comic
2976:visual music
2922:Pose to pose
2897:Inbetweening
2877:Chuckimation
2819:Shadowmation
2772:Animatronics
2673:eye tracking
2653:Morph target
2605:Multi-sketch
2356:Short series
2270:Art pipeline
2248:Story artist
2194:World War II
2063:South Africa
1919:
1899:
1890:
1871:
1860:
1849:
1826:
1819:
1807:. Retrieved
1800:the original
1795:
1783:
1772:. Retrieved
1768:the original
1763:
1753:
1742:. Retrieved
1738:
1729:
1718:. Retrieved
1713:
1704:
1693:. Retrieved
1688:
1679:
1674:, p. 7.
1672:Crafton 1993
1667:
1655:. Retrieved
1649:
1643:
1631:. Retrieved
1616:
1609:
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1420:The Athenæum
1419:
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1403:
1397:
1383:
1375:
1351:
1341:
1334:
1328:(in French).
1319:
1299:
1292:
1287:, p. 5.
1280:
1273:Needham 1962
1268:
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1044:
1036:Image et Son
1035:
1029:
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992:
982:
967:
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920:
916:
910:
905:, p. 8.
898:
878:
868:
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841:
821:
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777:
745:
719:
698:
694:praxinoscope
687:
684:Praxinoscope
670:
648:
643:
634:
604:
596:
591:
584:
564:
560:
556:
542:
530:
501:
472:
470:
447:optical toys
435:
426:
422:
415:
399:
395:
387:
356:Le Chat Noir
345:
328:shadowgraphy
325:
321:
293:
285:
278:
271:
261:
256:
248:
242:
235:
213:
176:
160:thaumatropes
157:
154:
149:Lascaux cave
116:
105:
88:
59:stroboscopic
30:
27:
25:
15:
3075:model sheet
2932:Rubber hose
2855:model sheet
2633:Cel shading
2475:Stop motion
2460:Rotoscoping
2432:Traditional
2361:Stop-motion
2307:Outsourcing
2068:South Korea
2048:Philippines
2043:North Korea
1937:|work=
1838:Works cited
1809:December 7,
1716:(in French)
1691:(in French)
976:. Nautilus.
923:: 417–434.
903:Thomas 1958
760:Kinetoscope
569:stop motion
559:(Plateau),
504:thaumatrope
498:Thaumatrope
318:Shadow play
310:Shadow play
301:Shadow play
227:Beni Hassan
123:paleolithic
47:shadow play
3206:Categories
3080:walk cycle
2947:Syncro-Vox
2860:walk cycle
2764:Mechanical
2690:Procedural
2590:PowerPoint
2543:Puppetoons
2538:Pixilation
2503:silhouette
2492:strata-cut
2483:Claymation
2424:Techniques
2413:Television
2184:Silent Era
2116:Bangladesh
2111:Azerbaijan
1998:Bangladesh
1987:By country
1774:2019-07-25
1744:2019-07-25
1720:2019-07-25
1695:2019-07-25
1285:Rojas 2013
770:References
758:/Edison's
736:After 1888
644:kineograph
557:Fantascope
352:Montmartre
223:Khnumhotep
210:in action.
134:anamorphic
91:frame rate
3090:off-model
3060:Key frame
2917:Pixel art
2912:Pinscreen
2870:off-model
2814:Scanimate
2732:Machinima
2531:Brickfilm
2519:go motion
2445:Flip book
1979:Animation
1939:ignored (
1929:cite book
1861:animation
1602:, Part 2.
1513:cite book
1123:Cohn 2006
1111:Ball 2008
1086:162012454
1078:0003-598X
1058:Antiquity
1021:219518658
1013:0959-7743
806:0769-0959
752:Le Prince
652:mutoscope
640:flip book
623:Flip book
605:In 1887,
341:clockwork
295:Volvelles
281:Ding Huan
245:Lucretius
231:wrestling
208:wrestlers
81:from the
63:animation
39:celluloid
3176:Category
3085:lip sync
2965:Variants
2952:Zoetrope
2902:Morphing
2865:lip sync
2845:Blocking
2737:Aniforms
2714:Puppetry
2695:Skeletal
2562:timeline
2553:Computer
2408:Internet
2290:regional
2226:Animator
2219:Industry
2083:Thailand
2053:Portugal
2033:Malaysia
876:(2015).
592:Dædaleum
581:Zoetrope
400:In 1770
216:Egyptian
198:Egyptian
112:automata
108:puppetry
49:and the
3191:Outline
2558:history
2509:Graphic
2455:Masking
2346:Package
2171:Ukraine
2141:Hungary
2103:History
2093:Vietnam
2058:Romania
2018:Estonia
2013:Czechia
1241:Sigenot
1225:Notices
484:and by
453:Prelude
262:Sigenot
233:match.
225:at the
37:, when
3186:Portal
2747:Live2D
2663:facial
2628:T-pose
2526:Object
2499:Cutout
2378:Series
2327:Films
2166:Russia
2136:France
2126:Canada
2121:Brazil
2078:Taiwan
2038:Mexico
2003:Bhutan
1981:topics
1906:
1878:
1657:2 July
1633:2 July
1624:
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1163:
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1019:
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533:(1833)
119:motion
3002:Anime
2643:Crowd
2585:Flash
2514:Model
2403:Flash
2351:Short
2321:Works
2161:Korea
2156:Japan
2146:India
2131:China
2073:Spain
2028:Japan
2023:India
2008:China
1803:(PDF)
1792:(PDF)
1082:S2CID
1054:(PDF)
1038:(89).
1017:S2CID
259:codex
219:mural
204:mural
28:early
2942:Sand
2580:2.5D
2258:List
2231:List
2151:Iran
1941:help
1904:ISBN
1876:ISBN
1811:2018
1659:2018
1635:2018
1622:ISBN
1519:link
1305:ISBN
1203:ISBN
1161:ISBN
1074:ISSN
1009:ISSN
953:ISBN
884:ISBN
854:ISBN
827:ISBN
802:ISSN
543:The
236:The
183:Iran
35:1888
26:The
3065:Cel
2638:CGI
2600:CSS
2595:SVG
1863:VL"
1066:doi
1001:doi
925:doi
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