178:, the Court recognized that federal courts could still create federal common law, albeit in limited circumstances where federal or Constitutional interests were at stake, Congress had inadequately addressed the situation sub judice, and the application of individual state laws in various jurisdictions would create unacceptable levels of diversity or uncertainty. When fashioning new federal common law, the Court may either adopt a reasonable state law, look to its own precedent, or create new law.
225:(1812), held that federal courts had no jurisdiction to define new common law crimes. For federal crimes, there must always be a (constitutionally valid) statute defining the offense, jurisdiction of federal courts and the penalties. Although there is no Supreme Court decision prohibiting state courts from defining common law offenses, they have been rare, and the
241:
All fifty states have both state and federal courts. Federal courts have jurisdiction over matters of federal concern, meaning federal law and in particular federal law that pre-empts state law when an issue is within the federal government’s exclusive domain. The other type of jurisdiction conferred
213:
Statutes enacted by the deliberative legislative process are the preferred source of
American criminal law. Modern American criminal law reflects a variety of sources; some crimes existed at common law, while others that address modern problems like computer crimes are new. The Constitution prohibits
200:
that the New York
Constitution made the common law subject "to such alterations and provisions as the legislature shall from time to time make concerning the same." Thus, even when a federal court has authority to make common law, that law is subject to alteration by Congress. This principle finds
99:
was that the federal courts would craft a superior common law, and the state courts would voluntarily choose to adopt it. This hope was not fulfilled, however, as the principles of the common law of the several states continued to dramatically diverge in subsequent decades. Many litigants began to
186:
Federal common law is valid only to the extent that
Congress has not repealed the common law. The Supreme Court has explained that, "when Congress addresses a question previously governed by a decision resting on federal common law, the need for such an unusual exercise of law-making by federal
141:
decision did not put an end to other types of federal common law. Several areas of federal common law remain, in two basic categories: areas where
Congress has given the courts power to develop substantive law, and areas where a federal rule of decision is necessary to protect uniquely federal
169:. Congress often lays down broad mandates with vague standards, which are then left to the courts to interpret, and these interpretations eventually give rise to complex understandings of the original intent of Congress, informed by the courts' understanding of what is just and reasonable.
242:
upon federal courts is known as diversity jurisdiction and it exists where the amount in controversy is greater than $ 75,000.00 and no defendant is a citizen of the same state as any of the plaintiffs in the case (complete diversity).
218:
laws for states in
Article I §10, the same as it does for Congress in §9, but there is no constitutional provision that outright prohibits courts from defining common law offenses. In Federal jurisdiction, the Supreme Court decision in
655:
1572:
92:) had to apply the statutory law of the states, but not the common law developed by state courts. Instead, the Supreme Court permitted the federal courts to make their own common law based on general principles of law.
1447:
870:
862:
830:
202:
1283:
1628:
1532:
130:, holding instead that federal courts exercising diversity jurisdiction had to use all of the same substantive laws as the courts of the states in which they were located. As the
1275:
878:
563:
1235:
1227:
854:
555:
1767:
1243:
671:
1660:
539:
205:: "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives."
1211:
902:
407:
62:
have applied state law as the substantive laws, with few exceptions. Nevertheless, there are several areas where federal common law continues to govern.
1540:
523:
104:: abusing the availability of the federal courts for the specific purpose of having cases decided under federal common law, in lieu of state common law.
1139:
716:
1652:
1155:
708:
472:
918:
1251:
1059:
1259:
886:
531:
950:
733:
312:
1163:
328:
1732:
1644:
296:
728:
280:
190:
During the era when the
Constitution was written, it was understood that common law was alterable by legislatures. For example,
1431:
460:
910:
679:
575:
174:
1676:
1171:
1015:
750:
1889:
798:
594:
401:
220:
1564:
966:
507:
469:
344:
1822:
926:
1131:
259:
1267:
1123:
958:
486:
1604:
1556:
894:
806:
1636:
1365:
990:
974:
663:
1668:
1580:
1051:
774:
700:
31:
1964:
1349:
790:
766:
691:
81:
35:
1905:
1107:
982:
586:
453:
233:
may recognize the common law offenses that existed at the time the statute was enacted as punishable.
1716:
1075:
118:
44:
74:
Until 1938, federal courts in the United States followed the doctrine set forth in the 1842 case of
1937:
1708:
1357:
1147:
1115:
822:
602:
1921:
1913:
1850:
1492:
942:
639:
134:
Court put it, there is no "federal general common law", with the operative word being "general".
