Second French Empire

1901: 843: 1596: 2149: 88: 1704: 150: 644: 630: 591: 2304: 2039: 138: 2320: 2398:. Two days later, the Prussians launched an offensive that repulsed the French army. After the first nine days of August, France experienced major losses. The Emperor handed power to the other generals and let them command, then telegrammed his wife, asking if he should return to Paris. His wife refused, and thus he only sent his son home. The French prime minister resigned, being replaced with a more effective military leader, who soldered the disorganised and demoralised French. He forged the 2446: 2491:. All executive power was entrusted to the emperor, who, as head of state, was solely responsible to the people. The people of the Empire, lacking democratic rights, were to rely on the benevolence of the emperor rather than on the benevolence of politicians. He was to nominate the members of the council of state, whose duty it was to prepare the laws, and of the senate, a body permanently established as a constituent part of the empire. 2972: 2251: 74: 1439: 1815:

opening a ladder to sons of peasants and artisans. However, whether through jealousy of or distrust for the higher classes, few working-class families took advantage of education or wished to see their sons move up and out: very few sought admission to the 'grandes écoles.' The elite maintained their position while allowing social ascent through the professions for ambitious sons of wealthy farmers and small-town merchants.

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from public control. The Second Empire continued the system; proposed innovations were stalled by officials. Typically political roles were part of routine administrative duties. Although police forces were indeed strengthened, opponents exaggerated the increase of secret police activity and the imperial police lacked the omnipotence seen in later totalitarian states.

2227:, which had been founded in 1831 and fought well in the Crimea, Italy and Mexico. French overseas territories had tripled in area; in 1870 they covered almost a million square kilometres, and controlled nearly five million inhabitants. While soldiers, administrators, businessmen and missionaries came and left, very few Frenchmen permanently settled in the colonies, 1667:

supported the regime. The emperor's Decree Law of 26 March 1852 led to greater government interference in Protestant church affairs, thus reducing self-regulation in favor of Catholic bureaucrats who misunderstood and mistrusted Protestant doctrine. Their administration affected not only church-state relations but also the internal lives of Protestant communities.

1858:, which took place during these disturbances, inflicted upon the Empire a serious moral defeat. In spite of the government's warning against the "red terror", the conciliatory candidate Ollivier was rejected by Paris, while 40 irreconcilables and 116 members of the Third Party were elected. Concessions had to be made, and by the 2509:

The Legislative Body was not allowed to elect its own president or to regulate its own procedure, or to propose a law or an amendment, or to vote on the budget in detail, or to make its deliberations public. Similarly, universal suffrage was supervised and controlled by means of official candidature,

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practiced by the emperor in Italy. The government majority already showed some signs of independence. The right of voting on the budget by sections, granted by the emperor in 1861, was a new weapon given to his adversaries. Everything conspired in their favour: the anxiety of those candid friends who

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was approved. Formally enacted in January 1852, the new document made Louis-Napoléon president for 10 years, with no restrictions on re-election. It concentrated virtually all governing power in his hands. However, Louis-Napoléon was not content with merely being an authoritarian president. Almost as

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regime. Historians have generally given the Second Empire negative evaluations on its foreign policy, and somewhat more positive assessments of domestic policies, especially after Napoleon III liberalised his rule after 1858. He promoted French business and exports. The greatest achievements included

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on 8 May 1870. The result was a substantial success for Bonaparte, with seven and a half million in favour and only one and a half million against. However, the vote also signified divisions in France. Those affirming were found mainly in rural areas, while the opposition prevailed in the big towns.

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The empire was formally re-established on 2 December 1852, and the Prince-President became "Napoléon III, Emperor of the French". The constitution had already concentrated so much power in his hands that the only substantive changes were to replace the word "president" with the word "emperor" and to

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He had so often, while in prison or in exile, chastised previous oligarchical governments for neglecting social questions that it was imperative France now prioritise their solutions. His answer was to organise a system of government based on the principles of the "Napoleonic Idea". This meant that

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Napoleon III manipulated a range of politicised police powers to censor the media and suppress opposition. Legally he had broad powers but in practice he was limited by legal, customary and moral deterrents. By 1851 political police had a centralised administrative hierarchy and were largely immune

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France was primarily a rural society, in which social class depended on family reputation and land ownership. A limited amount of upward mobility was feasible through the steadily improving educational system. Students from all levels of society were granted admission to public secondary schools,

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Catholicism, longing for close links to the Pope in Rome, played a pivotal role in the democratisation of culture. The pamphlet campaign led by Mgr Gaston de Ségur, at the height of the Italian question in February 1860, made the most of the freedom of expression enjoyed by the Catholic Church in

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Napoleon, in order to restore the prestige of the Empire before the newly awakened hostility of public opinion, tried to gain the support from the Left that he had lost from the Right. After the return from Italy, the general amnesty of 16 August 1859 had marked the evolution of the absolutist or

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Although the Second Empire strongly favoured Catholicism, the official state religion, it tolerated Protestants and Jews, with no persecutions or pogroms. The state dealt with the small Protestant community of Calvinist and Lutheran churches, whose members included many prominent businessmen who

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With almost dictatorial powers, Napoleon III made building a good railway system a high priority. He consolidated three dozen small, incomplete lines into six major companies using Paris as a hub. Paris grew dramatically in terms of population, industry, finance, commercial activity and tourism.

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Napoleon began by removing the gag which was keeping the country in silence. On 24 November 1860, he granted to the Chambers the right to vote an address annually in answer to the speech from the throne, and to the press the right of reporting parliamentary debates. He counted on the latter

1616:, Napoleon spent lavishly to rebuild the city into a world-class showpiece. The financial soundness for all six companies was solidified by government guarantees. Although France had started late, by 1870 it had an excellent railway system, supported as well by good roads, canals and ports. 2579:

The Empress Eugenie created a memorial to the Second Empire in England in the 1880s. Exiled in Farnborough, Hampshire, she turned her house at Farnborough Hill into a Bonapartist shrine, filling the interior with the remnants of the imperial collection (returned to her in early 1881) and

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France. The goal was to mobilise Catholic opinion and encourage the government to support the Pope. A major result of the Catholic ultramontane campaign was to trigger reforms in the cultural sphere, which also granted freedoms to their political enemies the Republicans and freethinkers.

2016:, was a complete fiasco. The Mexicans fought back and after defeating the Confederacy the U.S. demanded the French withdraw from Mexico—sending 50,000 veteran combat troops to the border to ram the point home. The French army went home; the puppet emperor did not leave and was executed. 2113:

The success of the 1870 plebiscite, which should have consolidated the Empire, determined its downfall. It was thought that a diplomatic success would make the country forget liberty in favour of glory. It was in vain that after the parliamentary revolution of 2 January 1870,

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On an adjacent hill she created a spectacular Mausoleum, today St Michael’s Abbey, where the bodies of Napoleon III and the Prince Imperial were interred in 1888. The imperial crypt at Farnborough remains the only official monument to Napoleon III and the Second Empire.

