Feather pecking - Knowledge

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more crowded densely populated housing systems, and human colour vision is hindered making the detection of blood almost impossible. Low light intensities may be associated with other welfare costs to the hens as they prefer to eat in brightly lit environments and prefer brightly lit areas for active behaviour but dim (<10 lux) for inactive behaviour. Dimming the lights can also cause problems when the intensity is then abruptly increased temporarily to inspect the hens; this has been associated as a risk factor of increased feather pecking and the birds can become frightened resulting in panic-type ("hysteria") reactions which can increase the risk of injury. In turkeys, low light intensities (perhaps in combination with long light phases) can cause retinal detachment and buphthalmia, a distortion of the eye morphology that can lead to blindness. This does not appear to have been investigated for layer hens under modern lighting patterns. Gradual changes in light intensity simulating a dawn and dusk at the beginning and end of the light phase rather than switching off lights abruptly enables birds to feed in anticipation of the dark period and to move safely to roosts, rather than moving in the dark and risking injury which is possibly more important in furnished systems. Many producers have tried placing red filters over windows or using red lighting to reduce feather pecking and cannibalism. This was even the subject of a patent,

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within a flock can be affected. The UK national flock of egg laying hens is currently (2011) approximately 33 million birds of which approximately 10 million are free-range. This indicates that 5.5 million free-range hens/year are likely to be affected by feather pecking. It has been estimated that 4% of hens on free-range farms die because of feather pecking, representing 220,000 deaths each year in the UK alone due to this behavioural problem. EU legislation (Council Directive 1999/74/EC) will ban

314:, is perhaps most accurately described as "partial beak-amputation". It is performed on poultry to reduce the incidence or damage caused by feather pecking or cannibalism and involves amputating the distal one to two thirds of the bird's beak by either a blade or infra-red beam. Beak-trimming causes welfare concerns because the internal tissue of the beak contains many nerves which are transected during the process - it is only the surface and extreme tip of the beak that is 449: 20: 66:

Feather pecking is one of the major problems facing the egg industry in non-cage systems and is set to become an even greater issue with the EU legislation (Council Directive 1999/74/EC) ban on the keeping of laying hens in barren battery cages which came into force in 2012, and the prospect of a ban

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It has been suggested that the absence of UV from artificial light sources may have a role in the causation of feather pecking in turkeys. The extent to which the absence of UV from artificial lights compromises poultry and other animal welfare is not yet known. Other poultry species prefer areas

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A widely used method of reducing feather pecking is to reduce light intensity, but because a minimum of 5 lux is necessary to maintain egg laying, intensities of 10 lux or more are recommended. At these low intensities it becomes difficult for humans to inspect the hens properly, especially in the

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Early experience can influence severe feather pecking in later life. Commercial egg-laying hens have often already begun feather pecking when they are transferred to the egg laying farm from the rearing farm at approximately 16–20 weeks of age, and plumage quality can then rapidly deteriorate until

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Feather pecking is considered to be re-directed behaviour, developing either from ground pecking or pecking during dustbathing, although the former hypothesis is now the more favoured. Captive birds are very often kept in barren environments with limited foraging opportunities and in addition, are

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Devices have been developed to reduce or eliminate the damaging effects of feather pecking. These devices require time and skill to fit and therefore have problems of practicality given that commercial flocks usually contain several thousands of birds. Because of this, they are not used widely in

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Although feather pecking occurs in all commercial housing systems used for egg laying hens, it is often more prevalent or severe in loose flock systems because it is less easy to control and can spread more rapidly. Prevalence figures range between 57 and 86% of free-range flocks and 99% of hens

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at the feathers of another. The levels of severity may be recognized as mild and severe. Gentle feather pecking is considered to be a normal investigatory behaviour where the feathers of the recipient are hardly disturbed and therefore does not represent a problem. In severe feather pecking,

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Buitenhuis, A.J., Rodenburg,T.B., Siwek, M., Cornelissen, S.J.B., Nieuwland, M.G.B. Crooijmans, R.P.M.A., Groenen, M.A.M., Koene, P., Bovenhuis, H. and van der Poel, J.J., 2003. Identification of quantitative trait loci for receiving pecks in young and adult laying hens. Poultry Science, 82:

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mutilations...and the use of bits, spectacles and hoods to prevent feather pecking, egg eating or aggression. Their use should be justified on a flock by flock basis and regularly reviewed in the flock health and welfare plan. Any device that is designed to pierce the nasal septum is illegal.

