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775:: twice during the evolution of cartilaginous fishes, creating the electric skates and rays, and six times during the evolution of the bony fishes. Passively-electrolocating groups, including those that move their heads to direct their electroreceptors, are shown without symbols. Non-electrolocating species are not shown. Actively electrolocating fish are marked with a small yellow lightning flash
362:
500:
429:
that extend most of the length of their bodies. Swimming backwards may help them to search for and assess prey using electrosensory cues. Experiments by Lannoo and Lannoo in 1993 support
Lissmann's proposal that this style of swimming with a straight back works effectively given the constraints of
337:
membrane. This field is modulated by the opening and closing of the mouth and gill slits. Passive electroreception usually relies upon ampullary receptors such as ampullae of
Lorenzini which are sensitive to low frequency stimuli, below 50 Hz. These receptors have a jelly-filled canal leading
311:
where the animal cannot depend on vision: for example in caves, in murky water, and at night. Electrolocation can be passive, sensing electric fields such as those generated by the muscle movements of buried prey, or active, the electrogenic predator generating a weak electric field to allow it to
91:
of electricity than air. In passive electrolocation, objects such as prey are detected by sensing the electric fields they create. In active electrolocation, fish generate a weak electric field and sense the different distortions of that field created by objects that conduct or resist electricity.
625:
they generate. They may use this to attract mates and in territorial displays. Electric catfish frequently use their electric discharges to ward off other species from their shelter sites, whereas with their own species they have ritualized fights with open-mouth displays and sometimes bites, but
658:
males produce a continuous electric "hum" to attract females; this consumes 11–22% of their total energy budget, whereas female electrocommunication consumes only 3%. Large males produced signals of larger amplitude, and these are preferred by the females. The cost to males is reduced by a
527:(cyan). This is sensed by electroreceptors in the skin, including two electric pits (foveas) to actively search and inspect objects. Shown are the field distortions created by two different types of objects: a plant that conducts better than water (green) and a non-conducting stone (brown).
1877:) has the most acute electric sense. The platypus localises its prey using almost 40,000 electroreceptors arranged in front-to-back stripes along the bill. The arrangement is highly directional, being most sensitive off to the sides and below. By making short quick head movements called
119:
from muscles in its tail. The field is called weak if it is only enough to detect prey, and strong if it is powerful enough to stun or kill. The field may be in brief pulses, as in the elephantfishes, or a continuous wave, as in the knifefishes. Some strongly electric fish, such as the
252:
was able to swim backwards at the same speed and with the same dexterity around obstacles as when it swam forwards, avoiding collisions. He demonstrated in 1950 that the fish was producing a variable electric field, and that the fish reacted to any change in the electric field around
1784:) rely on electrolocation using their ampullae of Lorenzini in the final stages of their attacks, as can be demonstrated by the robust feeding response elicited by electric fields similar to those of their prey. Sharks are the most electrically sensitive animals known, responding to
544:(Gymnotidae), differ from the Mormyridae in emitting a continuous wave, approximating a sine wave, from their electric organ. As in the Mormyridae, the generated electric field enables them to discriminate accurately between capacitative and resistive objects.
493:
objects affect the electric field differently, enabling the fish to locate objects of different types within a distance of about a body length. Resistive objects increase the amplitude of the pulse; capacitative objects introduce distortions.
506:
Electrolocation of capacitative and resistive objects in elephantfish. The fish emits brief pulses from its electric organ; its electroreceptors detect signals modified by the electrical properties of the objects around
764:, though the evidence for absence in many groups is incomplete and unsatisfactory. Where electroreception does occur in these groups, it has secondarily been acquired in evolution, using organs other than and not
2955:
Salazar, Vielka L.; Stoddard, Philip K. (15 March 2008). "Sex differences in energetic costs explain sexual dimorphism in the circadian rhythm modulation of the electrocommunication signal of the gymnotiform fish
1840:
mammal that has secondarily acquired electroreception. Its receptors are arranged in stripes on its bill, giving it high sensitivity to the sides and below; it makes quick turns of its head as it swims to detect
1963:), originally associated with mammalian whiskers, are capable of electroreception as low as 4.8 μV/cm, sufficient to detect small fish. This is comparable to the sensitivity of electroreceptors in the platypus.
324:
generated by other animals and uses it to locate them. These electric fields are generated by all animals due to the activity of their nerves and muscles. A second source of electric fields in fish is the
1928:
can be trained to respond to weak electric fields in water and moist soil. The electric sense of the echidna is hypothesised to be an evolutionary remnant from a platypus-like ancestor.
2595:
Lannoo, Michael J.; Lannoo, Susan
Johnson (1993). "Why do electric fishes swim backwards? An hypothesis based on gymnotiform foraging behavior interpreted through sensory constraints".
2733:
Engelmann, Jacob; Bacelo, João; Metzen, Michael; Pusch, Roland; Bouton, Beatrice; Migliaro, Adriana; Caputi, Angel; Budelli, Ruben; Grant, Kirsty; von der Emde, Gerhard (20 May 2008).
3398:
Kempster, R. M.; McCarthy, I. D.; Collin, S. P. (7 February 2012). "Phylogenetic and ecological factors influencing the number and distribution of electroreceptors in elasmobranchs".
1812:, which besides the group's use of low-voltage electrolocation, is able to generate high voltage electric shocks to stun its prey. Such powerful electrogenesis makes use of large
2734:
2926:
Rankin, Catharine H.; Moller, Peter (26 April 2010). "Social
Behavior of the African Electric Catfish, Malapterurus electricus, during Intra- and Interspecific Encounters".
704:, meaning that it was present in their last common ancestor. The ancestral mechanism is called ampullary electroreception, from the name of the receptive organs involved,
296:
Ampullae of
Lorenzini, found in several basal groups of fishes, are jelly-filled canals connecting pores in the skin to sensory bulbs. They detect small differences in
3009:
124:, locate prey by generating a weak electric field, and then discharge their electric organs strongly to stun the prey; other strongly electric fish, such as the
1816:
modified from muscles. These consist of a stack of electrocytes, each capable of generating a small voltage; the voltages are effectively added together (
2642:
4138:
3723:
398:(electrogenesis) and detecting distortions in these fields using electroreceptor organs. This electric field is generated by means of a specialised
1853:
and the terrestrial echidnas, are one of the only groups of mammals that have evolved electroreception. While the electroreceptors in fish and
455:
values, which may help in identifying objects. Active electroreception typically has a range of about one body length, though objects with an
1924:, which live in nests in dry areas; the nest interiors are presumably humid enough for electroreception to work. Experiments have shown that
440:
water fleas among smaller ones, and they do not discriminate against artificially-darkened water fleas, in both cases with or without light.
3586:
3279:
3957:
4131:
3509:
3152:"The phylogenetic distribution of electroreception: Evidence for convergent evolution of a primitive vertebrate sense modality"
3896:
3229:
2514:
87:) to stun prey. The capabilities are found almost exclusively in aquatic or amphibious animals, since water is a much better
3613:
Scheich, H.; Langner, G.; Tidemann, C.; Coles, R. B.; Guppy, A. (1986). "Electroreception and electrolocation in platypus".
3337:
Lavoué, Sébastien; Miya, Masaki; Arnegard, Matthew E.; Sullivan, John P.; Hopkins, Carl D.; Nishida, Mutsumi (14 May 2012).
666:
Fish that prey on electrolocating fish may "eavesdrop" on the discharges of their prey to detect them. The electroreceptive
551:
1885:
to determine the distance to prey from the delay between the arrival of electrical signals and pressure changes in water.
5185:
3254:
1916:
in leaf litter in tropical forests, wet enough to conduct electrical signals well. Short-beaked echidnas feeds mainly on
1599:
629:
When two glass knifefishes (Sternopygidae) come close together, both individuals shift their discharge frequencies in a
1993:
1908:) have around 400, near the end of the snout. This difference can be attributed to their habitat and feeding methods.