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warned that recognition would mean war. However, the textile industry needed Southern cotton, and Napoleon had imperial ambitions in Mexico, which could be greatly aided by the Confederacy. At the same time, other French political leaders, such as Foreign Minister

1851:. These labour congresses defied official proscriptions, and proclaimed that the social emancipation of the worker was inseparable from his political emancipation. The union between the internationalists and the republican bourgeois became an accomplished fact. 1996:, supported the United States. Napoleon helped finance the Confederacy but refused to intervene actively until Britain agreed, and London always rejected intervention. The Emperor realised that a war with the US without allies would spell disaster for France. 2231:. The colonial trade reached 600 million francs, but the profits were overwhelmed by the expenses. However, a major goal was the 'Mission civilisatrice', the mission to spread French culture, language and religion, and this proved successful. 2460:. Emperor Napoleon III stressed his own imperial role as the foundation of the government; if government was to guide the people toward domestic justice and external peace, it was his role as emperor, holding his power by 2101:

gave their adhesion only on conditions which rendered it futile, i.e. they reserved the vital questions of Venetia and Poland. The Emperor's support of the Polish rebels alienated the Russian leadership. The visit of Tsar

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Napoleon dreamed of building a French economic sphere in Latin America, centered on Mexico. He helped to promote rapid economic modernisation, but his army battled diehard insurgents who had American support. By 1863,

2215:; and a fleet of steam powered troop transports. The French Navy became the second most powerful in the world, after Britain's. He also created a new force of colonial troops, including elite units of naval infantry, 1871:

Although most of the country hailed this reconciliation of liberty and order, the republican party insisted on further reforms and liberties and demanding the overthrow of the Empire. The killing of the journalist

127: 2506:. On 2 December 1852, France, still under the effect of Napoleon's legacy, and the fear of anarchy, conferred almost unanimously by a plebiscite the supreme power, with the title of emperor, upon Napoleon III. 1862:

of 8 September 1869, a parliamentary monarchy was substituted for the Emperor's personal government. On 2 January 1870 Ollivier was placed at the head of the first homogeneous, united and responsible ministry.

2433:, with the Prussian king as its emperor and Bismarck as chancellor. The new Germany was now continental Europe's dominant military force. Additionally, France was forced to give up the two border provinces of 2389:

such that France declared war against Prussia on 15 July 1870 after major protests in France (however, Napoleon was reluctant as he had become ill as well as being sceptical of the outcome), thus sparking the

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It would have been difficult for the emperor to mistake the importance of this manifestation of French opinion, and in view of his international failures, impossible to repress it. The sacrifice of minister

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For seven years France had no democratic life. The Empire governed by a series of plebiscites. Up to 1857 the Opposition did not exist; from then until 1860 it was reduced to five members: Alfred Darimon,

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was the eloquent mouthpiece. Thus those who had formerly constituted the governing classes were again showing signs of their ambition to govern. There appeared to be some risk that this movement among the

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without having the constitutional right to do so. He thus became sole ruler of France, and re-established universal suffrage, previously abolished by the Assembly. His decisions were popularly endorsed by

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But though the opposition represented by Thiers was rather constitutional than dynastic, there was another and irreconcilable opposition, that of the amnestied or voluntarily exiled republicans, of whom

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during the 1860s threatened French supremacy in western Europe. Napoleon, growing steadily weaker in body and mind, badly mishandled the situation, and eventually found himself in a war without allies.

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had proved the danger of half-measures. But when a concession, however narrow, had been made to the liberty of one nation, it could hardly be refused to the no less legitimate aspirations of the rest.

2533:) which authorised the internment, exile or deportation of any suspect without trial. In the same way public instruction was strictly supervised, the teaching of philosophy was suppressed in the 125: 149: 2370:, who planned to create a great new German nation, based on Prussian power, as well as resurgent German nationalism based on the systematic humiliation of France. After seeing the 2394:. The French empire made the first move, as the Emperor led a charge that crossed the German border. On August 2, the French defeated a Prussian vanguard and occupied the town of 2035:). The conquest was bloody but successful, and supported by large numbers of French soldiers, missionaries and businessmen, as well as the local Chinese entrepreneurial element. 1571:

soon as he signed the new document into law, he set about restoring the empire. In response to officially inspired requests for the return of the empire, the Senate scheduled a

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the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, ruled supreme. He himself drew power and legitimacy from his role as representative of the great

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might spread to the people. Napoleon believed that he would consolidate his menaced power by again turning to the labouring masses, by whom that power had been established.

126: 2615: 2410:, where the largest French army lay entrapped. The army was repulsed by the Prussians, and retreated to Sedan, where it was surrounded and forced to surrender after the 1758:, an anti-clerical, as minister of public instruction, in reply to those attacks of the Church which were to culminate in the Syllabus of 1864, all indicated a distinct 2425:. Napoleon and Eugénie went into exile in England. Victory produced an onrush of German nationalism that Bismarck immediately seized to unite all of the German states ( 2529:'s attack on the emperor in 1858, though purely Italian in its motive, served as a pretext for increasing the severity of this régime by the law of general security ( 5026: 3668: 2374:, the Emperor demanded a conscription law. The parliament disagreed, maintaining that professionals would be always the better option, and outvoted, he backed down. 6846: 4806: 2058:

Mixed domestic gains and losses resulted from European policies. The support France gave to the Italian cause had aroused the eager hopes of other nations. The

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The Empire, taken by surprise, sought to curb both the middle classes and the labourers, goading both into revolutionary actions. There were multiple strikes.

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of the interior, who was responsible for the elections, the substitution for the ministers without portfolio of a sort of presidency of the council filled by

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threat, and by the end of his reign, the French emperor found himself without allies in the face of overwhelming German forces. His rule was ended during the

3051: 6992: 2093:, the emperor again proposed a congress, with no luck. He was again unsuccessful: Great Britain refused even to admit the principle of a congress, while 1420: 711: 2522:(requests by the authorities to cease publication of certain articles), under sanction of suspension or suppression. Books were subject to censorship. 357: 2987: 2189: 87: 1782:, refused all fresh claims on the part of the Liberals. He was aided by international events such as the reopening of cotton supplies when the 2363:

remained alienated because of the fiasco in Mexico. Napoleon did not know what he wanted or what to do, but the reverse was true for Prussian

1900: 5132: 4698: 1243: 5894: 5722: 5637: 5376: 1738:, a coalition of the Legitimist, Liberal and Republican parties. The Opposition gained forty seats in the elections of May–June 1863, and 6947: 2336: 1954: 1575:, which passed with 97 percent support. As with the December 1851 referendum, most of the "yes" votes were manufactured out of thin air. 169: 2999: 1447: 694:, the period was one of significant achievements in infrastructure and economy, while France reasserted itself as the dominant power in 3133: 2635: 2510:

by forbidding free speech and action in electoral matters to the Opposition, and by a gerrymandering in such a way as to overwhelm the

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as its hub. This stimulated economic growth and brought prosperity to most regions of the country. The Second Empire is credited with

6987: 4471: 3644: 1848: 5791: 1969:, had brought upon French industry the sudden shock of foreign competition. Thus both Catholics and protectionists discovered that 1510: 6109: 4297: 2603: 1482: 1452: 1413: 1636:, outraged French Catholics, who had been the leading supporters of the Empire. A keen Catholic opposition sprang up, voiced in 6982: 5381: 4846: 4831: 4748: 2119: 3549:

Price, Roger (1996). "Napoleon III and the French Second Empire: A Reassessment of a Controversial Period in French History".

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concession to hold in check the growing Catholic opposition, which was becoming more and more alarmed by the policy of

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Anthony Geraghty, The Empress Eugenie in England: Art, Architecture, Collecting, The Burlington Press, London: 2022

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and representing all of the people, to function as supreme leader and safeguard the achievements of the revolution.