1684:
1402:
1099:
838:
782:
758:
515:
85:
59:
1791:
1692:
1524:
1467:
1219:
1203:
1179:
1083:
1043:
656:
Black & White
Taxicab & Transfer Co. v. Brown & Yellow Taxicab & Transfer Co.
446:
411:
196:
438:
8:
1508:
1484:
1394:
1341:
1027:
814:
498:
162:
1897:
1783:
1740:
1596:
1573:
Valley Forge
Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church & State
1476:
1377:
1195:
1035:
934:
191:
1929:
1797:
1775:
1759:
1724:
1700:
1455:
1291:
1187:
1091:
742:
610:
547:
414:
230:
1834:
1299:
846:
618:
226:
1881:
1842:
1588:
1548:
1500:
1067:
871:
C & L Enterprises, Inc. v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of
Oklahoma
1612:
1516:
1448:
Williamson County
Regional Planning Commission v. Hamilton Bank of Johnson City
1439:
1320:
647:
356:
158:
101:
76:
54:
39:
389:
The Grammar of Criminal Law: American, Comparative, and International Volume I
229:
and most states have abolished common law offenses. In a minority of states a
1958:
1423:
1386:
863:
College Savings Bank v. Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board
150:
146:
23:
831:
Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma
16:
U.S. law term for common law developed by federal, rather than state, courts
1620:
166:
49:
89:
27:
1284:
Grable & Sons Metal Products, Inc. v. Darue Engineering & Mfg.
260:"ArtIII.S2.C1.16.6 State Law in Diversity Cases and the Erie Doctrine"
149:
has given courts power to formulate common law rules in areas such as
154:
1414:
1332:
1629:
Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.
1533:
United States v. Students Challenging Regulatory Agency Procedures
1276:
JPMorgan Chase Bank v. Traffic Stream (BVI) Infrastructure Ltd.
879:
Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community
564:
Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital v. Mercury Construction Corp.
181:
1236:
Northern Pipeline Construction Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co.
1228:
Mt. Healthy City School District Board of Education v. Doyle
88:(allowing them to hear cases between parties from different
855:
Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma v. Manufacturing Technologies, Inc.
556:
Colorado River Water Conservation District v. United States
468:
84:
held that federal courts hearing cases brought under their
1768:
County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State
672:
Hinderlider v. La Plata River & Cherry Creek Ditch Co.
42:, writing for the Supreme Court of the United States in
1661:
Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v. Winn
540:
England v. Louisiana State Board of Medical Examiners
429:
The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America
1212:
Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida
903:
City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York
524:
Louisiana Power & Light Co. v. City of Thibodaux
1541:
Schlesinger v. Reservists Committee to Stop the War
1140:Louisville & Nashville Railroad Co. v. Mottley
1156:American Well Works Co. v. Layne & Bowler Co.
717:Exxon Mobil Corp. v. Saudi Basic Industries Corp.
1956:
1653:Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency
709:District of Columbia Court of Appeals v. Feldman
919:Permanent Mission of India v. City of New York
236:
208:
1252:Commodity Futures Trading Commission v. Schor
1060:American Insurance Co. v. 356 Bales of Cotton
454:
1260:Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc. v. Thompson
887:United States v. White Mountain Apache Tribe
532:United Gas Pipe Line Co. v. Ideal Cement Co.
373:. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 4.
1164:Smith v. Kansas City Title & Trust Co.
951:Republic of Argentina v. NML Capital, Ltd.
461:
447:
382:
380:
182:Congressional repeal of federal common law
395:
1733:FDA v. Alliance for Hippocratic Medicine
1645:Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation
386:
377:
1957:
426:
391:. Oxford University Press. p. 83.
368:
1869:
1820:
1318:
1013:
911:Dolan v. United States Postal Service
680:Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States
484:
442:
175:Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States
95:The reasoning behind the decision in
65:
1677:Clapper v. Amnesty International USA
1172:Hartsville Oil Mill v. United States
107:
1890:Osborn v. Bank of the United States
1432:Toilet Goods Ass'n, Inc. v. Gardner
799:Banco Nacional de Cuba v. Sabbatino
595:Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy
116:In 1938, the Supreme Court decided
13:
1565:Pfizer Inc. v. Government of India
1319:
967:Jam v. International Finance Corp.
508:Railroad Commission v. Pullman Co.