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cages in 2012 meaning that many producers will change to using free-range systems, possibly exacerbating this welfare problem until effective methods of its control are learned - see Defra's "A Guide To The Practical Management of Feather Pecking & Cannibalism in Free Range Laying Hens"

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5.1 The use of management devices or practices that do not allow birds to fully express their range of normal behaviours should not be considered as routine and keepers should work towards the ideal of management systems that do not require these devices. Such devices and practices include

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Sometimes, feathers that are removed are then eaten, in which case the behaviour is termed "feather eating". Whilst there may be a positive association between feather pecking and eating, at least in the individual bird, this is likely due to an overall higher pecking motivation.

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Falkenberg, G., Fleissner, G., Schuchardt, K., Kuehbacher, M., Thalau, P., Mouritsen, H., Heyers, D., Wellenreuther, G. and Fleissner. G., (2010). Avian magnetoreception: Elaborate iron mineral containing dendrites in the upper beak seem to be a common feature of birds. PLoS ONE

341:. Because hens use directional information from the magnetic field of the Earth to orient in relatively small areas, this raises the possibility that beak-trimming impairs the ability of hens to orient in extensive systems, or move in and out of buildings in free-range systems. 937:

Potzsch, C.J., Lewis, K., Nicol, C.J. and Green, L.E. 2001. A cross-sectional study of the prevalence of vent pecking in laying hens in alternative systems and its associations with feather pecking, management and disease. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 74:

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The Welfare of Livestock (Prohibited Operations) Regulations 1982 (S.I. 1982 No.1884) prohibits...the fitting of any appliance which has the object or effect of limiting vision to a bird by a method involving the penetration or other mutilation of the nasal

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Rodenburg, B.T., Komen, H., Ellen, E.D., Uitdehaag, K.A. and van Arendonk, J.A., 2008. Selection method and early-life history affect behavioural development, feather pecking and cannibalism in laying hens: A review. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 110:

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and the tail are often the first body regions to show signs of plumage damage due to feather pecking, followed by the neck, wings and back, although in the ostrich which has a similar pattern of feather pecking development, the uropygial gland is absent.

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usually fed a nutrient-dense diet which can be eaten in a few minutes rather than the hours it would require to acquire during normal foraging. In combination, these cause the birds' foraging activity to be re-directed to the feathers of their

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Feather pecking is not aggression. During aggressive encounters, hens peck exclusively at the top of the head or the comb, whereas during feather pecking, the areas of the body that are usually targeted are the base of the tail over the

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Green, L.E., Lewis, K., Kimpton, A. and Nicol, C.J., 2000. Cross-sectional study of the prevalence of feather pecking in laying hens in alternative systems and its association with management and disease. Veterinary Record, 147:

322:(abnormal nerve regeneration) developing in the amputated beak stump from which there might be abnormal spontaneous neural discharges similar to the discharges originating from stump neuromas in human amputees and implicated in 63:

however, the feathers of the recipient are grasped, pulled at and sometimes removed. This is painful for the receiving bird and can lead to trauma of the skin or bleeding, which in turn can lead to cannibalism and death.