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rule could be favourable when it served their ambitions or interests, but not when exercised at their expense.

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throne. France was successful in the diplomatic standoff, but Napoleon wanted to humiliate the Prussian king,

6962: 6942: 6243: 4984: 4604: 4545: 4540: 4260: 2364: 2200: 1984: 1602: 1359: 1352: 1337: 1325: 1310: 1112: 4626: 3016:"'The Apostolate of the Pen': MGR De Ségur and the Mobilization of Catholic Opinion in Second Empire France" 1537: 6897: 5879: 5867: 5386: 5312: 5051: 4530: 4367: 3720:

The Last Gaiter Button. A Study of the Mobilization and Concentration of the French Army in the War of 1870

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Harrigan, Patrick J. (1975). "Secondary education and the professions in France during the Second Empire".

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National Hymns. How They are Written and how They are Not Written: A Lyric and National Study for the Times

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authoritarian empire towards the liberal, and later parliamentary empire, which was to last for ten years.

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Steinhoff, Anthony (1999). "The Administration of Protestant Affairs in France During the Second Empire".

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Burrows, Mathew (1986). "'Mission civilisatrice': French cultural policy in the Middle East, 1860–1914".

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to Paris ended in near-disaster when he was twice attacked by Polish assassins, but escaped. In Berlin,

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Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War

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to protect the pope from the new Italian government, thus leading to Italian refusal to help. The

1503: 7007: 6197: 5889: 5872: 5862: 5837: 5681: 5407: 5097: 4979: 4926: 4872: 4826: 4515: 2502:. This new political change was rapidly followed by the same consequence as had attended that of 2498:

was elected by universal suffrage but had no right of initiative, all laws being proposed by the

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saw the opportunity to squeeze out the French by forming closer relationships with the Russians.

1799: 1320: 1305: 1300: 993: 2180:(1863); and colonised parts of Africa. He joined Britain in sending an army to China during the 2115: 1823:

The ultramontane party grumbled, while the industries formerly protected were dissatisfied with

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Hardy, William E. (2008). "South of the border: Ulysses S. Grant and the French intervention".

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ended in 1856, a victory for Napoleon III and a resulting peace that excluded Russia from the

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The constitutions and other select documents illustrative of the history of France, 1789–1901

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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the

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The structure of the French government during the Second Empire was little changed from the

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were calling attention to the defective budget, the commercial crisis and foreign troubles.

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Napoleon III doubled the area of the French overseas Empire; he established French rule in

2153: 1803: 1787: 868: 530: 402: 313: 3641: 2414:. Napoleon himself became a prisoner and Republican forces quickly took control of Paris. 1993: 8: 6912: 6857: 6694: 6684: 6669: 6659: 6624: 6554: 6469: 6439: 6386: 6103: 5857: 5852: 5751: 5746: 5513: 5468: 5427: 5332: 5235: 5192: 5112: 5066: 4943: 4936: 4916: 4877: 4789: 4581: 4550: 4525: 4491: 4393: 4388: 2702: 2503: 2477: 2457: 2403: 2391: 2371: 2240: 2082: 1629: 1102: 1011: 950: 940: 794: 770: 723: 637: 491: 455: 2525:

To counteract the opposition of individuals, a surveillance of suspects was instituted.

2495: 726:, striking public buildings, and elegant residential districts for wealthier Parisians. 432: 73: 6811: 6634: 6629: 6594: 6574: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6514: 6509: 6454: 6361: 6207: 6078: 5968: 5948: 5904: 5847: 5842: 5819: 5786: 5776: 5766: 5648: 5147: 5092: 5046: 4894: 4860: 4444: 4126: 4118: 3822: 3602: 3438: 3310: 3302: 3249: 3150: 3101: 3093: 2902: 2894: 2755: 2331: 1980: 1783: 790: 734: 271: 2877:

Pinkney, David H. (1957). "Money and Politics in the Rebuilding of Paris, 1860–1870".

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Colonies and territories held by the Second French Empire in 1867, highlighted in blue

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A Duel of Giants: Bismarck, Napoleon III, and the Origins of the Franco-Prussian War

2983: 2544: 682:, was the government of France from 2 December 1852 to 4 September 1870 between the 376: 6853: 6817: 6735: 6559: 6329: 6274: 6237: 6212: 6202: 6136: 6088: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5988: 5983: 5676: 5422: 5207: 5159: 5031: 5006: 4496: 4110: 3814: 3594: 3430: 3294: 3241: 3142: 3085: 3029: 2886: 2747: 2352: 2348: 2181: 2024: 1966: 1877: 1827:

reform. The working classes had abandoned their political neutrality. Disregarding

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Jules Simon: Republican anticlericalism and cultural politics in France, 1848–1886

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The French Experience in Mexico, 1821–1861: A History of Constant Misunderstanding

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was credited with the remark, "If there is no war, my son will never be emperor."

2130:. He met with a refusal from Prussia and from the imperial entourage. The Empress 1751: 1742:

urgently gave voice to the opposition parties' demands for "necessary liberties".

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and bring it into the French orbit, but this ended in a fiasco. He mishandled the

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vote in the mass of the rural population. The press was subjected to a system of

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Assured of support, the emperor, through Rouher, a supporter of the absolutist

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The French Foreign Legion: A Complete History of the Legendary Fighting Force

3003:. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 869–921. 2994: 2978: 2821: 2598: 2580:

reconstructing elements of the display at the imperial palaces before 1870.

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Franz Joseph and Napoleon III, 1852–1864: A Study of Austro-French Relations

3072:"Theory and Practice of Political Police during the Second Empire in France" 2738:

Martens, Frederick H. (1930). "Music Mirrors of the Second Empire: Part 1".

6609: 6131: 6093: 5993: 5576: 5021: 4726: 4683: 4483: 4454: 4170: 4090: 3944: 3281:"The Diplomacy of Imperialism: France and Spain in Cochin China, 1858–1863" 2751: 2386: 2308: 1791: 1633: 1579:

make the post hereditary. The popular referendum became a distinct sign of

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instituted by Napoleon III on 14 January 1852 was largely a repetition of

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Brown, David (2006). "Palmerston and Anglo-French Relations, 1846–1865".

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in 1870 and dethroned by French republicans. He died in exile in 1873 in

746: 426: 411: 248: 242: 232: 3034: 3015: 2571:, to re-create a living monarchy out of the ruin of two royal families. 2445: 2207:, to head it. A key part of the enterprise was the modernisation of the 1887:

In a concession to democratic currents, the emperor put his policy to a

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St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet foreign policy, 1814–1974

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The immediate issue was a trivial controversy regarding control of the

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In 1863, these "new rights" again clamoured loudly for recognition: in

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A Velvet Empire: French Informal Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century

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Victor Duruy and French Education: Liberal Reform in the Second Empire

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The Making of the 3rd Republic: Class and Politics in France 1868–1884

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was born the same year, which promised a continuation of the dynasty.

705:, but by the late 20th century it was re-evaluated as an example of a 6755: 6745: 6314: 5621: 5508: 4535: 4265: 4099:

Schnerb, Robert (1936). "Napoleon III and the Second French Empire".