431:. Sage Publications. p. 1843.
203:first sentence of the Constitution
14:
1976:
751:The Schooner Exchange v. M'Faddon
325:Clearfield Trust v. United States
172:Furthermore, in the 1943 case of
1014:
927:Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons
1268:Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm, Inc.
959:OBB Personenverkehr AG v. Sachs
420:
371:An Introduction to Criminal Law
1605:Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife
1557:Illinois Brick Co. v. Illinois
895:Republic of Austria v. Altmann
807:Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez
485:
362:
350:
334:
318:
302:
286:
270:
252:
1:
1637:DaimlerChrysler Corp. v. Cuno
1366:Acheson Hotels, LLC v. Laufer
975:Republic of Sudan v. Harrison
664:Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins
245:
1581:City of Los Angeles v. Lyons
775:Schillinger v. United States
701:Rooker v. Fidelity Trust Co.
387:Fletcher, George P. (2007).
309:Texas Industries v. Radcliff
58:, federal courts exercising
36:courts of the various states
7:
1821:
1350:Campbell-Ewald Co. v. Gomez
791:United States v. Wunderlich
237:Federal practice litigation
209:Federal criminal common law
10:
1981:
1906:Mistretta v. United States
1870:
1132:Burton v. United States II
1108:City of St. Louis v. Myers
983:Opati v. Republic of Sudan
587:Murdock v. City of Memphis
427:Miller, Wilbur R. (2012).
1876:
1865:
1829:
1816:
1751:
1717:TransUnion LLC v. Ramirez
1466:
1413:
1376:
1331:
1327:
1314:
1124:Burton v. United States I
1076:United States v. Jackalow
1052:Martin v. Hunter's Lessee
1022:
1009:
727:
690:
629:
574:
497:
493:
480:
119:Erie Railroad v. Tompkins
45:Erie Railroad v. Tompkins
30:that is developed by the
1938:Bank Markazi v. Peterson
1709:Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski
1358:Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski
1148:Muskrat v. United States
1116:Barrett v. United States
823:United States v. Stanley
603:Fox Film Corp. v. Muller
578:independent state ground
1922:United States v. Hatter
1914:Peretz v. United States
1851:Cramer v. United States
1493:Massachusetts v. Mellon
1244:Thomas v. Union Carbide
943:United States v. Bormes
692:Rooker–Feldman doctrine
640:United States v. Hudson
403:United States v. Hudson
369:Carlan, Philip (2011).
222:United States v. Hudson
1685:Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins
1403:Nixon v. United States
1100:United States v. Klein
991:Trump v. United States
839:Saudi Arabia v. Nelson
783:Feres v. United States
759:Mississippi v. Johnson
516:Burford v. Sun Oil Co.
266:. Library of Congress.
264:Constitution Annotated
86:diversity jurisdiction
60:diversity jurisdiction
1843:United States v. Burr
1792:Rucho v. Common Cause
1693:Texas v. Pennsylvania
1669:Bond v. United States
1525:Sierra Club v. Morton
1220:Arizona v. New Mexico
1204:Glidden Co. v. Zdanok
1180:Wisconsin v. Illinois
1084:Ex parte Vallandigham
1044:United States v. More
734:presidential immunity
341:Milwaukee v. Illinois
197:The Federalist Papers
26:law used to describe
767:United States v. Lee
187:courts disappears."