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Rodenburg, T.B., de Haas, E.N., Nielsen, B.L. and Buitenhuis, A.J., 2010. Fearfulness and feather damage in laying hens divergently selected for high and low feather pecking. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 128:

476:. These devices are based on the principle that by interfering with the vision of the bird, it is less able to visually locate the feathers of another bird and is therefore less able to grasp and pull the feathers. 820:

Lambton, S.L., Knowles, T.G., Yorke, C. and Nicol, C.J., 2010. The risk factors affecting the development of gentle and severe feather pecking in loose housed laying hens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 123:

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de Haas, E.N., Nielsen, B.L., Buitenhuis, A.J. and Rodenburg, T.B., 2010. Selection on feather pecking affects response to novelty and foraging behaviour in laying hens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 124:

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Hocking, P. M., Channing, C.E., Robertson, G.W., Edmond, A. and Jones, R.B., 2004. Between breed genetic variation for welfare related behavioural traits in domestic fowl. Applied Animal Behaviour Science,

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Sherwin, C.M. and Devereux, C.L. 1999. A preliminary investigation of ultraviolet-visible markings on domestic turkey chicks and a possible role in injurious pecking. British Poultry Science, 40: 429-433

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Prescott, N.B. and Wathes, C.M. 2002. Preference and motivation of laying hens to eat under different illuminances and the effect of illuminance on eating behaviour. British Poultry Science, 43: 190-195

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Selection for indirect indicators of feather pecking, specifically intact feather cover and livability in multi-bird groups leads, has led to reductions in feather pecking and cannibalism. Considerable

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Maddocks, S.A., Cuthill, I.C., Goldsmith, A.R. and Sherwin, C.M. 2001. Behavioural and physiological effects of absence of ultraviolet wavelengths for domestic chicks. Animal Behaviour, 62: 1013-1019

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Wiltschko, W., Freire, R., Munro, U., Ritz, T., Rogers, L.J., Thalau,P., and Wiltschko. R., (2007). The magnetic compass of domestic chicken, Gallus gallus. Journal Experimental Biology, 210:2300–2310

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Gustafson, L.A., Cheng, H.W., Garner, J.P., et al. 2007. Effects of bill-trimming Muscovy ducks on behavior, body weight gain, and bill morphopathology. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 103: 59-74

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Laboriau, R., Kjaer,J.B., Abreu, G.C.G., Hedegaard, J. and Buitenhuis, A.J., 2009. Analysis of severe feather pecking behavior in a high feather pecking selection line. Poultry Science, 88:2052–2062

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ranging from 0.22 to 0.54. A trait has been identified which combines feather pecking and cannibalism leading to severe injury or death in beak-intact birds; this has a high heritability at 0.65.

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Davis, N.J., Prescott, N.B., Savory, C.J. and Wathes, C.M. 1999. Preferences of growing fowls for different light intensities in relation to age, strain and behaviour. Animal Welfare, 8: 193-203

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Dixon, L.M., Duncan, I.J.H. and Mason, G.J., 2010. The effects of four types of enrichment on feather-pecking behaviour in laying hens housed in barren environments. Animal Welfare, 19: 429-435

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Siopes, T.D., Timmons, M.B., Baughman, G.R., Parkhurst, C.R. 1984. The effects of light intensity on turkey poult performance, eye morphology and adrenal weight. Poultry Science, 63: 904-909

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Chen, B.L., Haith, K.L. and Mullens, B.A., (2011). Beak condition drives abundance and grooming-mediated competitive asymmetry in a poultry ectoparasite community. Parasitology, 138: 748-757

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Harrison, P.C., Bercovitz, A.B. and Leary, G.A. 1968. Development of eye enlargement of domestic fowl subjected to low light intensity. International Journal of Biometeorology, 12: 351-358

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Drake, K.A., Donnelly, C.A. and Stamp Dawkins, M., 2010. Influence of rearing and lay risk factors on propensity for feather damage in laying hens. British Poultry Science, 51: 725—733

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Gentle, M.J. and Hunter, L.N. 1991. Physiological and behavioural responses associated with feather removal in Gallus gallus var domesticus. Research in Veterinary Science, 50: 95-101

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Wysocki, M., Bessei, W., Kjaer, J.B. and Bennewitz, J., 2010. Genetic and physiological factors influencing feather pecking in chickens. World's Poultry Science Journal, 66: 659-672