5364:
4124:
2540:
3339:"Comparable Ages for the Independent Origins of Electrogenesis in African and South American Weakly Electric Fishes"
2185:
Murray, R. W. (March 1962). "The response of the ampullae of
Lorenzini of elasmobranchs to electrical stimulation".
4603:
3888:
462:
Active electrolocation relies upon tuberous electroreceptors which are sensitive to high frequency (20-20,000
159:, and must therefore be ancient. Most bony fishes have secondarily lost their ampullae of Lorenzini, but other non-
75:. Both are used to locate prey; stronger electric discharges are used in a few groups of fishes (most famously the
3682:
2891:
2597:
2560:
2473:
2289:
2273:
2187:
2069:
2026:
1857:
evolved from mechanosensory lateral line organs, those of monotremes are based on cutaneous glands innervated by
17:
2431:
Coplin, S. P.; Whitehead, D. (2004). "The functional roles of passive electroreception in non-electric fishes".
406:, which either generate small electrical pulses (termed "pulse-type"), as in the Mormyridae, or produce a quasi-
4618:
3056:"Pack-hunting in two species of catfish, Clavias gariepinus and C. ngamensis, in the Okavango Delta, Botswana"
4633:
3055:
1502:
688:
Some shark embryos and pups "freeze" when they detect the characteristic electric signal of their predators.
3920:
914:
5119:
4985:
4896:
1817:
3930:
5318:
3950:
2538:; Hamstra, R. Jr.; Scheich, H. (1972). "The jamming avoidance response of high frequency electric fish".
1909:
4857:
5272:
4608:
3985:
3151:
2558:
Babineau, D.; Longtin, A.; Lewis, J. E. (2006). "Modeling the
Electric Field of Weakly Electric Fish".
630:
613:. Some weakly electric knifefishes appear to mimic the electric eel's discharge patterns; this may be
5081:
5023:
4834:
4190:
4095:
2297:
2243:
701:
371:, a tuberous electroreceptor of weakly electric fish. RC=receptor cell; b.m.=basal membrane; n=nerve.
241:
205:
196:
2505:
Albert, J. S.; Crampton, W. G. (2006). "Electroreception and
Electrogenesis". In Lutz, P. L. (ed.).
5389:
5028:
4862:
4001:
2836:
Stoddard, P. K. (1999). "Predation enhances complexity in the evolution of electric fish signals".
2678:
1881:, platypuses accurately locate their prey. The platypus appears to use electroreception along with
1813:
1557:
1451:
1147:
1109:
579:
399:
351:
112:
49:
5008:
4384:
3533:"Electric Eels Concentrate Their Electric Field to Induce Involuntary Fatigue in Struggling Prey"
3400:
3147:
3060:
2786:
2735:"Electric imaging through active electrolocation: implication for the analysis of complex scenes"
2535:
2375:
2329:
663:, with more activity coinciding with night-time courtship and spawning, and less at other times.
425:, keep their body rather rigid, swimming forwards or backwards with equal facility by undulating
642:, the electric discharge pattern is similar to the low voltage electrolocative discharge of the
222:
discovered organs on their heads now called ampullae of
Lorenzini. He published his findings in
5172:
5003:
4613:
4399:
4218:
3943:
3445:"Multisensory Integration and Behavioral Plasticity in Sharks from Different Ecological Niches"
3159:
1988:
682:
402:
consisting of modified muscle or nerves. Animals that use active electroreception include the
56:
and mormyromasts to locate nearby objects by the distortions they cause in the electric field.
5210:
4200:
4180:
4009:
2024:
von der Emde, G. (15 May 1999). "Active electrolocation of objects in weakly electric fish".
1753:
1426:
705:
273:
136:
1656:
394:
In active electrolocation, the animal senses its surrounding environment by generating weak
5374:
5071:
5038:
4737:
4452:
4356:
3836:
3624:
3546:
3458:
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2686:
2606:
2384:
2338:
2149:
2064:
1901:
1537:
559:
456:
448:
403:
307:
Electroreceptive animals use the sense to locate objects around them. This is important in
210:
88:
1808:), enabling them to navigate and find food in turbid water. The Gymnotiformes include the
32:
8:
5384:
4727:
4712:
4598:
4537:
4473:
3674:
3287:
2462:"Suppression of Common Mode Signals Within the Electrosensory System of the Little Skate
2302:
1893:
321:
226:. The electroreceptive function of these organs was established by R. W. Murray in 1960.
3840:
3628:
3550:
3462:
3413:
3356:
3300:
3073:
2851:
2610:
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2928:
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2810:
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2710:
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2461:
2410:
1800:
fishes are weakly electric and actively electroreceptive: the
Neotropical knifefishes (
765:
713:
667:
326:
297:
160:
3925:
3443:
Gardiner, Jayne M.; Atema, Jelle; Hueter, Robert E.; Motta, Philip J. (2 April 2014).
3308:
3108:
3003:
Falk, Jay J.; ter Hofstede, Hannah M.; Jones, Patricia L.; et al. (7 June 2015).
5369:
5267:
5236:
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1952:
219:
37:
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3632:
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3168:
3124:
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3018:
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2651:
2614:
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2442:
2392:
2346:
2256:
2196:
2157:
2140:
2108:
2074:
2035:
1998:
1882:
1861:. The electroreceptors of monotremes consist of free nerve endings located in the
1858:
1642:
1577:
660:
651:
614:
569:
308:
129:
3095:
Stoddard, P. K. (2002). "The evolutionary origins of electric signal complexity".
2626:
5379:
4970:
4911:
4883:
4699:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4623:
4432:
4389:
4336:
4072:
3537:
3471:
3365:
3005:"Sensory-based niche partitioning in a multiple predator–multiple prey community"
1956:
1297:
894:
685:, to develop more complex or higher frequency signals that are harder to detect.
638:
537:
2655:
1421:
1340:
5288:
5139:
5091:
4826:
4806:
4532:
4483:
4419:
4367:
4323:
4185:
2446:
2433:
1785:
1780:
1271:
850:
771:
Electric organs have evolved at least eight separate times, each one forming a
606:
524:
395:
330:
184:
140:
111:, the African knifefish. An electric fish generates an electric field using an
72:
45:
3767:
3559:
3532:
2750:
2281:
2264:
1497:
1388:
410:
discharge from the electric organ (termed "wave-type"), as in the Gymnotidae.
280:
organs (gray lines) of early vertebrates. They are seen here in the head of a
5358:
5308:
5303:
5257:
5195:
5180:
5076:
4798:
4742:
4557:
4524:
4508:
4427:
4371:
4331:
4280:
4271:
4228:
4038:
3966:
3582:
2800:
2325:"Electroreception in early vertebrates: survey, evidence and new information"
1805:
1801:
1635:
1476:
1024:
863:
833:
782:
533:
479:
347:
97:
93:
84:
3906:
3849:
3822:
3695:
3221:
2904:
2677:
Engelmann, Jacob; Nöbel, Sabine; Röver, Timo; von der Emde, Gerhard (2009).
2039:
1594:
1335:
1292:
447:(1 V). Weakly electric fish can discriminate between objects with different
5262:
5241:
5226:
5200:
5018:
4839:
4816:
4788:
4783:
4707:
4646:
4409:
4394:
4116:
4100:
4044:
4032:
4014:
3858:
3807:
3789:
3736:
3703:
3568:
3490:
3429:
3384:
3316:
3116:
3040:
3022:
2981:
2912:
2867:
2819:
2758:
2719:
2700:
2581:
2406:
2247:
2208:
2171:
2120:
2112:
2086:
2047:
1862:
1828:
1809:
1567:
1515:
1446:
1406:
1152:
1014:
709:
643:
602:
575:
541:
368:
312:
distinguish between conducting and non-conducting objects in its vicinity.