3551: 2560: 2228: 1925: 1840: 1832: 279: 227: 2539:, and the disciplinary powers of the administration were increased. 2250: 1786:

ended in 1865, by the apparent closing of the Roman question by the

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Historians in the 1930s and 1940s disparaged the Second Empire as a

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To carry out his new overseas projects, Napoleon III created a new

1747: 1649: 3681:(1995), pp 438–491. survey of political history by leading scholar 2535: 2518:("caution money", deposited as a guarantee of good behaviour) and 6785: 6740: 6715: 6269: 5978: 5596: 5549: 5488: 5412: 5366: 4449: 4317: 2473: 2216: 2157: 1727: 1723: 925: 806: 666: 259: 237: 4275: 6867: 6780: 6043: 5943: 5586: 5442: 4738: 4306: 2051: 2019:

From 1861 to 1863 France embarked on colonising experiments in

1909: 929: 695: 662: 5324: 4221:

The Second Empire Revisited: A Study in French Historiography

3976:, diplomatic and political origins and the conduct of the war 3777:

Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics in France, 1830–1852

2188:(1860), but French ventures failed to establish influence in 2085:, now united, with neither frontiers nor capital, and in the 1940: 754: 715: 163: 3845:

French Opinion on War and Diplomacy during the Second Empire

3662:

Historical Dictionary of the French Second Empire, 1852–1870

2727:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: H. Coleman. pp. vii, 100. 714:

that facilitated commerce and tied the nation together with

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was highly annoyed about French interference in supporting

1944: 1734:. These inconsistencies led opposition leaders to form the 888: 2790: 2472:, "who had sprung armed from the French Revolution like 1718:

Napoleon again disappointed the hopes of Italy, allowed

1711:, one of the new boulevards created by Napoleon III and 4054:

The French Second Empire: An Anatomy of Political Power

3991:

The Police State of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, 1851–1860

3927:

Napoleon III and Mexico; American triumph over monarchy

2616:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

2203:

and the Colonies, and appointed an energetic minister,

3784:

Bertocci, Philip A.; Bertocci, Peter Anthony (2008) .

3260: 1818: 1599:

The official declaration of the Second Empire, at the

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Proceedings of the Western Society for French History

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was afraid of French militarism and refused to help.

2922:

Economic development of France and Germany 1815–1914

2778: 2326:: 1870 Five franc coin with the bust of Napoleon III 1563:

later that month that attracted 92 percent support.