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Drake, K.A., Donnelly, C.A and Stamp Dawkins, M. 2010. Influence of rearing and lay risk factors on propensity for feather damage in laying hens. British Poultry Science, 51: 725-733

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Kjaer, J.B., Sørensen, P. and Su. G., 2001. Divergent selection on feather pecking behaviour in laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 71:229–239

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McKeegan, D.E.F. and Savory, C.J., 2001. Feather eating in individually caged hens which differ in their propensity to feather peck. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 73: 131-140

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Girard, Ms. Teryn E.; Zuidhof, Martin J.; Bench, Clover J. (2017). "Feeding, foraging, and feather pecking behaviours in precision-fed and skip-a-day-fed broiler breeder pullets".

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McKeegan D.E.F and Savory, C.J. 1999. Feather eating in layer pullets and its possible role in the aetiology of feather pecking damage, Applied Animal Behaviour Science 65: 73–85

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or feather-picking. In feather-plucking, birds, often housed in isolation, remove feathers from their own body; in feather pecking, however, birds peck at each other's feathers.

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Craig, J.V. and Muir, W.M. 1996. Group selection for adaptation to multiple-hen cages: Beak-related mortality, feathering, and body weight responses. Poultry Science, 75:294–302

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Feather pecking amongst laying hens. In the lower right of the picture, the white hen has lost her tail feathers and the brown hen has been feather pecked on the thigh and wing.

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Jensen, P., Keeling, L., Schütz, K. et al., 2005. Feather pecking in chickens is genetically related to behavioural and developmental traits. Physiology and Behavior, 86: 52–60

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Breward, J. and Gentle, M.J. 1985. Neuroma formation and abnormal afferent nerve discharges after partial beak amputation (beak trimming) in poultry. Experientia, 41: 1132-1134

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Sherwin, C.M., 2010. Turkeys: Behavior, Management and Well-Being. In “The Encyclopaedia of Animal Science”. Wilson G. Pond and Alan W. Bell (Eds). Marcel Dekker. pp. 847-849

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McAdie, T.M. and Keeling, L.J. 2002. The social transmission of feather pecking in laying hens: effects of environment and age. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 75: 147-159

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Bilcik, B. and Keeling, L.J., 1999. Changes in feather condition in relation to feather pecking and aggressive behaviour in laying hens. British Poultry Science 40: 444-451

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Sherwin, C.M., Richards, G.J and Nicol, C.J. 2010. A comparison of the welfare of layer hens in four housing systems in the UK. British Poultry Science, 51(4): 488-499

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Huber-Eicher, B. and Sebo, F. 2001. The prevalence of feather pecking and development in commercial flocks of laying hens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 74: 223–231

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are pieces of plastic or metal shaped like opaque spectacles and attached to the bird's beak to block its vision. The devices are held in place either with a

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peak lay at approximately 25 weeks of age. Severe feather pecking can either begin or persist beyond this age although it rarely begins after 40 weeks of age.

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Bestman, M.W.P. and Wagenaar, J.P. 2003. Farm level factors associated with feather pecking in organic laying hens. Livestock Production Science, 80: 133–140

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Moinard, C. and Sherwin, C.M. 1999. Turkeys prefer fluorescent light with supplementary ultraviolet radiation. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 64: 261-267

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Although there are links between gentle feather pecking and severe feather pecking, it is still not clear whether the gentle form leads to the severe form.

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Kjaer, J.B. and Vestergaard, K.S. 1999. Development of feather pecking in relation to light intensity. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 62: 243-254

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Harlander-Matauschek, A., Piepho, H.P. and Bessei, W., 2006. The effect of feather eating on feed passage in laying hens. Poultry Science, 85: 21-25

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Butler, D.A. and Davis, C. 2010. Effects of plastic bits on the condition and behaviour of captive-reared pheasants. Veterinary. Record, 166: 398-401

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Appleby, M.C., Hughes, B.O. and Elson, H.A. 1992. Poultry Production Systems: Behaviour, Management and Welfare. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

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Some areas of the body are targeted for feather pecking and there is a pattern in the development of which areas are pecked. The rump area over the

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There has been less work at the molecular level of the genetics of feather pecking. Major genes for feather pecking have been found along with the

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A further negative aspect of beak-trimming is that it leaves birds less able to groom themselves effectively, thus beak-trimmed hens have greater

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Vestergaard, K.S., Lisborg, L., 1993. A model of feather pecking development which relates to dustbathing in the fowl. Behaviour, 126: 291–308

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Freire, R., Eastwood, M.A. and Joyce, M., (2011). Minor beak trimming in chickens leads to loss of mechanoreception and magnetoreception.