277:
230:
148:
125:
121:
76:
53:
3754:
3644:
3612:
3190:
2663:
2487:
1939:
have evolved electroreception in structures different from those of fish,
5323:
5231:
5205:
5190:
5152:
4975:
4950:
4945:
4935:
4921:
4547:
4503:
4379:
4308:
3181:
2200:
1363:
798:
676:
598:
556:
Electrolocation of capacitative and resistive objects in glass knifefish.
486:
471:
452:
421:
384:
1532:
909:
290:
139:
evolved early in the history of the vertebrates; they are found in both
5343:
5298:
5162:
5157:
5129:
5109:
5033:
4993:
4940:
4925:
4849:
4313:
4303:
4210:
4151:
4060:
4054:
3212:
Kirschbaum, Frank (2019). "Structure and Function of Electric Organs".
2973:
2670:
2618:
2351:
2324:
1972:
1913:
1584:
1522:
1492:
1416:
1412:
1393:
1383:
1379:
1373:
1331:
1037:
960:
899:
777:
749:
745:
737:
697:
520:
475:
467:
415:
245:
234:
152:
106:
101:
68:
41:
2573:
2397:
2370:
2073:. 2006 209: 200-201, doi: 10.1242/jeb.10.1242/jeb.02012 (2): 200–201.
1075:
377:
4955:
4901:
4768:
4298:
4288:
4233:
4223:
3768:
Czech-Damal, N. U.; Liebschner, A.; Miersch, L.; et al. (2012).
3636:
3253:
Kawasaki, M. (2011). "Detection and generation of electric signals".
2889:
Hopkins, C. D. (1999). "Design features for electric communication".
2222:
Franz, Viktor (1921). "Zur mikroscopischen Anatomie der Mormyriden".
2162:
2135:
1944:
1940:
1854:
1846:
1837:
1651:
1139:
1095:
1041:
815:
757:
753:
490:
407:
168:
163:
electroreceptors have repeatedly evolved, including in two groups of
132:
are unique in being strongly electric but not using electrolocation.
116:
2780:
Lewicki, M. S.; Olshausen, B. A.; Surlykke, A.; Moss, C. F. (2014).
5124:
5114:
5104:
5043:
4916:
4773:
4571:
3595:
3449:
3343:
1979:
can detect the presence and pattern of a static charge on flowers.
1948:
1870:
1850:
1833:
1646:
1589:
1527:
1327:
1288:
1071:
904:
881:
787:
761:
741:
729:
725:
721:
622:
172:
156:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3136:
3134:
2859:
2726:
868:
621:
Weakly electric fish can communicate by modulating the electrical
564:
distorted differently by objects according to their conductivity.
459:
similar to that of the surrounding water are nearly undetectable.
218:
In 1678, while doing dissections of sharks, the Italian physician
5293:
5147:
5099:
5061:
4965:
4906:
4238:
1936:
1925:
1917:
1889:
1878:
1797:
1186:
970:
965:
955:
939:
808:
478:(Mormyridae) from Africa have tuberous electroreceptors known as
436:
237:, again without knowledge of their function as electroreceptors.
180:
176:
3935:
3823:"Detection and Learning of Floral Electric Fields by Bumblebees"
2371:"Electroreception, electrogenesis and electric signal evolution"
474:
couples the sensory receptor cells to the external environment.
208:
discovered electroreception in 1950 through his observations of
4552:
4542:
4248:
3131:
2773:
2676:
2530:
2528:
2526:
1284:
1122:
733:
610:
164:
756:. Ampullae of Lorenzini appear to have been lost early in the
4778:
4580:
4493:
4488:
4262:
4172:
4147:
2323:
King, Benedict; Hu, Yuzhi; Long, John A. (11 February 2018).
1866:
772:
717:
617:, to deceive predators that they are too dangerous to attack.
463:
281:
144:
3716:
2779:
2523:
92:
Active electrolocation is practised by two groups of weakly
5313:
5066:
2640:
Bennett, M. V. L. (1965). "Electroreceptors in Mormyrids".
444:
334:
3336:
3002:
2732:
4293:
3820:
3246:
2459:
1976:
1921:
1888:
The electroreceptive capabilities of the four species of
1730:
1007:
426:
229:
In 1921, the German anatomist Viktor Franz described the
80:
67:
are the closely related biological abilities to perceive
3821:
Clarke, D.; Whitney, H.; Sutton, G.; Robert, D. (2013).
3442:
3146:
2460:
Bodznick, D.; Montgomery, J. C.; Bradley, D. J. (1992).
2224:
Zoologisch Jahrbuch Abteilung für Anatomie und Ontogonie
3010:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2500:
2498:
2248:
Continuous Electrical Signals from the Tail of a Fish,
691:
443:
These fish create a potential usually smaller than one
383:
A Mormyromast, a type of electroreceptor found only in
320:
In passive electrolocation, the animal senses the weak
3397:
3931:
Video clips of Gnathonemus, Apteronotus, and Ameiurus
3510:"Electroreception in fish, amphibians and monotremes"
2948:
2679:"The Schnauzenorgan-response of Gnathonemus petersii"
2534:
2136:"Electrical sensitivity of the ampullae of Lorenzini"
523:, the electric organ in the tail (blue) generates an
485:
Elephantfish emit short pulses to locate their prey.
2557:
2509:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. 429–470.
2495:
562:
fish generate a continuous electrical wave, which is
2643:
Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology
2282:The Mode of Operation of the Electric Receptors in
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
1971:Until recently, electroreception was known only in
708:. These evolved from the mechanical sensors of the
3216:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. 75–87.
2919:
2588:
1820:) to provide a powerful electric organ discharge.
584:They can discharge both weakly for electrolocation
3724:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
5356:
3672:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3662:
2831:
2829:
2553:
2551:
2059:
2057:
2010:
466:) stimuli. These receptors have a loose plug of
338:from the sensory receptors to the skin surface.
3608:
3606:
3205:
2954:
2430:
2364:
2362:
3504:
3502:
3500:
2504:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2293:37:4 (1960), pp. 801–811. (with Ken E. Machin)
2277:, 35 (1958), pp. 451–486. (with Ken E. Machin)
781:and their characteristic discharge waveforms.
4132:
3951:
3717:Proske, U.; Gregory, J. E.; Iggo, A. (1998).
3659:
2826:
2548:
2426:
2424:
2054:
681:in this way. This has driven the prey, in an
4146:
3603:
3150:; Bodznick, D. A.; Northcutt, R. G. (1983).
2925:
2633:
2594:
2359:
2023:
609:powerful enough to stun prey using modified
3710:
3497:
3271:
2782:"Scene analysis in the natural environment"
2369:Crampton, William G. R. (5 February 2019).
2311:
276:(red dots) evolved from the mechanosensory
4139:
4125:
3958:
3944:
3814:
3211:
2421:
2322:
2239:
2237:
2178:
2127:
1101:(aquatic salamanders, caecilians; others:
654:of the powerfully-protected electric eel.
315:
3848:
3797:
3770:"Electroreception in the Guiana dolphin (
3744:
3558:
3480:
3470:
3374:
3364:
3180:
3030:
2996:
2809:
2799:
2709:
2699:
2486:
2396:
2350:
2215:
2161:
2099:
2063:
674:) may hunt the weakly electric mormyrid,
341:
240:In 1949, the Ukrainian-British zoologist
3575:
3252:
3094:
2835:
2368:
1827:
597:
200:
31:
29:Biological electricity-related abilities
3581:
3530:
2888:
2639:
2234:
2067:(2006). "A new sense for muddy water".
593:
14:
5357:
3277:
3053:
2184:
2133:
785:are marked with a red lightning flash
626:rarely use electric organ discharges.