3929:. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press. 2766: 3583:Spitzer, Alan B. (1962). "The Good Napoleon III". 2802: 2725:National, Patriotic and Typical: Airs of All Lands 2223:, and Algerian sharpshooters, and he expanded the 3686:The Rise and Fall of the Second Empire, 1852–1871 6934: 3960: 3877:A Social History of French Catholicism 1789–1914 3783: 3688:(The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1988) 3562:Documents on the Second French Empire, 1852–1870 2211:; he began the construction of fifteen powerful 1211: 4140:The Shadow Emperor: A Biography of Napoleon III 2062:on 17 March 1861 after the rapid annexation of 3745: 3463:. Cornell University Press. pp. 339–353. 3392:France Overseas: A Study of Modern Imperialism 2856:(in French). Paris: Tempus. pp. 277–279. 2437:, and its humiliation lasted for generations. 6998:States and territories disestablished in 1870 5340: 4291: 4137: 3771:, relations leading up to the French invasion 3528:Mexico and the Foreign Policy of Napoleon III 3369:. HarperCollins Publishers. pp. 57–168. 1414: 769:). Using very harsh methods, he built up the 4667: 4646: 4506: 4036:The French Second Republic. A Social History 3954:The Road to Sedan: The French Army 1866–1870 3748:Napoleon III and His Regime: An Extravaganza 2820: 2355:, but refused the demand for Rome, and kept 1754:, the "Vice-Emperor", and the nomination of 1600: 1468:introducing citations to additional sources 107: 46: 745:. He began his reign with French victories 6993:States and territories established in 1852 5347: 5333: 4298: 4284: 3524: 3482: 3480: 3266: 3134:Comparative Studies in Society and History 2965: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2681:This was a favorite maxim of Napoleon III. 2636:Freemasonry under the Second French Empire 2440: 2406:and the Emperor, attempted to relieve the 2046:attacks the fort of San Xavier during the 1835:, they had gradually been won over by the 1421: 1407: 148: 136: 4006: 3886:Education in Provincial France, 1800–1914 3833: 3696:Second Empire and Commune: France 1848–71 3684:Plessis, Alain, and Jonathan Mandelbaum. 3455: 3389: 3048: 3033: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2494:One innovation was made, namely that the 2291:Learn how and when to remove this message 4235: 4147: 4000:Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris 3979: 3915: 3901: 3774: 3726: 3717: 3339: 3170:The History of the Paris Commune of 1871 3130: 2847: 2845: 2444: 2318: 2302: 2147: 2037: 1899: 1847:, as set forth at the congresses of the 1702: 1594: 1546:, who had been elected President of the 1458:Relevant discussion may be found on the 1448:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 4272:, describes character of Second Empire. 4098: 3997: 3582: 3486: 3477: 3418: 3278: 3013: 2919: 2876: 2796: 2737: 2604:List of French possessions and colonies 2351:. Napoleon had given strong support to 2089:. To extricate himself from the Polish 1679: 692:Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (Napoleon III) 14: 6935: 5382:List of current non-sovereign monarchs 4201: 4192: 4070: 3969: 3951: 3883: 3874: 3860: 3854:Napoleon III and the Concert of Europe 3851: 3759:. University of North Carolina Press. 3754: 3490:A Short History of France, Illustrated 2982: 2928: 2330:The rise of the neighbouring state of 2002:French military intervention in Mexico 1802:, which temporarily put an end to the 5612: 5328: 4279: 4051: 4042: 4033: 3988: 3924: 3892: 3802: 3559: 3548: 3501:from the original on 2 September 2022 3364: 3321:from the original on 21 December 2018 3229: 3200: 3167: 3112:from the original on 21 December 2018 3069: 2851: 2842: 2784: 2772: 2719: 2701: 2205:Prosper, Marquis of Chasseloup-Laubat 1983:, 1861–1865 and never recognised the 1937:France to war with Austria over Italy 1866: 1695: 1446:This section based throughout on the 4204:The Political System of Napoleon III 4177: 4153:Louis Napoleon and the Second Empire 3842: 3710: 3613: 2826:Elections in Europe: A data handbook 2808: 2421:, declared the establishment of the 2273:adding citations to reliable sources 2244: 2060:proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy 1432: 3836:Thiers, 1797–1877. A Political Life 3390:Priestley, Herbert Ingram (2018) . 2234: 1939:. France was victorious and gained 1819:Mobilisation of the working classes 1644:, and was not silenced even by the 24: 6948:Former countries in French history 5377:List of current sovereign monarchs 4228: 4045:Napoleon III and the Second Empire 4009:Napoleon III and the German crisis 3655:Napoleon III and the Second Empire 3624: 2574: 2137: 1843:and the revolutionary theories of 1809: 1762:between the emperor and the Left. 739:imperial ventures around the world 27:Empire in France from 1852 to 1870 25: 7024: 4305: 4254: 4212: 3961:Horvath-Peterson, Sandra (1984). 2563:in 1853, by a combination of the 2126:'s plan of disarmament after the 1895: 1648:(1860) in favour of the Catholic 1632:, which would inevitably end the 6988:1870 disestablishments in France 5895:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 3788:. University of Missouri Press. 2970: 2417:France, under the leadership of 2249: 2176:, established a protectorate in 1451:relies largely or entirely on a 1437: 1390: 1375: 841: 781:. Napoleon III also launched an 642: 628: 614: 589: 575: 142:The Second French Empire in 1861 123: 86: 72: 5372:Imperial, royal and noble ranks 3727:Anderson, Robert David (1975). 3449: 3412: 3383: 3358: 3333: 3272: 3223: 3205:. U of Nebraska Press. p. 3194: 3161: 3124: 3063: 3042: 3007: 2913: 2879:The Journal of Economic History 2870: 2814: 2675: 2260:needs additional citations for 1884:(uprising) ended in a failure. 1531: 5354: 4637:Government of National Defense 3755:Barker, Nancy Nichols (1979). 3729:Education in France, 1848–1870 3679:Revolutionary France 1770–1880 3517: 2731: 2713: 2695: 2663: 2648: 2621:Paris during the Second Empire 1590: 797:, when he was captured by the 13: 1: 6983:1852 establishments in France 4546:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 4541:War of the Spanish Succession 4187:. Princeton University Press. 4007:Pottinger, Evelyn A. (1966). 4002:. Princeton University Press. 3916:Hallberg, Charles W. (1955). 3703:Dictionnaire du Second Empire 2688: 1985:Confederate States of America 1977:France was officially neutral 1603:Union Cycliste Internationale 1573:second referendum in November 771:French Empire in North Africa 5387:List of monarchy referendums 4138:Strauss-Schom, Alan (2018). 4065:La Vie Parisienne, 1852-1870 4011:. Harvard University Press. 3834:Bury, J.; Tombs, R. (1986). 3525:Cunningham, Michele (2001). 3279:Thomson, R. Stanley (1940). 2626:Second Empire (architecture) 317:semi-constitutional monarchy 7: 6958:Former monarchies of Europe 3616:France: 1815 to the Present 2828:. Nomos. pp. 673–683. 2587: 2485:French Constitution of 1852 2068:Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 1732:Schleswig-Holstein question 1634:temporal power of the popes 1623: 1566:At that same referendum, a 733:tried to emulate his uncle 10: 7029: 5027:French subdivisions by GDP 4774:2022 presidential election 4759:2017 presidential election 3629: 3560:Price, Roger, ed. (2015). 3340:Jelavich, Barbara (1974). 2631:Fires at the Paris Commune 2238: 2141: 1790:, which guaranteed to the 1788:convention of 15 September 1535: 812: 765:(before in turn ceding to 29: 6799: 6708: 6422: 6185: 6119: 5931: 5922: 5818: 5800: 5732: 5647: 5605: 5537: 5451: 5395: 5362: 5288: 5178: 5088: 5079: 4975: 4966: 4868: 4859: 4797: 4788: 4709: 4590: 4559: 4531:Second Hundred Years' War 4482: 4435: 4402: 4381: 4373:Liberalism and radicalism 4325: 4316: 4202:Zeldin, Theodore (1958). 4102:Journal of Modern History 4067:. London: Hamish Hamilton 3989:Payne, Howard C. (1966). 3925:Hanna, Alfred J. (1971). 