80:. In that case, the
34:, instead of by the
1509:Altvater v. Freeman
1485:Fairchild v. Hughes
1395:Goldwater v. Carter
1342:DeFunis v. Odegaard
1028:Chisholm v. Georgia
815:Nixon v. Fitzgerald
163:interstate commerce
48:(1938), overturned
1965:Federal common law
1898:Forrester v. White
1784:Vieth v. Jubelirer
1741:Murthy v. Missouri
1597:Diamond v. Charles
1477:Bailiff v. Tipping
1378:Political question
1196:Colegrove v. Green
1036:Marbury v. Madison
935:Samantar v. Yousuf
729:Sovereign immunity
631:Federal common law
470:U.S. Supreme Court
201:expression in the
192:Alexander Hamilton
82:U.S. Supreme Court
20:Federal common law
1952:
1951:
1948:
1947:
1930:Stern v. Marshall
1861:
1860:
1812:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1798:Benisek v. Lamone
1776:Davis v. Bandemer
1725:Biden v. Nebraska
1701:Trump v. New York
1456:Trump v. New York
1310:
1309:
1292:Bowles v. Russell
1188:Crowell v. Benson
1092:Ex parte McCardle
1005:
1004:
1001:
1000:
743:Little v. Barreme
611:Harrison v. NAACP
548:Younger v. Harris
231:reception statute
1972:
1867:
1866:
1835:Ex parte Bollman
1818:
1817:
1329:
1328:
1316:
1315:
1300:Patchak v. Zinke
1011:
1010:
847:Clinton v. Jones
619:Michigan v. Long
495:
494:
482:
481:
463:
456:
449:
440:
439:
433:
432:
424:
418:
399:
393:
392:
384:
375:
374:
366:
360:
354:
348:
338:
332:
322:
316:
306:
300:
293:Erie v. Tompkins
290:
284:
274:
268:
267:
256:
227:Model Penal Code
1980:
1979:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1944:
1882:Stuart v. Laird
1872:
1857:
1825:
1804:
1747:
1589:Allen v. Wright
1549:Warth v. Seldin
1501:Ex parte Levitt
1462:
1409:
1372:
1323:
1306:
1068:Sheldon v. Sill
1018:
997:
732:
723:
686:
625:
577:
570:
489:
476:
467:
437:
436:
425:
421:
400:
396:
385:
378:
367:
363:
355:
351:
339:
335:
323:
319:
307:
303:
291:
287:
275:
271:
258:
257:
253:
248:
239:
211:
184:
114:
72:
52:'s decision in
17:
12:
11:
5:
1978:
1968:
1967:
1950:
1949:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1934:
1926:
1918:
1910:
1902:
1894:
1886:
1877:
1874:
1873:
1863:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1847:
1839:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1788:
1780:
1772:
1764:
1760:Hayburn's Case
1755:
1753:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1737:
1729:
1721:
1713:
1705:
1697:
1689:
1681:
1673:
1665:
1657:
1649:
1641:
1633:
1625:
1617:
1613:Raines v. Byrd
1609:
1601:
1593:
1585:
1577:
1569:
1561:
1553:
1545:
1537:
1529:
1521:
1517:Flast v. Cohen
1513:
1505:
1497:
1489:
1481:
1472:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1461:
1460:
1452:
1444:
1440:Laird v. Tatum
1436:
1428:
1419:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1408:
1407:
1399:
1391:
1382:
1380:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1362:
1354:
1346:
1337:
1335:
1325:
1324:
1321:Justiciability
1312:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1305:
1304:
1296:
1288:
1280:
1272:
1264:
1256:
1248:
1240:
1232:
1224:
1216:
1208:
1200:
1192:
1184:
1176:
1168:
1160:
1152:
1144:
1136:
1128:
1120:
1112:
1104:
1096:
1088:
1080:
1072:
1064:
1056:
1048:
1040:
1032:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1007:
1006:
1003:
1002:
999:
998:
996:
995:
987:
979:
971:
963:
955:
947:
939:
931:
923:
915:
907:
899:
891:
883:
875:
867:
859:
851:
843:
835:
827:
819:
811:
803:
795:
787:
779:
771:
763:
755:
747:
738:
736:
725:
724:
722:
721:
713:
705:
696:
694:
688:
687:
685:
684:
676:
668:
660:
652:
648:Swift v. Tyson
644:
635:
633:
627:
626:
624:
623:
615:
607:
599:
591:
582:
580:
572:
571:
569:
568:
560:
552:
544:
536:
528:
520:
512:
503:
501:
491:
490:
478:
477:
466:
465:
458:
451:
443:
435:
434:
419:
394:
376:
361:
349:
333:
317:
301:
285:
277:Swift v. Tyson
269:
250:
249:
247:
244:
238:
235:
210:
207:
194:emphasized in
183:
180:
159:bankruptcy law
128:Swift v. Tyson
113:
106:
102:forum shopping
97:Swift v. Tyson
77:Swift v. Tyson
71:
64:
55:Swift v. Tyson
40:Louis Brandeis
38:. Ever since
32:federal courts
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1977:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1878:
1875:
1868:
1864:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1831:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1815:
1800:
1799:
1794:
1793:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1743:
1742:
1738:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1666:
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1658:
1655:
1654:
1650:
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1634:
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1630:
1626:
1623:
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1618:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1498:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1424:Poe v. Ullman
1421:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1405:
1404:
1400:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1387:Baker v. Carr
1384:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1302:
1301:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1257:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1198:
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24:United States
22:is a term of
21:
1936:
1928:
1920:
1912:
1904:
1896:
1888:
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1849:
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1833:
1796:
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1621:FEC v. Akins
1619:
1611:
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1563:
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1226:
1218:
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1194:
1186:
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1106:
1098:
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1034:
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1016:Jurisdiction
989:
981:
973:
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949:
941:
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893:
885:
877:
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773:
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741:
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707:
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662:
654:
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638:
630:
617:
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576:Adequate and
562:
554:
546:
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522:
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329:318 U.S. 363
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167:civil rights
144:
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131:
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96:
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53:
50:Joseph Story
43:
19:
18:
473:Article III
417: (1812)
297:304 U.S. 64
142:interests.