4357:Somatosensory system (sense of touch)
4120:
3939:
2221:
1773:
233:(tuberous organs) in the skin of the
4342:Vestibular system (sense of balance)
3531:Catania, Kenneth C. (October 2015).
2265:The Mechanism of Object Location in
783:Fish able to deliver electric shocks
692:Evolution and taxonomic distribution
3981:Electroreception and electrogenesis
3921:ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research
2105:Osservazioni intorno alle torpedini
1900:) have some 2,000 receptors, while
224:Osservazioni intorno alle torpedini
52:and then uses its electroreceptive
24:
4337:Auditory system (sense of hearing)
3876:
3778:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
3278:Fields, R. Douglas (August 2007).
3265:10.1016/b978-0-12-374553-8.00136-2
3082:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1993.tb00440.x
2942:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1986.tb00909.x
1994:Feature detection (nervous system)
1804:) and the African elephantfishes (
256:
25:
5401:
4352:Gustatory system (sense of taste)
4347:Olfactory system (sense of smell)
3965:
3914:
3883:Bullock, Theodore Holmes (2005).
3719:"Sensory receptors in monotremes"
3309:10.1038/scientificamerican0807-74
2541:Journal of Comparative Physiology
2260:, 167, 4240 (1951), pp. 201–202.
2107:. Florence, Italy: Per l'Onofri.
1975:. Recent research has shown that
700:, passive electroreception is an
4604:Infrared sensing in vampire bats
3675:"Electroreception in Monotremes"
3422:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.03214.x
2134:Murray, R. W. (September 1960).
1655:
1650:
1645:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1339:
1334:
1296:
1291:
1193:
1151:
1146:
1108:
1074:
1040:
969:
964:
959:
938:
913:
908:
903:
898:
867:
814:
786:
776:
568:
550:
512:
499:
482:and Mormyromasts in their skin.
376:
360:
289:
265:
4332:Visual system (sense of vision)
3926:Electrolocation on Scholarpedia
3761:
3683:Journal of Experimental Biology
3524:
3436:
3391:
3330:
3256:Encyclopedia of Fish Physiology
3088:
3047:
2962:Journal of Experimental Biology
2892:Journal of Experimental Biology
2882:
2598:Environmental Biology of Fishes
2561:Journal of Experimental Biology
2474:Journal of Experimental Biology
2453:
2290:Journal of Experimental Biology
2274:Journal of Experimental Biology
2188:Journal of Experimental Biology
2070:Journal of Experimental Biology
2027:Journal of Experimental Biology
1487:S. Amer. knifefishes
128:, electrolocate passively. The
3259:. Elsevier. pp. 398–408.
2093:
13:
1:
4474:Auditory perception (hearing)
3109:10.1016/S0928-4257(03)00004-4
3097:Journal of Physiology – Paris
2958:Brachyhypopomus pinnicaudatus
2079:10.1242/jeb.10.1242/jeb.02012
2004:
1849:, including the semi-aquatic
1823:
1667:no electrolocation
650:. This is hypothesized to be
5120:Olfactory reference syndrome
4897:Alice in Wonderland syndrome
3472:10.1371/journal.pone.0093036
3366:10.1371/journal.pone.0036287
3280:"The Shark's Electric Sense"
3173:10.1016/0165-0173(83)90003-6
2306:, 208, pp 50–59, March 1963.
1910:Western long-beaked echidnas
1869:. Among the monotremes, the
1791:
768:with ampullae of Lorenzini.
434:can select and catch larger
413:Many of these fish, such as
7:
5319:Sensory processing disorder
4489:Gustation (taste or flavor)
4479:Equilibrioception (balance)
2656:10.1101/SQB.1965.030.01.027
2298:Electric Location by Fishes
1982:
1931:
1353:Most bony fishes
1205:vibrissal crypts
586:and strongly to stun prey.
79:, which is not actually an
10:
5406:
5273:Supernumerary phantom limb
4609:Infrared sensing in snakes
4469:Visual perception (vision)
4041:(S. American knifefishes)
3986:Jamming avoidance response
2447:10.1163/157075604323010024
1788:fields as low as 5 nV/cm.
668:African sharptooth catfish
636:In bluntnose knifefishes,
631:jamming avoidance response
345:
194:
190:
5336:
5281:
5250:
5219:
5171:
5138:
5090:
5052:
5024:Microwave auditory effect
4984:
4882:
4875:
4848:
4825:
4797:
4756:
4698:
4687:
4655:
4632:
4579:
4570:
4523:
4461:
4418:
4365:
4322:
4279:
4270:
4261:
4209:
4191:Transduction (physiology)
4171:
4158:
4096:History of bioelectricity
4088:
4025:
3994:
3973:
3673:Pettigrew, J. D. (1999).
3560:10.1016/j.cub.2015.09.036
2751:10.1007/s00422-008-0213-5
1754:Amp. of Lorenz.
1640:
1581:
1571:
1519:
1489:
1481:
1470:
1462:
1410:
1377:
1367:
1355:
1325:
1318:
1311:
1282:
1275:
1190:
1180:
1163:glands in snout
1143:
1133:
1126:
1099:
1089:
1069:
1062:
1055:
1035:
1028:
1018:
953:
935:
928:
892:
885:
861:
854:
851:Cartilaginous fishes
844:
837:
826:End‑bud recep.
812:
802:
197:History of bioelectricity
104:(elephantfishes), and by
5365:Electroreceptive animals
5029:Music-specific disorders
4385:Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
3599:. December 2005 version.
3589:Electrophorus electricus
3585:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.).
2801:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00199
2507:The Physiology of Fishes
1875:Ornithorhynchus anatinus
582:occupy much of its body.
540:(Sternopygidae) and the
430:active electrolocation.
352:Electric organ (biology)
71:stimuli and to generate
44:fish which generates an
5009:Auditory verbal agnosia
4863:Juxtacapillary receptor
3850:10.1126/science.1230883
3696:10.1242/jeb.202.10.1447
3401:Journal of Fish Biology
3222:10.1201/9780429113581-5
3214:The Histology of Fishes
3061:Journal of Fish Biology
2905:10.1242/jeb.202.10.1217
2787:Frontiers in Psychology
2376:Journal of Fish Biology
2040:10.1242/jeb.202.10.1205
1966:
1578:Electric catfishes
1025:Lobe-finned fishes
316:Passive electrolocation
300:between their two ends.
5004:Auditory hallucination
4614:Surface wave detection
4219:Multimodal integration
3790:10.1098/rspb.2011.1127
3737:10.1098/rstb.1998.0275
3160:Brain Research Reviews
3054:Merron, G. S. (1993).
3023:10.1098/rspb.2015.0520
2739:Biological Cybernetics
2701:10.1186/1742-9994-6-21
2113:10.5962/bhl.title.6883
1989:Active sensory systems
1906:Tachyglossus aculeatus
1842:
1272:Ray-finned fishes
683:evolutionary arms race
618:
342:Active electrolocation
215:
100:(knifefishes) and the
57:
5263:Phantom limb syndrome
5211:Tactile hallucination
4400:Glossopharyngeal (IX)
4201:Active sensory system
4010:Ampullae of Lorenzini
2936:(3). Wiley: 177–190.
2488:10.1242/jeb.171.1.107
2065:Alexander, R. McNeill
1902:short-beaked echidnas
1831:
706:ampullae of Lorenzini
601:
346:Further information:
274:ampullae of Lorenzini
272:The electroreceptive
204:
137:ampullae of Lorenzini
135:The electroreceptive
40:is a weakly electric
35:
5072:Labyrinthine fistula
5039:Spatial hearing loss
4738:Campaniform sensilla
4453:Somatosensory cortex
4069:(electric catfishes)
3690:(Pt 10): 1447–1454.
3148:Bullock, Theodore H.
2899:(Pt 10): 1217–1228.
2687:Frontiers in Zoology
2568:(Pt 18): 3636–3651.