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Muir, W.M. 1996. Group selection for adaptation to multiple hen cages: Selection program and direct responses. Poultry Science, 75:447–458

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A Guide To The Practical Management of Feather Pecking & Cannibalism in Free Range Laying Hens, DEFRA, 2005, retrieved: December 2012

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on beak-trimming (see below). Reducing feather pecking without resorting to beak-trimming is an important goal for the poultry industry.

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For laying hens, the relevant literature is the Defra Code of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock: Laying Hens. This states:

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Kjaer, J.B. and Sørensen, P., 1997. Feather pecking behaviour in White Leghorns—A genetic study. British Poultry Science, 38:333–341

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Craig, J.V. and Muir, W.M., 1993. Selection for reduction of beak inflicted injuries among caged hens. Poultry Science, 72:411–420

501:, the relevant legislation is the Defra Code of Practice for the Welfare of Gamebirds Reared for Sporting Purposes. This states: 384:

with high feather pecking birds showing more feather pecking than low feather pecking birds from the second generation onwards.

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Blokhuis, H.J., 1986. Feather-pecking in poultry: its relation with ground-pecking. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 16: 63–67

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Dixon, L.M., 2008. Feather pecking behaviour and associated welfare issues in laying hens. Avian Biology Research, 1: 73-87

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Feather pecking is a multifactorial problem and a large number of risk factors have been identified for commercial flocks.

444:. These devices make it difficult for the bird to completely close its beak and grasp the feathers of another individual. 676:

Reischl, E. and Sambraus, H.H. 2003. Feather-pecking of African ostriches in Israel. Tierarztliche Umschau, 58: 364-369

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ranging from 0.07 to 0.56. Lines of hens exhibiting high or low feather pecking activity have been developed by

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illuminated with additional UV, but poultry reared without UV show little indication of being stressed.

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however, if such a simple solution was effective, it would have been adopted widely by the industry.

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Keeling, L.J., 1995. Feather pecking and cannibalism in layers. Poultry International, 46: 50

1970: 1783: 1557: 381: 96:, formation of the dominance hierarchy is not involved in the causation of feather pecking. 965:

Gentle, M.J. 1986. Beak trimming in poultry. World's Poultry Science Journal, 42: 268-275

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indicating that feather pecking and feather eating have a different motivational basis.

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Bits or bumpabits are small, plastic circlips, the body of which passes between the

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Bright, 2010. Plumage damage in commercial layers. Veterinary Record,164: 334-335

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Although feather pecking activity may be related to dominance relationships or the

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and are held in place by the ends of the circlip being placed in the nostrils or

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Defra Code of Practice for the Welfare of Gamebirds Reared for Sporting Purposes

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Increased use of the range (e.g. smaller flocks, increasing shelter, cockerels)

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Purchasing the hens at an earlier age and allowing them on the range earlier

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Good health, especially avoiding egg peritonitis and infectious bronchitis

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Legislation regarding these devices in the UK is formulated by Defra.

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Codes of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock (Laying Hens)

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Maintaining a uniform flock (purchase single flocks and do not mix)

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or preen gland, the back, the tail feathers and the wing feathers.

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Department of Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (July 2010).

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Department of Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (July 2002).