3819:10.1080/09592290600942918 3586:French Historical Studies 3461:Europe reshaped 1848–1868 3435:10.1017/S0018246X00018641 3286:Journal of Modern History 3147:10.1017/S0010417500007891 3077:Journal of Modern History 3070:Payne, Howard C. (1958). 2891:10.1017/S0022050700059866 2824:; Stöver, Philip (2010). 2387:manipulated the situation 2014:Franz Joseph I of Austria 1856:The elections of May 1869 1831:'s impassioned attack on 1800:treaty of 30 October 1864 1670: 1601: 658: 554: 544: 540: 527: 514: 501: 488: 480:• Empire proclaimed 478: 465: 452: 448: 438: 423: 408: 398: 394: 382: 370: 366: 356: 352: 340: 336: 326: 270: 258: 210: 200: 159: 147: 135: 102: 68: 63: 41: 6953:Modern history of France 5524:Self-proclaimed monarchy 4802:Administrative divisions 4073:Napoleon III and Eugenie 3980:McMillan, James (1991). 3970:Howard, Michael (1967). 3806:Diplomacy and Statecraft 3660:Echard, William E., ed. 3657:(1964), scholarly survey 3647:22 December 2018 at the 3495:Encyclopaedia britannica 3365:Porch, Douglas (2010) . 3014:Heywood, Sophie (2012). 2641: 2429:), thereby creating the 2402:, which, led by Marshal 1930:Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte 1904:The French landing near 1614:Georges-Eugène Haussmann 1544:Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte 1200: 1162: 992: 981: 960: 306:(2 December 1852 – 1858) 30:Not to be confused with 5792:Vatican City (Holy See) 5022:Franc (former currency) 4627:Coup of 2 December 1851 4600:Long nineteenth century 4262:The Civil War in France 4236:Anderson, F.M. (1904). 4071:Ridley, Jasper (1980). 3998:Pinkney, David (1958). 3972:The Franco-Prussian War 3746:Baguley, David (2000). 3705:, Paris, Fayard, (1995) 3690:excerpt and text search 3671:11 October 2017 at the 3640:(1940), popular survey 3168:March, Thomas (2019) . 3000:Encyclopædia Britannica 2920:Clapham, J. H. (1936). 2483:The anti-parliamentary 2462:universal male suffrage 2441:Structure of government 2087:Danubian principalities 1654:Druze–Maronite conflict 1538:1851 French coup d'état 737:, engaging in numerous 284:(until 2 December 1852) 201:Official languages 7013:Military dictatorships 7003:19th century in France 6074:Islands of Refreshment 5504:Legitimacy (political) 5042:Science and technology 4699:Provisional Government 4668: 4647: 4507: 4268:'s 3rd address to the 4193:Wetzel, David (2003). 4095:, full-scale biography 3843:Case, Lynn M. (1954). 3614:Wolf, John B. (1963). 3487:Wiriath, Paul (1914). 3422:The Historical Journal 3201:Jones, Howard (1999). 2852:Milza, Pierre (2006). 2670: 2659:Second Empire Français 2658: 2594:French colonial empire 2453: 2327: 2316: 2165: 2144:French colonial empire 2104:Alexander II of Russia 2079:Schleswig and Holstein 2055: 1935:In 1859, Napoleon led 1917: 1829:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon 1715: 1608: 1479:"Second French Empire" 1036:Valois-Angoulême kings 783:intervention in Mexico 743:several wars in Europe 688:Third French Republics 583:French Second Republic 108: 47: 32:French colonial empire 5885:Saint Kitts and Nevis 5474:Criticism of monarchy 5464:Abolition of monarchy 4052:Price, Roger (2001). 4043:Price, Roger (1997). 4034:Price, Roger (1972). 3893:Gooch, G. P. (1960). 3775:Berenson, E. (1984). 3718:Adriance, T. (1987). 3698:(1985) short overview 3394:. Routledge. p. 3246:10.1353/cwh.2008.0008 2740:The Musical Quarterly 2448: 2423:Third French Republic 2357:French troops in Rome 2322: 2306: 2151: 2041: 2006:Second Mexican Empire 1957:in 1860 ratified the 1951:The commercial treaty 1903: 1798:, and finally by the 1706: 1598: 787:Second Mexican Empire 785:seeking to erect the 610:French Third Republic 302:military dictatorship 120:"Departing for Syria" 110:Partant pour la Syrie 94:Imperial coat of arms 6963:Government of France 6943:Second French Empire 5717:United Arab Emirates 4847:World Heritage Sites 4764:Coronavirus pandemic 4178:Todd, David (2021). 3701:Tulard, Jean (ed.), 3564:. Palgrave. p. 3344:. pp. 145–157. 2752:10.1093/mq/XVI.3.415 2703:White, Richard Grant 2470:Napoleon I of France 2269:improve this article 2201:Ministry of the Navy 2128:Battle of Königgrätz 1804:Second Schleswig War 1720:Poland to be crushed 1680:Freedom of the press 1552:staged a coup d'état 1542:On 2 December 1851, 1464:improve this article 1244:Provisional Republic 1026:Valois-Orléans kings 761:, and very briefly, 703:precursor of fascism 676:Second French Empire 469:Constitution adopted 185:48.85639°N 2.35222°E 18:French Second Empire 6913:Trinidad and Tobago 6800:Commonwealth realms 6685:United Baltic Duchy 5828:Antigua and Barbuda 5820:Commonwealth realms 5514:Order of succession 4985:Automotive industry 4769:2021 labor protests 4526:Peace of Westphalia 4394:History of Normandy 4389:History of Brittany 4155:. Pickle Partners. 3952:Holmes, R. (1984). 3884:Gildea, R. (1983). 3875:Gibson, R. (1989). 3861:Elwitt, S. (1975). 3852:Echard, W. (1983). 3731:. Clarendon Press. 2924:. pp. 147–150. 2799:, pp. 308–329. 2435:Alsace and Lorraine 2404:Patrice de MacMahon 2392:Franco-Prussian War 2385:. Bismarck in turn 2241:Franco-Prussian War 2221:Chasseurs d'Afrique 2152:Arrival of Marshal 1912:, then part of the 1630:Italian unification 795:Franco-Prussian War 720:rebuilding of Paris 597:Kingdom of Sardinia 518:Republic proclaimed 492:Franco-Prussian War 181: / 5052:Telecommunications 4754:2015 Paris attacks 4617:Revolution of 1848 4445:Visigothic Kingdom 4061:Richardson, Joanna 2721:Sousa, John Philip 2454: 2328: 2317: 2315:, 1 September 1870 2166: 2056: 2008:headed by Emperor 1981:American Civil War 1918: 1867:Plebiscite of 1870 1794:the protection of 1784:American Civil War 1716: 1609: 1607:on 2 December 1852 1554:by dissolving the 1397:History portal 893: until 50 BC 735:Napoleon Bonaparte 389:Charles de Palikao 6930: 6929: 6926: 6925: 6615:Piedmont-Sardinia 6367:Sip Song Chau Tai 6177:Thirteen Colonies 5918: 5917: 5322: 5321: 5284: 5283: 5075: 5074: 4962: 4961: 4954:Political parties 4890:Foreign relations 4855: 4854: 4784: 4783: 4567:French Revolution 4521:Thirty Years' War 4502:Absolute monarchy 4467:Kingdom of France 4363:Foreign relations 4343:Political history 4189:scholarly reviews 3908:The Second Empire 3895:The Second Empire 3711:Secondary sources 3677:Furet, François. 3638:The Second Empire 3267:Cunningham (2001) 3233:Civil War History 3174:Swan Sonnenschein 3035:10.1093/fh/crs010 2611:History of France 2476:from the head of 2451:Alexandre Cabanel 2372:defeat of Austria 2368:Otto von Bismarck 2301: 2300: 2293: 2229:except in Algeria 2186:Taiping Rebellion 2118:revived, through 2108:Otto von Bismarck 1994:Édouard Thouvenel 1756:Jean Victor Duruy 1709:Avenue de l'Opéra 1646:Syrian expedition 1587:would later use. 1585:Charles de Gaulle 1556:National Assembly 1529: 1528: 1514: 1431: 1430: 1382:France portal 1275: 1274: 1172: 1171: 1083:Kingdom of France 1073:French Revolution 1064:Long 19th century 1054: 1053: 1002: 1001: 972:Kingdom of France 907: 906: 729:Internationally, 678:, officially the 672: 671: 654: 653: 650: 649: 602: 601: 372:• 1869–1870 342:• 1852–1870 291:absolute monarchy 218:Roman Catholicism 190:48.85639; 2.35222 128: 16:(Redirected from 7020: 6854:Irish Free State 6620:Poland–Lithuania 5929: 5928: 5880:Papua New Guinea 5610: 5609: 5349: 5342: 5335: 5326: 5325: 5086: 5085: 5002:Economic history 4973: 4972: 4866: 4865: 4795: 4794: 4673: 4652: 4551:Seven Years' War 4516:Wars of Religion 4512: 4497:House of Bourbon 4492:Early modern era 4472:Fundamental laws 4348:Military history 4323: 4322: 4300: 4293: 4286: 4277: 4276: 4249: 4207: 4198: 4188: 4186: 4174: 4143: 4134: 4094: 4075:. Viking Press. 