2536:Bullock, Theodore H.
2284:Gymnarchus Niloticus
2267:Gymnarchus Niloticus
2250:Gymnarchus Niloticus
2201:10.1242/jeb.39.1.119
1894:Long-beaked echidnas
1145:(platypus, echidna)
714:cartilaginous fishes
594:Electrocommunication
457:electrical impedance
404:weakly electric fish
298:electrical potential
248:Gymnarchus niloticus
246:African knife fish (
211:Gymnarchus niloticus
141:cartilaginous fishes
4858:Nociceptin receptor
4728:Merkel nerve ending
4713:Mechanotransduction
4035:(African knifefish)
3841:2013Sci...340...66C
3731:(1372): 1187–1198.
3629:1986Natur.319..401S
3551:2015CBio...25.2889C
3512:. Map of Life. 2010
3463:2014PLoSO...993036G
3414:2012JFBio..80.2055K
3357:2012PLoSO...736287L
3301:2007SciAm.297b..74F
3288:Scientific American
3074:1993JFBio..43..575M
2852:1999Natur.400..254S
2611:1993EnvBF..36..157L
2389:2019JFBio..95...92C
2343:2018Palgy..61..325K
2303:Scientific American
2154:1960Natur.187..957M
1628:amp. receptors
1558:electric organ
1452:electric organ
760:of bony fishes and
5220:Nociception (pain)
4812:Olfactory receptor
4764:Photoreceptor cell
4718:Lamellar corpuscle
4642:Photomorphogenesis
4504:nociception (pain)
4196:Sensory processing
3772:Sotalia guianensis
2974:10.1242/jeb.014795
2619:10.1007/bf00002795
2352:10.1111/pala.12346
2101:Lorenzini, Stefano
1961:Sotalia guianensis
1892:are much simpler.
1843:
1774:Cartilaginous fish
1516:Electric eels
672:Clarias gariepinus
619:
322:bioelectric fields
216:
58:
5352:
5351:
5337:Biases and errors
5332:
5331:
5268:Somatoparaphrenia
5237:Pain dissociation
5082:Ménière's disease
5014:Cortical deafness
4892:Visual impairment
4871:
4870:
4733:Bulbous corpuscle
4723:Tactile corpuscle
4691:sensory receptors
4683:
4682:
4566:
4565:
4519:
4518:
4484:Olfaction (smell)
4438:Vestibular cortex
4420:Cerebral cortices
4257:
4256:
4244:Motion perception
4114:
4113:
4006:Electroreceptors
3898:978-0-387-23192-1
3784:(1729): 663–668.
3623:(6052): 401–402.
3545:(22): 2889–2898.
3231:978-0-429-11358-1
2846:(6741): 254–256.
2574:10.1242/jeb.02403
2516:978-0-8493-2022-4
2481:(Pt 1): 107–125.
2398:10.1111/jfb.13922
2034:(10): 1205–1215.
1859:trigeminal nerves
1778:Sharks and rays (
1770:
1769:
1761:
1760:
1745:
1744:
1736:
1735:
1723:
1722:
1714:
1713:
1705:
1704:
1696:
1695:
1682:
1681:
1673:
1672:
1620:
1619:
1611:
1610:
1549:
1548:
1438:
1437:
1413:African knifefish
1261:
1260:
1252:
1251:
1243:
1242:
1234:
1233:
1220:
1219:
1211:
1210:
1192:(Guiana dolphin)
1169:
1168:
1000:
999:
991:
990:
982:
981:
834:Jawed fishes
591:
590:
309:ecological niches
244:noticed that the
220:Stefano Lorenzini
38:elephantnose fish
16:(Redirected from
5397:
4999:Auditory agnosia
4931:Optic neuropathy
4880:
4879:
4748:Stretch receptor
4696:
4695:
4594:Magnetoreception
4589:Electroreception
4577:
4576:
4499:mechanoreception
4448:Gustatory cortex
4443:Olfactory cortex
4277:
4276:
4268:
4267:
4186:Sensory receptor
4169:
4168:
4141:
4134:
4127:
4118:
4117:
4106:Magnetoreception
4057:(elephantfishes)
3960:
3953:
3946:
3937:
3936:
3910:
3885:Electroreception
3871:
3870:
3852:
3818:
3812:
3811:
3801:
3765:
3759:
3758:
3748:
3714:
3708:
3707:
3679:
3670:
3657:
3656:
3637:10.1038/319401a0
3610:
3601:
3600:
3579:
3573:
3572:
3562:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3517:
3506:
3495:
3494:
3484:
3474:
3440:
3434:
3433:
3408:(5): 2055–2088.
3395:
3389:
3388:
3378:
3368:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3323:
3284:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3250:
3244:
3243:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3184:
3156:
3144:
3129:
3128:
3103:(5–6): 485–491.
3092:
3086:
3085:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3034:
3000:
2994:
2993:
2968:(6): 1012–1020.
2952:
2946:
2945:
2923:
2917:
2916:
2886:
2880:
2879:
2833:
2824:
2823:
2813:
2803:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2713:
2703:
2683:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2555:
2546:
2545:
2532:
2521:
2520:
2502:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2470:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2428:
2419:
2418:
2400:
2366:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2320:
2309:
2269:and Similar Fish
2241:
2232:
2231:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2165:
2163:10.1038/187957a0
2131:
2125:
2124:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2061:
2052:
2051:
2021:
1999:Magnetoreception
1883:pressure sensors
1659:
1654:
1649:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1574:
1573:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1484:
1483:
1473:
1472:
1465:
1464:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1370:
1369:
1358:
1357:
1343:
1338:
1321:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1300:
1295:
1278:
1277:
1197:
1183:
1182:
1155:
1150:
1136:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1112:
1092:
1091:
1078:
1065:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1044:
1031:
1030:
1021:
1020:
1015:Bony fishes
973:
968:
963:
942:
931:
930:
917:
912:
907:
902:
897:(electric rays)
888:
887:
871:
857:
856:
847:
846:
840:
839:
818:
805:
804:
795:
794:
790:
780:
661:circadian rhythm
652:Batesian mimicry
615:Batesian mimicry
572:
554:
547:
546:
536:, including the
516:
503:
380:
364:
329:associated with
293:
269:
61:Electroreception
21:
5405:
5404:
5400:
5399:
5398:
5396:
5395:
5394:
5390:Sensory systems
5355:
5354:
5353:
5348:
5328:
5277:
5246:
5215:
5167:
5134:
5086:
5048:
4980:
4971:Stereoblindness
4912:Color blindness
4867:
4844:
4821:
4793:
4752:
4700:Mechanoreceptor
4689:
4679:
4675:Machine hearing
4670:Computer vision
4665:Robotic sensing
4651:
4628:
4562:
4515:
4457:
4433:Auditory cortex
4414:
4361:
4324:Sensory systems
4318:
4253:
4205:
4163:
4161:
4154:
4145:
4115:
4110:
4084:
4075:(electric rays)
4073:Torpediniformes
4049:(electric eels)
4021:
3990:
3969:
3964:
3917:
3899:
3882:
3879:
3877:Further reading
3874:
3835:(6128): 66–69.
3819:
3815:
3766:
3762:
3715:
3711:
3677:
3671:
3660:
3611:
3604:
3580:
3576:
3538:Current Biology
3529:
3525:
3515:
3513:
3508:
3507:
3498:
3441:
3437:
3396:
3392:
3335:
3331:
3321:
3319:
3282:
3276:
3272:
3251:
3247:
3232:
3210:
3206:
3154:
3145:
3132:
3093:
3089:
3052:
3048:
3001:
2997:
2953:
2949:
2924:
2920:
2887:
2883:
2834:
2827:
2778:
2774:
2731:
2727:
2681:
2675:
2671:
2650:(30): 245–262.