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is a behavioural problem that occurs most frequently amongst

710:. Official Journal of the European Communities. 3 March 1999 440:. Some are held in place by a pin which pierces through the 1009: 437: 433: 246:

Good air quality (low levels of ammonia and carbon dioxide)

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reared for egg production, although it does occur in other

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When one bird repeatedly pecks at the feathers of another

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Feather pecking occurs when one bird repeatedly 1112: 1054: 1036: 893: 824: 761: 649: 367: 1000: 941: 1952: 406: 1191: 1189: 863: 372:Feather pecking has a heritable component with 721: 161:Factors likely to reduce feather pecking are: 99:Feather pecking is also distinct from another 1681: 1272: 884: 702: 700: 1186: 959: 833: 452:Blinders for poultry - From the U.S. Patent 1447:European Union Council Directive 1999/74/EC 752: 625: 1688: 1674: 1279: 1265: 1149: 697: 392:exists for these traits with estimates of 255:House temperature above 20 °C (68°F) 240:Nipple drinkers rather than bell drinkers 54:chickens and is sometimes seen in farmed 517:Abnormal behaviour of birds in captivity 447: 219: 18: 1953: 567:List of abnormal behaviours in animals 454:"Device to prevent picking in poultry" 351: 1669: 1260: 348:burdens than hens with intact beaks. 337:in the upper beak and are capable of 291: 237:Pan feeders rather than chain feeders 114:Eating feathers increases gut transit 70: 261:Minimal light changes for inspection 258:Multiple persons inspecting the hens 472:or a pin which pierces through the 264:Avoiding using lights in nest boxes 13: 1513:Avian infectious laryngotracheitis 333:have iron mineral deposits in the 14: 2002: 1528:Histomoniasis (blackhead disease) 871:"Diseases of the Uropygial Gland" 318:, dead tissue. This can lead to 1573:Fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome 652:Applied Animal Behaviour Science 310:, sometimes misleadingly termed 296: 268: 1442:Abnormal behaviour in captivity 1232: 1210: 920: 368:Selective breeding and genetics 153: 664:10.1016/j.applanim.2016.12.011 643: 480: 170:Minimal number of diet changes 119: 1: 1961:Abnormal behaviour in animals 587: 407:Devices (bits and spectacles) 139: 1523:Avian sarcoma leukosis virus 212:compared to pigmented breeds 7: 1695: 1286: 510: 202: 10: 2007: 390:additive genetic variation 300: 1830: 1797: 1759: 1703: 1595:Infectious bursal disease 1584:Gallid alphaherpesvirus 3 1498: 1455: 1367: 1344: 1294: 995:Journal of Animal Science 281: 249:Decreased light intensity 231:Delaying the onset of lay 208:White breeds such as the 1359:List of poultry feathers 462:Spectacles or 'blinders' 179:Mashed feed rather than 1650:Tibial dyschondroplasia 1645:Squamous cell carcinoma 1354:List of chicken colours 329:It has been shown that 164: 147:battery or conventional 1920:Organic egg production 1855:Cannibalism in poultry 537:Cannibalism in poultry 508: 495: 457: 252:Decreased noise levels 24: 503: 490: 451: 220:Housing and husbandry 22: 1935:In the United States 1558:Dermanyssus gallinae 1241:"Management Devices" 382:artificial selection 352:Light manipulations 277:Reduced fearfulness 243:Good litter quality 215:Less flighty breeds 1860:Chicken eyeglasses 