90:U.S. states
499:Abstention
487:Federalism
246:References
126:overruled
100:engage in
28:common law
281:41 U.S. 1
155:antitrust
1959:Category
1468:Standing
1415:Ripeness
1333:Mootness
475:case law
112:doctrine
70:doctrine
1823:Treason
347:(1981).
331:(1943).
315:(1981).
299:(1938).
283:(1842).
1941:(2016)
1933:(2011)
1925:(2001)
1917:(1991)
1909:(1989)
1901:(1988)
1893:(1824)
1885:(1803)
1871:Others
1854:(1945)
1846:(1807)
1838:(1807)
1801:(2019)
1787:(2004)
1779:(1986)
1771:(1985)
1763:(1792)
1752:Others
1744:(2024)
1736:(2024)
1728:(2023)
1720:(2021)
1712:(2021)
1704:(2020)
1696:(2020)
1688:(2016)
1680:(2013)
1672:(2011)
1664:(2011)
1656:(2007)
1648:(2007)
1640:(2006)
1632:(2000)
1624:(1998)
1616:(1997)
1608:(1992)
1600:(1986)
1592:(1984)
1584:(1983)
1576:(1982)
1568:(1978)
1560:(1977)
1552:(1975)
1544:(1974)
1536:(1973)
1528:(1972)
1520:(1968)
1512:(1943)
1504:(1937)
1496:(1923)
1488:(1922)
1480:(1805)
1459:(2020)
1451:(1985)
1443:(1972)
1435:(1967)
1427:(1961)
1406:(1993)
1398:(1979)
1390:(1962)
1369:(2023)
1361:(2021)
1353:(2016)
1345:(1974)
1303:(2018)
1295:(2007)
1287:(2005)
1279:(2002)
1271:(1995)
1263:(1986)
1255:(1986)
1247:(1985)
1239:(1982)
1231:(1977)
1223:(1976)
1215:(1974)
1207:(1962)
1199:(1946)
1191:(1932)
1183:(1929)
1175:(1926)
1167:(1921)
1159:(1916)
1151:(1911)
1143:(1908)
1135:(1906)
1127:(1905)
1119:(1898)
1111:(1885)
1103:(1871)
1095:(1869)
1087:(1864)
1079:(1862)
1071:(1850)
1063:(1828)
1055:(1816)
1047:(1805)
1039:(1803)
1031:(1793)
994:(2024)
986:(2020)
978:(2019)
970:(2019)
962:(2015)
954:(2014)
946:(2012)
938:(2010)
930:(2008)
922:(2007)
914:(2006)
906:(2005)
898:(2004)
890:(2003)
882:(2003)
874:(2001)
866:(1999)
858:(1998)
850:(1997)
842:(1993)
834:(1991)
826:(1987)
818:(1982)
810:(1978)
802:(1964)
794:(1951)
786:(1950)
778:(1894)
770:(1882)
762:(1867)
754:(1812)
746:(1804)
720:(2005)
712:(1983)
704:(1923)
683:(1943)
675:(1938)
667:(1938)
659:(1928)
651:(1842)
643:(1812)
622:(1983)
614:(1959)
606:(1935)
598:(1896)
590:(1875)
567:(1983)
559:(1976)
551:(1971)
543:(1964)
535:(1962)
527:(1959)
519:(1943)
511:(1941)
165:, and
410:
68:Swift
412:U.S.
145:The
139:Erie
137:The
132:Erie
124:Erie
110:Erie
108:The
66:The
731:and
1961::
1795:/
415:32
408:11
406:,
379:^
343:,
327:,
311:,
295:,
279:,
262:.
161:,
157:,
153:,
122:.
462:e
455:t
448:v
359:.
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