2638:
2634:
2593:
2589:
2556:
2549:
2533:
2524:
2517:
2503:
2496:
2468:
2458:
2454:
2429:
2422:
2367:
2360:
2321:
2312:
2242:
2235:
2220:
2216:
2183:
2179:
2132:
2128:
2098:
2094:
2062:
2055:
2022:
2011:
2007:
1985:
1969:
1947:. The hairless
1934:
1826:
1814:electric organs
1794:
1776:
1771:
1762:
1746:
1737:
1724:
1715:
1706:
1697:
1683:
1674:
1621:
1612:
1550:
1450:
1439:
1362:
1262:
1253:
1244:
1235:
1221:
1212:
1170:
1001:
992:
983:
895:Torpediniformes
712:, and exist in
702:ancestral trait
694:
656:Brachyhypopomus
639:Brachyhypopomus
607:electric fields
596:
585:
583:
580:electric organs
563:
557:
538:glass knifefish
528:
517:
508:
504:
396:electric fields
392:
391:
390:
389:
388:
381:
373:
372:
365:
354:
344:
318:
305:
304:
303:
302:
301:
294:
286:
285:
270:
259:
257:Electrolocation
199:
193:
73:electric fields
30:
23:
22:
18:Electrolocation
15:
12:
11:
5:
5403:
5393:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5350:
5349:
5347:
5346:
5340:
5338:
5334:
5333:
5330:
5329:
5327:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5285:
5283:
5279:
5278:
5276:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5254:
5252:
5251:Proprioception
5248:
5247:
5245:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5223:
5221:
5217:
5216:
5214:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5177:
5175:
5169:
5168:
5166:
5165:
5160:
5155:
5150:
5144:
5142:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5096:
5094:
5088:
5087:
5085:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5058:
5056:
5050:
5049:
5047:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4990:
4988:
4982:
4981:
4979:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4888:
4886:
4877:
4873:
4872:
4869:
4868:
4866:
4865:
4860:
4854:
4852:
4846:
4845:
4843:
4842:
4837:
4831:
4829:
4827:Thermoreceptor
4823:
4822:
4820:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4807:Taste receptor
4803:
4801:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4760:
4758:
4754:
4753:
4751:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4704:
4702:
4693:
4685:
4684:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4661:
4659:
4653:
4652:
4650:
4649:
4644:
4638:
4636:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4585:
4583:
4574:
4568:
4567:
4564:
4563:
4561:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4533:Proprioception
4529:
4527:
4521:
4520:
4517:
4516:
4514:
4513:
4512:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4465:
4463:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4424:
4422:
4416:
4415:
4413:
4412:
4407:
4405:Trigeminal (V)
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4376:
4374:
4363:
4362:
4360:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4328:
4326:
4320:
4319:
4317:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4285:
4283:
4281:Sensory organs
4274:
4265:
4259:
4258:
4255:
4254:
4252:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4215:
4213:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4177:
4175:
4166:
4156:
4155:
4144:
4143:
4136:
4129:
4121:
4112:
4111:
4109:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4092:
4090:
4086:
4085:
4083:
4082:
4076:
4070:
4067:Malapteruridae
4064:
4058:
4052:
4051:
4050:
4036:
4029:
4027:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4017:
4012:
4004:
4002:Electric organ
3998:
3996:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3988:
3983:
3977:
3975:
3971:
3970:
3963:
3962:
3955:
3948:
3940:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3916:
3915:External links
3913:
3912:
3911:
3897:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3872:
3813:
3760:
3709:
3658:
3602:
3583:Froese, Rainer
3574:
3523:
3496:
3435:
3390:
3329:
3270:
3245:
3230:
3204:
3130:
3087:
3068:(4): 575–584.
3046:
2995:
2947:
2918:
2881:
2825:
2772:
2745:(6): 519–539.
2725:
2669:
2632:
2605:(2): 157–165.
2587:
2547:
2522:
2515:
2494:
2452:
2434:Animal Biology
2420:
2358:
2337:(3): 325–358.
2310:
2308:
2307:
2294:
2278:
2244:Lissmann, Hans
2233:
2214:
2177:
2126:
2092:
2053:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1984:
1981:
1968:
1965:
1957:Guiana dolphin
1951:crypts on the
1933:
1930:
1825:
1822:
1796:Two groups of
1793:
1790:
1786:direct current
1781:Elasmobranchii
1775:
1772:
1768:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1758:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1733:
1726:
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1675:
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1670:
1662:
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1639:
1632:
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1622:
1618:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1609:
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1605:
1604:
1580:
1572:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1488:
1482:
1480:
1471:
1469:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1399:
1398:
1380:elephantfishes
1376:
1368:
1366:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1324:
1319:
1317:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1281:
1276:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1241:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1232:
1231:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1208:
1200:
1199:
1189:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1167:
1166:
1158:
1157:
1142:
1134:
1132:
1127:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1098:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1034:
1029:
1027:
1019:
1017:
1011:
1010:
1003:
1002:
998:
997:
994:
993:
989:
988:
985:
984:
980:
979:
976:
975:
952:
949:
948:
945:
944:
934:
929:
927:
924:
923:
920:
919:
891:
886:
884:
878:
877:
874:
873:
860:
855:
853:
845:
843:
838:
836:
830:
829:
821:
820:
811:
803:
801:
793:
693:
690:
679:macrolepidotus
595:
592:
589:
588:
566:
530:
529:
525:electric field
518:
511:
509:
505:
498:
400:electric organ
382:
375:
374:
366:
359:
358:
357:
356:
355:
343:
340:
331:osmoregulation
317:
314:
295:
288:
287:
271:
264:
263:
262:
261:
260:
258:
255:
235:elephantfishes
195:Main article:
192:
189:
185:Guiana dolphin
113:electric organ
65:electrogenesis
50:electric organ
46:electric field
28:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5402:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5362:
5360:
5345:
5342:
5341:
5339:
5335:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5309:Hallucination
5307:
5305:
5304:Derealization
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5286:
5284:
5280:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5258:Asomatognosia
5256:
5255:
5253:
5249:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5224:
5222:
5218:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5196:Hyperesthesia
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5181:Astereognosis
5179:
5178:
5176:
5174:
5170:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5145:
5143:
5141:
5137:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5097:
5095:
5093:
5089:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5077:Labyrinthitis
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5059:
5057:
5055:
5051:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4991:
4989:
4987:
4983:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4889:
4887:
4885:
4881:
4878:
4874:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4847:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4832:
4830:
4828:
4824:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4800:
4799:Chemoreceptor
4796:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4761:
4759:
4757:Photoreceptor
4755:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4743:Slit sensilla
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4705:
4703:
4701:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4686:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4662:
4660:
4658:
4654:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4639:
4637:
4635:
4631:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4582:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4569:
4559:
4558:Visceral pain
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4530:
4528:
4526:
4522:
4510:
4509:thermoception
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4496:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4428:Visual cortex
4426:
4425:
4423:
4421:
4417:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4390:Olfactory (I)
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4373:
4372:spinal nerves
4369:
4364:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4329:
4327:
4325:
4321:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4286:
4284:
4282:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4260:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4229:Consciousness
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4216:
4214:
4212:
4208:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4178:
4176:
4174:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4142:
4137:
4135:
4130:
4128:
4123:
4122:
4119:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4093:
4091:
4087:
4080:
4079:Uranoscopidae
4077:
4074:
4071:
4068:
4065:
4062:
4059:
4056:
4053:
4048:
4047:
4046:Electrophorus
4043:
4042:
4040:
4039:Gymnotiformes
4037:
4034:
4031:
4030:
4028:
4024:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3967:Electric fish
3961:
3956:
3954:
3949:
3947:
3942:
3941:
3938:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3881:
3880:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3829:
3824:
3817:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3773:
3764:
3756:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3725:
3720:
3713:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3684:
3676:
3669:
3667:
3665:
3663:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3617:
3609:
3607:
3598:
3597:
3592:
3590:
3584:
3578:
3570:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3527:
3511:
3505:
3503:
3501:
3492:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3457:(4): e93036.