1538:Campylobacteriosis 1199:. Nationalband.com 873:. Exoticpetvet.net 547:Chicken eyeglasses 527:Blinders (poultry) 458: 414:poultry production 292:Methods of control 185:Diet balanced for 101:psychopathological 71:Motivational basis 25: 1948: 1947: 1880:Chicken harvester 1663: 1662: 1620:Newcastle disease 1600:Infectious coryza 557:Dubbing (poultry) 468:which enters the 324:phantom limb pain 103:behaviour called 1998: 1925:Pastured poultry 1690: 1683: 1676: 1667: 1666: 1407:Broiler industry 1281: 1274: 1267: 1258: 1257: 1252: 1251: 1245: 1236: 1230: 1229: 1223: 1214: 1208: 1207: 1205: 1204: 1193: 1184: 1181: 1175: 1171: 1165: 1162: 1156: 1153: 1147: 1144: 1138: 1135: 1129: 1125: 1119: 1116: 1110: 1107: 1101: 1097: 1088: 1085: 1079: 1076: 1070: 1067: 1061: 1058: 1052: 1049: 1043: 1040: 1034: 1031: 1025: 1022: 1016: 1013: 1007: 1004: 998: 991: 985: 982: 976: 972: 966: 963: 957: 954: 948: 945: 939: 935: 929: 924: 918: 915: 906: 902: 891: 888: 882: 881: 879: 878: 867: 861: 858: 849: 846: 840: 837: 831: 828: 822: 818: 805: 802: 796: 792: 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Retrieved 690: 681: 672: 655: 651: 645: 636: 627: 618: 595: 582:Vent pecking 504: 496: 491: 487: 484: 474:nasal septum 453: 442:nasal septum 410: 398: 394:heritability 386: 371: 362: 355: 346:ectoparasite 343: 328: 306: 160: 157: 154:Risk factors 143: 130: 127: 123: 110: 78:conspecifics 74: 65: 27: 26: 1971:Bird health 1840:Antibiotics 1774:Duck breeds 1630:Psittacosis 1615:Mycoplasmas 1563:Egg binding 1548:Coccidiosis 1543:Candidiasis 1346:Terminology 577:Toe pecking 532:Cannibalism 481:Legislation 418:gamekeeping 316:keratinised 120:Development 1955:Categories 1915:Hock burns 1895:Free range 1726:Guineafowl 1625:Omphalitis 1568:Erysipelas 1470:Cockatrice 1382:Free range 1296:As poultry 1203:2011-12-20 877:2011-12-20 714:2017-02-24 588:References 197:tryptophan 191:methionine 174:Ad libitum 140:Prevalence 1885:Debeaking 1817:Scaly leg 1746:Puna ibis 1640:Scaly leg 1485:Sarimanok 1369:Husbandry 1174:1661–1667 1128:89:85–105 658:: 42–49. 499:gamebirds 401:polygenes 376:for this 335:dendrites 312:debeaking 303:Debeaking 210:Amberlink 87:uropygial 56:ostriches 40:pheasants 1986:Feathers 1981:Ethology 1976:Chickens 1910:Hatchery 1850:Blinders 1799:Diseases 1635:Pullorum 1590:Gapeworm 1533:Botulism 1500:Diseases 1480:Kapparos 1437:Candling 1422:Hatchery 1326:Poularde 511:See also 430:mandible 320:neuromas 203:Genetics 195:Dietary 181:pelleted 38:such as 1940:Yarding 1812:Malaria 1807:Fowlpox 1711:Chicken 1704:Species 1697:Poultry 1605:Malaria 1578:Fowlpox 1465:As pets 1457:Culture 1392:Yarding 1336:Broiler 1331:Poussin 1304:As food 1288:Chicken 975:5:e9231 938:259–272 905:233-238 749:217–228 542:Chicken 493:septum. 466:circlip 432:of the 426:maxilla 412:modern 187:protein 176:feeding 52:broiler 44:turkeys 36:poultry 1761:Breeds 1751:Turkey 1316:Breeds 1309:Dishes 282:Health 1721:Goose 1553:Colds 1321:Capon 1244:(PDF) 1228:: 21. 1222:(PDF) 1100:91–96 821:32–42 795:90-96 470:nares 438:nares 378:trait 60:pecks 48:ducks 1716:Duck 1250:: 5. 497:For 434:beak 428:and 189:and 165:Diet 660:doi 656:188 1957:: 1246:. 1224:. 1188:^ 1092:^ 910:^ 895:^ 853:^ 809:^ 741:^ 699:^ 654:. 604:^ 420:. 326:. 80:. 50:, 46:, 42:, 1689:e 1682:t 1675:v 1280:e 1273:t 1266:v 1206:. 880:. 717:. 666:. 662::

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