4057: 4048: 4039: 4030: 4003: 3994: 3985: 3975: 3966: 3957: 3948: 3921: 3912: 3903:Guedalla, Philip 3898: 3889: 3880: 3866: 3857: 3848: 3839: 3830: 3799: 3780: 3770: 3751: 3742: 3723: 3619: 3610: 3579: 3556: 3545: 3533: 3511: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3484: 3475: 3474: 3453: 3447: 3446: 3416: 3410: 3409: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3337: 3331: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3227: 3221: 3220: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3165: 3159: 3158: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3046: 3040: 3039: 3037: 3011: 3005: 3004: 2976: 2974: 2973: 2967: 2926: 2925: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2849: 2840: 2839: 2818: 2812: 2806: 2800: 2794: 2788: 2787:, pp. 4–10. 2782: 2776: 2770: 2764: 2763: 2735: 2729: 2728: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2699: 2682: 2679: 2673: 2667: 2661: 2652: 2496:legislative body 2449:Napoléon III by 2296: 2289: 2285: 2282: 2276: 2253: 2245: 2235:The empire's end 2182:Second Opium War 2025:southern Vietnam 1967:Michel Chevalier 1878:Pierre Bonaparte 1860:senatus-consulte 1726:to triumph over 1606: 1605: 1568:new constitution 1524: 1521: 1515: 1513: 1472: 1441: 1433: 1423: 1416: 1409: 1395: 1394: 1393: 1380: 1379: 1378: 1271: 1187: 1186: 1069: 1068: 1022: 1021: 983:Direct Capetians 922: 921: 865: 864: 845: 835: 817: 816: 779:French Indochina 646: 645: 632: 631: 618: 617: 606: 605: 593: 592: 579: 578: 572: 571: 556: 555: 523:4 September 1870 510:1 September 1870 433:Corps législatif 322: 307: 296: 285: 196: 195: 193: 192: 191: 186: 182: 179: 178: 177: 174: 152: 140: 130: 129: 121: 117: 113: 90: 76: 58: 50: 39: 38: 21: 7028: 7027: 7023: 7022: 7021: 7019: 7018: 7017: 6978:1870s in France 6973:1860s in France 6968:1850s in France 6933: 6932: 6931: 6922: 6847:princely states 6795: 6731:Kingdom of Fiji 6704: 6450:Austria-Hungary 6418: 6181: 6115: 5914: 5900:Solomon Islands 5814: 5796: 5728: 5643: 5601: 5533: 5479:Democratization 5447: 5391: 5358: 5353: 5323: 5318: 5317: 5298: 5280: 5261:Public holidays 5174: 5133:Life expectancy 5071: 4958: 4851: 4780: 4749:Great Recession 4722:Fourth Republic 4717:1900 to present 4705: 4622:Second Republic 4586: 4555: 4478: 4431: 4398: 4377: 4312: 4304: 4257: 4252: 4231: 4229:Primary sources 4226: 4215: 4210: 4184: 4163: 4149:Thompson, J. M. 4083: 4019: 3937: 3796: 3767: 3739: 3713: 3708: 3673:Wayback Machine 3649:Wayback Machine 3636:Aubry, Octave. 3632: 3627: 3625:Further reading 3622: 3576: 3542: 3531: 3520: 3515: 3514: 3504: 3502: 3497:. p. 107. 3485: 3478: 3471: 3457:Grenville, John 3454: 3450: 3417: 3413: 3406: 3388: 3384: 3377: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3338: 3334: 3324: 3322: 3277: 3273: 3265: 3261: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3199: 3195: 3188: 3166: 3162: 3129: 3125: 3115: 3113: 3068: 3064: 3047: 3043: 3012: 3008: 2984:Esmein, Adhémar 2971: 2969: 2968: 2929: 2918: 2914: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2850: 2843: 2836: 2819: 2815: 2807: 2803: 2795: 2791: 2783: 2779: 2771: 2767: 2736: 2732: 2718: 2714: 2700: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2685: 2680: 2676: 2671:Empire Français 2668: 2664: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2590: 2577: 2575:Memorialisation 2531:sûreté générale 2500:executive power 2443: 2412:Battle of Sedan 2400:Army of Châlons 2313:Battle of Sedan 2297: 2286: 2280: 2277: 2266: 2254: 2243: 2237: 2146: 2140: 2138:Overseas empire 2054:, 29 March 1863 2048:siege of Puebla 2033:central Vietnam 1979:throughout the 1898: 1869: 1845:Mikhail Bakunin 1821: 1812: 1810:Social mobility 1713:Baron Haussmann 1701: 1682: 1673: 1626: 1593: 1540: 1534: 1525: 1519: 1516: 1473: 1471: 1457: 1442: 1427: 1391: 1389: 1376: 1374: 1369: 1277: 1276: 1269: 1254:Fourth Republic 1235: 1202:Interwar period 1184: 1174: 1173: 1133:Second Republic 1066: 1056: 1055: 1014: 1004: 1003: 919: 909: 908: 862: 833: 826: 815: 712:railway network 665: 643: 638:Alsace–Lorraine 629: 615: 590: 576: 536:27 October 1870 533: 520: 507: 505:Battle of Sedan 494: 484:2 December 1852 481: 474:14 January 1852 471: 461:2 December 1851 458: 443:New Imperialism 429: 414: 385: 373: 343: 320: 319: 305: 304: 294: 293: 283: 282: 254: 189: 187: 183: 180: 175: 172: 170: 168: 167: 166: 155: 143: 131: 124: 119: 118: 115: 98: 97: 96: 91: 83: 82: 77: 59: 52: 48:Empire Français 44: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7026: 7016: 7015: 7010: 7008:Former empires 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 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6187: 6183: 6182: 6180: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6123: 6121: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6113: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5974:Central Africa 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5935: 5933: 5926: 5920: 5919: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5912: 5910:United Kingdom 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5876: 5875: 5870: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5824: 5822: 5816: 5815: 5813: 5812: 5806: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5795: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5738: 5736: 5730: 5729: 5727: 5726: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5653: 5651: 5645: 5644: 5642: 5641: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5618: 5616: 5607: 5603: 5602: 5600: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5567:Prince regnant 5564: 5563: 5562: 5552: 5547: 5541: 5539: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5484:Decolonization 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5455: 5453: 5449: 5448: 5446: 5445: 5440: 5438:Personal union 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5408:Constitutional 5405: 5399: 5397: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5363: 5360: 5359: 5352: 5351: 5344: 5337: 5329: 5320: 5319: 5316: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5299: 5297: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5286: 5285: 5282: 5281: 5279: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5217:Cultural icons 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5184: 5182: 5176: 5175: 5173: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5156: 5155: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5095: 5089: 5083: 5077: 5076: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5037:Stock exchange 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4998: 4997: 4987: 4982: 4976: 4970: 4964: 4963: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4940: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4919: 4914: 4913: 4912: 4907: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4886: 4885: 4875: 4869: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4853: 4852: 4850: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4837:National parks 4834: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4812:Climate change 4809: 4804: 4798: 4792: 4786: 4785: 4782: 4781: 4779: 4778: 4777: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4734:Fifth Republic 4731: 4730: 4729: 4719: 4713: 4711: 4707: 4706: 4704: 4703: 4702: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4660: 4655: 4654: 4653: 4642:Third Republic 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4613: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4596: 4594: 4588: 4587: 4585: 4584: 4579: 4577:First Republic 4574: 4572:Napoleonic era 4569: 4563: 4561: 4557: 4556: 4554: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4488: 4486: 4480: 4479: 4477: 4476: 4475: 4474: 4464: 4459: 4458: 4457: 4447: 4441: 4439: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4417:Greek colonies 4414: 4408: 4406: 4400: 4399: 4397: 4396: 4391: 4385: 4383: 4379: 4378: 4376: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4329: 4327: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4303: 4302: 4295: 4288: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4256: 4255:External links 4253: 4251: 4250: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4224: 4216: 4214: 4213:Historiography 4211: 4209: 4208: 4199: 4190: 4175: 4161: 4145: 4135: 4115:10.1086/468454 4109:(3): 338–355. 