3456:
3452:
3451:
3446:
3439:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3402:
3394:
3386:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3351:(5): e36287.
3350:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3333:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3289:
3281:
3274:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3257:
3249:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3208:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3183:
3182:2027.42/25137
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3161:
3153:
3149:
3143:
3141:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3062:
3057:
3050:
3042:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3011:
3006:
2999:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2951:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2930:
2922:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2893:
2885:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2860:10.1038/22301
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2832:
2830:
2821:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2776:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2729:
2721:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2680:
2673:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2644:
2636:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2599:
2591:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2562:
2554:
2552:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2518:
2512:
2508:
2501:
2499:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2475:
2467:
2465:
2464:Raja erinacea
2456:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2435:
2427:
2425:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2383:(1): 92–134.
2382:
2378:
2377:
2372:
2365:
2363:
2353:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2331:
2330:Palaeontology
2326:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2285:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2258:
2253:
2251:
2245:
2240:
2238:
2229:
2225:
2218:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2189:
2181:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2148:(4741): 957.
2147:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2130:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2071:
2066:
2060:
2058:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2028:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2009:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1863:mucous glands
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1821:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1806:Notopteroidei
1803:
1802:Gymnotiformes
1799:
1789:
1787:
1783:
1782:
1766:
1765:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1749:
1741:
1740:
1732:
1728:
1727:
1719:
1718:
1710:
1709:
1701:
1700:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1678:
1677:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1636:Uranoscopidae
1634:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1624:
1616:
1615:
1607:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1486:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1477:Gymnotiformes
1475:
1474:
1467:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1453:
1448:
1447:knollenorgans
1443:
1442:
1434:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1365:
1360:
1359:
1352:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1309:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1266:
1265:
1257:
1256:
1248:
1247:
1239:
1238:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1216:
1215:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1178:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1149:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1106:
1105:
1097:
1094:
1093:
1087:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1067:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1053:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1033:
1032:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1009:
1005:
1004:
996:
995:
987:
986:
978:
977:
974:
972:
967:
962:
957:
951:
950:
947:
946:
943:
941:
933:
932:
926:
925:
922:
921:
918:
916:
911:
906:
901:
896:
890:
889:
883:
880:
879:
876:
875:
872:
870:
865:
864:Selachimorpha
859:
858:
852:
849:
848:
842:
841:
835:
832:
831:
828:
827:
823:
822:
819:
817:
810:
807:
806:
800:
797:
796:
792:
789:
784:
779:
774:
769:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
689:
686:
684:
680:
678:
673:
669:
664:
662:
657:
653:
649:
648:Electrophorus
645:
641:
640:
634:
632:
627:
624:
616:
612:
608:
604:
603:Electric eels
600:
587:
581:
577:
571:
567:
565:
561:
553:
549:
548:
545:
543:
539:
535:
534:Gymnotiformes
526:
522:
515:
510:
502:
497:
496:
495:
492:
488:
483:
481:
480:Knollenorgans
477:
473:
469:
465:
460:
458:
454:
450:
446:
441:
439:
438:
433:
428:
424:
423:
418:
417:
411:
409:
405:
401:
397:
386:
379:
370:
363:
353:
349:
348:Electric fish
339:
336:
332:
328:
323:
313:
310:
299:
292:
283:
279:
275:
268:
254:
251:
249:
243:
242:Hans Lissmann
238:
236:
232:
231:knollenorgans
227:
225:
221:
213:
212:
207:
206:Hans Lissmann
203:
198:
188:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
133:
131:
127:
123:
118:
114:
110:
108:
103:
99:
98:Gymnotiformes
95:
94:electric fish
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
55:
54:knollenorgans
51:
47:
43:
39:
34:
27:
19:
5242:Phantom pain
5227:Hyperalgesia
5201:Hypoesthesia
5019:Hearing loss
4840:TRP channels
4817:Osmoreceptor
4784:Photopigment
4708:Baroreceptor
4647:Gravitropism
4619:Frog hearing
4599:Echolocation
4395:Facial (VII)
4101:Lateral line
4081:(stargazers)
4045:
4033:Gymnarchidae
4015:Knollenorgan
3980:
3887:. New York:
3884:
3832:
3826:
3816:
3781:
3777:
3771:
3763:
3728:
3722:
3712:
3687:
3681:
3620:
3614:
3594:
3588:
3577:
3542:
3536:
3526:
3514:. Retrieved
3454:
3448:
3438:
3405:
3399:
3393:
3348:
3342:
3332:
3320:. Retrieved
3295:(2): 74–80.
3292:
3286:
3273:
3255:
3248:
3213:
3207:
3167:(1): 25–46.
3164:
3158:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3065:
3059:
3049:
3014:
3008:
2998:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2950:
2933:
2927:
2921:
2896:
2890:
2884:
2843:
2837:
2791:
2785:
2775:
2742:
2738:
2728:
2694:(21): 1–15.
2691:
2685:
2672:
2647:
2641:
2635:
2602:
2596:
2590:
2565:
2559:
2539:
2506:
2478:
2472:
2463:
2455:
2438:
2432:
2380:
2374:
2334:
2328:
2301:
2288:
2283:
2272:
2266:
2255:
2249:
2227:
2223:
2217:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2145:
2139:
2129:
2104:
2095:
2068:
2031:
2025:
1970:
1960:
1935:
1905:
1897:
1887:
1874:
1844:
1810:electric eel
1795:
1779:
1777:
1752:
1751:
1689:
1688:
1666:
1665:
1641:
1627:
1626:
1582:
1568:Siluriformes
1556:
1555:
1520:
1490:
1468:Silurophysi
1445:
1444:
1411:
1407:Gymnarchidae
1378:
1332:paddlefishes
1326:
1283:
1227:
1226:
1204:
1203:
1191:
1162:
1161:
1144:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1070:
1036:
954:
936:
893:
862:
825:
824:
813:
770:
746:paddlefishes
710:lateral line
695:
687:
675:
671:
665:
655:
647:
644:electric eel
637:
635:
628:
620:
576:electric eel
573:
555:
542:electric eel
531:
521:elephantfish
487:Capacitative
484:
476:Elephantfish
472:capacitively
470:cells which
461:
442:
435:
431:
420:
414:
412:
393:
369:knollenorgan
319:
306:
278:lateral line
247:
239:
228:
223:
217:
209:
134:
126:electric ray
122:electric eel
105:
77:electric eel
64:
60:
59:
26:
5375:Ichthyology
5324:Synesthesia
5232:Hypoalgesia
5206:Paresthesia
5191:Formication
5186:CMT disease
5153:Hypergeusia
4976:Visual snow
4951:Photophobia
4946:Papilledema
4936:Oscillopsia
4922:Hemeralopia
4789:Aureochrome
4624:Toad vision
4548:Suffocation
4462:Perceptions
2544:(77): 1–22.
2441:(1): 1–25.
1973:vertebrates
1364:Mormyroidea
1038:Coelacanths
937:other rays
799:Vertebrates
750:salamanders
738:coelacanths
698:vertebrates
677:Marcusenius
453:capacitance
432:Apteronotus
422:Apteronotus
153:coelacanths
149:bony fishes
5385:Physiology
5359:Categories
5344:Pareidolia
5299:Allochiria
5282:Multimodal
5163:Parageusia
5158:Hypogeusia
5130:Phantosmia
5110:Hyperosmia
5054:Vestibular
5034:Palinopsia
4994:Amblyaudia
4941:Palinopsia
4926:Nyctalopia
4850:Nociceptor
4657:Artificial
4380:Optic (II)
4211:Perception
4160:Processes
4152:perception
4061:Rajiformes
4055:Mormyridae
3974:Physiology
3322:2 December
2195:: 119–28.
2005:References
1945:monotremes
1941:amphibians
1914:earthworms
1855:amphibians
1847:monotremes
1824:Monotremes
1643:Stargazers
1374:Mormyridae
1289:reedfishes
1140:Monotremes
1096:Amphibians
1072:Lungfishes
766:homologous
754:caecilians
748:, aquatic
730:lungfishes
468:epithelial
449:resistance
416:Gymnarchus
408:sinusoidal
179:) and the
169:monotremes
161:homologous
130:stargazers
107:Gymnarchus
102:Mormyridae
69:electrical
5140:Gustatory
5092:Olfactory
4956:Photopsia
4902:Amaurosis
4876:Disorders
4769:Cone cell
4688:Types of
4299:Inner ear
4234:Cognition
4224:Awareness
4173:Sensation
4148:Sensation
3240:216572032
2876:204994529
2230:: 91–148.
1949:vibrissal
1898:Zaglossus
1838:monotreme
1818:in series
1792:Bony fish
1729:425
1328:sturgeons
1187:Cetaceans
1006:430
958:(skates)
866:(sharks)
762:tetrapods
758:evolution
742:sturgeons
726:chimaeras
491:resistive
181:cetaceans
157:sturgeons
147:, and in
109:niloticus
89:conductor
85:knifefish
48:with its
5370:Ethology
5125:Parosmia
5115:Hyposmia
5105:Dysosmia
5044:Tinnitus
4986:Auditory
4961:Polyopia
4917:Diplopia
4774:Rod cell
4572:Nonhuman
4525:Internal
4366:Sensory
4272:External
4181:Stimulus
4164:concepts
4063:(skates)
3907:77005918
3889:Springer
3867:23742599
3859:23429701
3808:21795271
3704:10210685
3596:FishBase
3569:26521183
3491:24695492
3450:PLOS One
3430:22497416
3385:22606250
3344:PLOS One
3317:17894175
3199:15603518
3117:14692496
3041:25994677
3017:(1808).
2990:14310938
2982:18310126
2929:Ethology
2913:10210663
2868:10421365
2820:24744740
2759:18491164
2720:19772622
2582:16943504
2415:73442571
2407:30729523
2209:14477490
2172:13727039
2103:(1678).
2087:16391343
2048:10210662
1983:See also
1937:Dolphins
1932:Dolphins
1926:echidnas
1918:termites
1912:feed on
1879:saccades
1871:platypus
1851:platypus
1834:platypus
882:Batoidea
809:Lampreys
623:waveform
560:gymnotid
519:For the
385:Mormyrid
327:ion pump
177:echidnas
173:platypus
151:such as
143:such as
117:modified
42:mormyrid
5294:Agnosia
5173:Tactile
5148:Ageusia
5100:Anosmia
5062:Vertigo
4966:Scotoma
4907:Anopsia
4368:cranial
4239:Feeling
4089:Related
3995:Anatomy
3837:Bibcode
3828:Science
3799:3248726
3755:9720114
3746:1692308
3653:4362785
3645:3945317
3625:Bibcode
3547:Bibcode
3516:12 June
3482:3973673
3459:Bibcode
3410:Bibcode
3376:3351409
3353:Bibcode
3297:Bibcode
3191:6616267
3125:6240530
3070:Bibcode
3032:4455811
2848:Bibcode
2811:3978336
2794:: 199.
2767:2975352
2711:2760544
2664:5219479
2607:Bibcode
2385:Bibcode
2339:Bibcode
2300:", in:
2287:", in:
2271:", in:
2254:", in:
2150:Bibcode
2121:2900213
1955:of the
1953:rostrum
1896:(genus
1890:echidna
1865:of the
1798:teleost
1285:bichirs
1123:Mammals
956:Rajidae
734:bichirs
611:muscles
605:create
437:Daphnia
333:at the
191:History
165:mammals
5380:Senses
4884:Visual
4835:Cilium
4581:Animal
4553:Nausea
4543:Thirst
4538:Hunger
4410:Spinal
4249:Qualia
4026:Groups
3905:
3895:
3865:
3857:
3806:
3796:
3753:
3743:
3702:
3651:
3643:
3616:Nature
3567:
3489:
3479:
3428:
3383:
3373:
3315:
3238:
3228:
3197:
3189:
3123:
3115:
3039:
3029:
2988:
2980:
2911:
2874:
2866:
2839:Nature
2818:
2808:
2765:
2757:
2718:
2708:
2662:
2627:109426
2625:
2580:
2513:
2413:
2405:
2257:Nature
2207:
2170:
2141:Nature
2119:
2085:
2046:
1690:(lost)
1560:
1454:
1361:
1228:(lost)
752:, and
724:, and
718:sharks
387:fishes
167:, the
145:sharks
96:, the
83:but a
4779:ipRGC
4634:Plant
4494:Touch
4309:Mouth
4263:Human
3863:S2CID
3678:(PDF)
3649:S2CID
3283:(PDF)
3236:S2CID
3195:S2CID
3155:(PDF)
3121:S2CID
2986:S2CID
2872:S2CID
2763:S2CID
2682:(PDF)
2623:S2CID
2469:(PDF)
2411:S2CID
1867:snout
1841:prey.
1836:is a
773:clade
558:Many
282:shark
5314:HSAN
5289:Aura
5067:BPPV
4924:and
4370:and
4314:Skin
4304:Nose
4294:Ears
4289:Eyes
4162:and
4150:and
3903:OCLC
3893:ISBN
3855:PMID
3804:PMID
3751:PMID
3700:PMID
3641:PMID
3565:PMID
3518:2013
3487:PMID
3426:PMID
3381:PMID
3324:2013
3313:PMID
3226:ISBN
3187:PMID
3113:PMID
3037:PMID
2978:PMID
2909:PMID
2864:PMID
2816:PMID
2755:PMID
2716:PMID
2660:PMID
2578:PMID
2511:ISBN
2403:PMID
2205:PMID
2168:PMID
2117:OCLC
2083:PMID
2044:PMID
1977:bees
1967:Bees
1943:and
1922:ants
1920:and
1845:The
1832:The
1104:lost
722:rays
574:The
532:The
489:and
451:and
445:volt
427:fins
419:and
350:and
335:gill
175:and
155:and
63:and
36:The
3845:doi
3833:340
3794:PMC
3786:doi
3782:279
3741:PMC
3733:doi
3729:353
3692:doi
3688:202
3633:doi
3621:319
3555:doi
3477:PMC
3467:doi
3418:doi
3371:PMC
3361:doi
3305:doi
3293:297
3261:doi
3218:doi
3177:hdl
3169:doi
3105:doi
3078:doi
3027:PMC
3019:doi
3015:282
2970:doi
2966:211
2960:".
2938:doi
2901:doi
2897:202
2856:doi
2844:400
2806:PMC
2796:doi
2747:doi
2706:PMC
2696:doi
2652:doi
2615:doi
2570:doi
2566:209
2483:doi
2479:171
2443:doi
2393:doi
2347:doi
2252:Cuv
2246:. "
2197:doi
2158:doi
2146:187
2109:doi
2075:doi
2036:doi
2032:202
1731:mya
1008:mya
728:),
696:In
578:'s
507:it.
253:it.
187:).
81:eel
5361::
3901:.
3891:.
3861:.
3853:.
3843:.
3831:.
3825:.
3802:.
3792:.
3780:.
3776:.
3774:)"
3749:.
3739:.
3727:.
3721:.
3698:.
3686:.
3680:.
3661:^
3647:.
3639:.
3631:.
3619:.
3605:^
3593:.
3563:.
3553:.
3543:25
3541:.
3535:.
3499:^
3485:.
3475:.
3465:.
3453:.
3447:.
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