4096: 4081: 4068: 4058: 4049: 4040: 4031: 4017: 4004: 3995: 3986: 3977: 3967: 3958: 3949: 3935: 3922: 3913: 3899: 3890: 3881: 3868: 3867: 3858: 3849: 3840: 3831: 3813:(4): 675–692. 3800: 3794: 3781: 3772: 3765: 3752: 3743: 3737: 3724: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3706: 3699: 3694:Smith, W.H.C. 3692: 3682: 3675: 3658: 3651: 3633: 3631: 3628: 3626: 3623: 3621: 3620: 3611: 3599:10.2307/285884 3593:(3): 308–329. 3580: 3574: 3557: 3546: 3540: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3513: 3512: 3476: 3469: 3448: 3429:(1): 109–135. 3411: 3404: 3382: 3375: 3357: 3350: 3332: 3299:10.1086/236488 3293:(3): 334–356. 3271: 3259: 3222: 3215: 3193: 3186: 3160: 3141:(3): 349–371. 3123: 3090:10.1086/238159 3062: 3041: 3028:(2): 203–221. 3021:French History 3006: 2995:Chisholm, Hugh 2927: 2912: 2869: 2862: 2841: 2834: 2822:Nohlen, Dieter 2813: 2811:, p. 275. 2801: 2797:Spitzer (1962) 2789: 2777: 2775:, p. 272. 2765: 2730: 2712: 2693: 2692: 2690: 2687: 2684: 2683: 2674: 2662: 2646: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2639: 2638: 2633: 2628: 2623: 2618: 2613: 2608: 2607: 2606: 2601: 2589: 2586: 2576: 2573: 2545:Émile Ollivier 2520:avertissements 2516:cautionnements 2442: 2439: 2427:except Austria 2365:Prime Minister 2347:rebels in the 2299: 2298: 2257: 2255: 2248: 2239:Main article: 2236: 2233: 2225:Foreign Legion 2213:screw steamers 2162:French Algeria 2142:Main article: 2139: 2136: 2120:Lord Clarendon 2097:, Prussia and 1963:Richard Cobden 1914:Russian Empire 1897: 1896:Foreign policy 1894: 1868: 1865: 1820: 1817: 1811: 1808: 1740:Adolphe Thiers 1736:Union libérale 1730:regarding the 1722:, and allowed 1700: 1698:Union libérale 1694: 1681: 1678: 1672: 1669: 1638:Louis Veuillot 1625: 1622: 1592: 1589: 1536:Main article: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1526: 1462:. Please help 1445: 1443: 1436: 1429: 1428: 1426: 1425: 1418: 1411: 1403: 1400: 1399: 1371: 1370: 1368: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1356: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1335: 1330: 1329: 1328: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1287: 1284: 1283: 1279: 1278: 1273: 1272: 1266: 1264:Fifth Republic 1260: 1259: 1256: 1250: 1249: 1246: 1240: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1233: 1228: 1222: 1219: 1218: 1215: 1208: 1207: 1204: 1197: 1196: 1193: 1191:Third Republic 1185: 1180: 1179: 1176: 1175: 1170: 1169: 1166: 1159: 1158: 1155: 1153:Third Republic 1149: 1148: 1145: 1139: 1138: 1135: 1129: 1128: 1125: 1119: 1118: 1115: 1109: 1108: 1105: 1099: 1098: 1095: 1093:First Republic 1089: 1088: 1085: 1079: 1078: 1075: 1067: 1062: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1052: 1051: 1048: 1042: 1041: 1038: 1032: 1031: 1028: 1015: 1010: 1009: 1006: 1005: 1000: 999: 996: 989: 988: 985: 978: 977: 974: 968: 967: 964: 957: 956: 953: 947: 946: 943: 937: 936: 933: 920: 915: 914: 911: 910: 905: 904: 903:50 BC – 486 AD 901: 895: 894: 891: 885: 884: 883:600 BC – 49 BC 881: 879:Greek colonies 875: 874: 871: 863: 858: 857: 854: 853: 847: 846: 838: 837: 828: 827: 820: 814: 811: 670: 669: 660: 656: 655: 652: 651: 648: 647: 640: 634: 633: 626: 620: 619: 612: 603: 600: 599: 594: 586: 585: 580: 568: 567: 562: 552: 551: 546: 542: 541: 538: 537: 534: 528: 525: 524: 521: 515: 512: 511: 508: 502: 499: 498: 495: 489: 486: 485: 482: 479: 476: 475: 472: 466: 463: 462: 459: 453: 450: 449: 446: 445: 440: 439:Historical era 436: 435: 430: 424: 421: 420: 415: 409: 406: 405: 400: 396: 395: 392: 391: 386: 383: 380: 379: 377:Émile Ollivier 374: 371: 368: 367: 364: 363: 360: 354: 353: 350: 349: 344: 341: 338: 337: 334: 333: 330: 324: 323: 309: 308: 274: 268: 267: 262: 256: 255: 253: 252: 246: 240: 235: 230: 225: 222:state religion 214: 212: 208: 207: 202: 198: 197: 161: 157: 156: 153: 145: 144: 141: 133: 132: 122: 100: 99: 92: 85: 84: 78: 71: 70: 69: 66: 65: 61: 60: 45: 42: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7025: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 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5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5650: 5646: 5640: 5639: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5619: 5617: 5615: 5611: 5608: 5604: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5561: 5560:Queen regnant 5558: 5557: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5542: 5540: 5536: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5519:Republicanism 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5499:Head of state 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5450: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5433:Non-sovereign 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5394: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5361: 5357: 5350: 5345: 5343: 5338: 5336: 5331: 5330: 5327: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5295: 5292: 5291: 5287: 5277: 5274: 5272: 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1974: 1972: 1971:authoritarian 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1955:Great Britain 1952: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1902: 1893: 1890: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1864: 1861: 1857: 1852: 1850: 1849:International 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1816: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1774: 1769: 1763: 1761: 1760:rapprochement 1757: 1753: 1752:Eugène Rouher 1749: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1714: 1710: 1705: 1699: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1688:laissez-faire 1677: 1668: 1664: 1661: 1657: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1640:'s paper the 1639: 1635: 1631: 1621: 1617: 1615: 1612:Working with 1604: 1597: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1576: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1562: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1539: 1523: 1520:December 2023 1512: 1509: 1505: 1502: 1498: 1495: 1491: 1488: 1484: 1481: – 1480: 1476: 1475:Find sources: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1455: 1454: 1453:single source 1449: 1444: 1440: 1435: 1434: 1424: 1419: 1417: 1412: 1410: 1405: 1404: 1402: 1401: 1398: 1387: 1383: 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Ruled by 560:Preceded by 427:Lower house 412:Upper house 399:Legislature 321:(1869–1870) 295:(1852–1869) 249:Ibadi Islam 243:Sunni Islam 233:Lutheranism 188: / 6937:Categories 6908:Tanganyika 6823:The Gambia 6751:Niuē-Fekai 6690:Yugoslavia 6590:Montenegro 6397:Upper Yafa 6392:Upper Asir 6029:Madagascar 5762:Luxembourg 5494:Government 5459:Abdication 5428:Hereditary 5356:Monarchies 5256:Philosophy 5241:Literature 5153:secularism 4949:Parliament 4744:2005 riots 4694:Liberation 4560:Revolution 4427:Roman Gaul 4412:Prehistory 4368:Journalism 3493:. London: 3216:0803225822 3176:. p. 3059:: 192–203. 2746:(3): 426. 2689:References 2569:Orléanists 2311:after the 2116:Comte Daru 2010:Maximilian 1961:policy of 1959:free trade 1928:. His son 1906:Yevpatoria 1889:plebiscite 1825:free trade 1490:newspapers 932:settlement 899:Roman Gaul 869:Prehistory 753:, gaining 724:boulevards 403:Parliament 272:Government 260:Demonym(s) 176:02°21′08″E 173:48°51′23″N 116:(de facto) 6878:Mauritius 6771:Rarotonga 6756:Nuku Hiva 6746:Mangareva 6721:Bora Bora 6600:Neuchâtel 6570:Lithuania 6475:Catalonia 6362:Sri Lanka 6315:Manchukuo 6290:Kurdistan 6244:Indonesia 6167:Talamanca 6127:Araucanía 6110:and other 6089:Wassoulou 5833:Australia 5509:Oligarchy 5113:Education 5067:Transport 4917:Judiciary 4878:Elections 4832:Mountains 4790:Geography 4536:Louis XIV 4326:Overviews 4266:Karl Marx 4246:23386272M 4131:144162251 4027:26613287M 3827:154025726 3653:Bury, J. 3552:Historian 3443:154801621 3315:145650836 3254:144122281 3155:144555736 3106:154226182 2988:France § 2986:(1911). 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