History of France - Knowledge

4969: 3492: 5266: 4400: 72: 4800: 3767: 4420:. The Serbian crisis triggered a complex set of military alliances between European states, causing most of the continent, including France, to be drawn into war within a few short weeks. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in late July, triggering Russian mobilization. On 1 August both Germany and France ordered mobilization. Germany was much better prepared militarily than any of the other countries involved, including France. The German Empire, as an ally of Austria, declared war on Russia. France was allied with Russia and so was ready to commit to war against the German Empire. On 3 August Germany declared war on France, and sent its armies through neutral Belgium. Britain entered the war on 4 August, and started sending in troops on 7 August. Italy, although tied to Germany, remained neutral and then joined the Allies in 1915. 4788: 4137:, extends from the French Revolution's aftermath to the brink of World War I. Throughout this period, France underwent significant transformations that reshaped its geography, demographics, language, and economic landscape, marking a period of profound change and development. The French Revolution and Napoleonic eras fundamentally altered French society, promoting centralization, administrative uniformity across departments, and a standardized legal code. Education also centralized, emphasizing technical training and meritocracy, despite growing conservatism among the aristocracy and the church. Wealth concentration saw the richest 10 percent owning most of the nation's wealth. The 19th century saw France expanding to nearly its modern territorial limits through annexations and overseas imperialism, notably in Algeria, 2206: 3406: 5460: 2474: 1505: 5538: 4093: 4909:

women a key symbolic role to carry out the national regeneration. It used propaganda, women's organizations, and legislation to promote maternity, patriotic duty, and female submission to marriage, home, and children's education. Conditions were very difficult for housewives, as food and other necessities were in short supply. Divorce laws were made much more stringent, and restrictions were placed on the employment of married women. Family allowances that had begun in the 1930s were continued, and became a vital lifeline for many families; it was a monthly cash bonus for having more children. In 1942, the birth rate started to rise, and

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extremely short supply, with very low stocks of coal and oil. Imports of raw materials were largely cut off, so most factories shut down. The invaders had stripped most of the valuable industrial tools for German factories. Discussions with the United States for emergency aid dragged on, with repeated postponements on both sides. Meanwhile, several million French prisoners of war and forced labourers were being returned home, with few jobs and little food available for them. The plan was for 20 percent of German reparations to be paid to France, but Germany was in much worse shape even in France, and in no position to pay.

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working class such as mandatory two-week paid vacations. However, renewed inflation cancelled the gains in wage rates, unemployment did not fall, and economic recovery was very slow. The Popular Front failed in economics, foreign policy, and long-term stability: "Disappointment and failure was the legacy of the Popular Front." At first the Popular Front created enormous excitement and expectations on the left—including very large scale sitdown strikes—but in the end it failed to live up to its promise. However, Socialists would later take inspiration from the attempts of the Popular Front to set up a welfare state.

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varied from firm to firm. Some had been destroyed or damaged, nationalized or requisitioned, but the majority carried on, sometimes working harder and more efficiently than before the war. Despite strong American pressure through the ERP, there was little change in the organization and content of the training for French industrial managers. This was mainly due to the reticence of the existing institutions, and the struggle among different economic and political interest groups for control over efforts to improve the further training of practitioners.

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rates. Despite the loss of major industrial districts France produced an enormous output of munitions that armed both the French and the American armies. By 1917 the infantry was on the verge of mutiny, with a widespread sense that it was now the American turn to storm the German lines. But they rallied and defeated the greatest German offensive, which came in spring 1918, then rolled over the collapsing invaders. November 1918 brought a surge of pride and unity, and an unrestrained demand for revenge.

3318: 3022: 1340: 4109: 3035:, known as the "Sun King", reigned over France from 1643 until 1715. Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from Paris, sought to eliminate remnants of feudalism in France, and subjugated and weakened the aristocracy. By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution. However, Louis XIV's long reign saw France involved in many wars that drained its treasury. 2653: 2162: 4446:, a form of war in which both opposing armies had static lines of defense. The war of movement quickly turned into a war of position. Neither side advanced much, but both sides suffered hundreds of thousands of casualties. German and Allied armies produced essentially a matched pair of trench lines from the Swiss border in the south to the North Sea coast of Belgium. Meanwhile, large swaths of northeastern France came under the brutal control of German occupiers. 4507:

have important reverberations after the war, as it would be a first breach of liberal theories of non-interventionism. The damages caused by the war amounted to about 113% of the GDP of 1913, chiefly the destruction of productive capital and housing. The national debt rose from 66% of GDP in 1913 to 170% in 1919, reflecting the heavy use of bond issues to pay for the war. Inflation was severe, with the franc losing over half its value against the British pound.

4392: 1157:, the final cultural stage prior to Roman expansion across Gaul. The first written records for the history of France appear in the Iron Age. What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as Gaul. Roman writers noted the presence of three main ethno-linguistic groups in the area: the Gauls, the Aquitani, and the Belgae. The Gauls, the largest and best attested group, were Celtic people speaking what is known as the Gaulish language. 1887: 2580: 5193: 4625: 5115:

offices. They were especially impressed with the prosperity of American workers, and how the price of vehicles. Some French businesses resisted Americanization, but the most profitable, especially chemicals, oil, electronics, and instrumentation, seized upon the opportunity to attract American investments and build a larger market. The U.S. insisted on opportunities for Hollywood films, and the French film industry responded with new life.

1254: 3141: 1010: 4442:" was fought largely in France and was characterized by very little movement despite extremely large and violent battles, often with new and more destructive military technology. On the Western Front, the small improvised trenches of the first few months rapidly grew deeper and more complex, gradually becoming vast areas of interlocking defensive works. The land war quickly became dominated by the muddy, bloody stalemate of 5633: 2243:(reigned 1108–37) onward that royal authority became more accepted. Louis VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a scholar. The way the king raised money from his vassals made him quite unpopular; he was described as greedy and ambitious. His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the royal image, reinforced the royal power. From 1127 onward Louis had the assistance of a skilled religious statesman, 606: 5647: 621: 1055: 2453: 4520: 2388:(1242). Ultimately, Henry III was defeated and had to recognise Louis IX's overlordship, although the King of France did not seize Aquitaine. Louis IX was now the most important landowner of France. There were some opposition to his rule in Normandy, yet it proved remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse which had been brutally conquered. The 4736:(1936–1939). Blum rejected support for the Spanish Republicans because of his fear that civil war might spread to deeply divided France. Financial support in military cooperation with Poland was also a policy. The government nationalized arms suppliers, and dramatically increased its program of rearming the French military in a last-minute catch-up with the Germans. 5046:. A new Social Security system was called for, as well as important new concessions to the labour unions. Unions themselves were divided among communist, Socialist, and Christian Democrat factions. Frustrated by his inability to control all the dominant forces, de Gaulle resigned in 1946. On 13 October 1946, a new constitution established the 4172:'s era, introducing measures like public assistance and regulations to improve working and living conditions for the lower classes. The Second Empire (1852–1870) sought modernization through infrastructure projects like the railway system, yet Napoleon III's foreign policy ventures often ended in failure, notably the catastrophic 5238:

latter role. He managed to keep France together while taking steps to end the war, much to the anger of the Pieds-Noirs (Frenchmen settled in Algeria) and the military; both had supported his return to power to maintain colonial rule. He granted independence to Algeria in 1962 and progressively to other French colonies.

4941:. Eventually, several important French ships joined the Free French Forces. The United States maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy and avoided recognition of de Gaulle's claim to be the one and only government of France. Churchill, caught between the U.S. and de Gaulle, tried to find a compromise. 4267:. As it developed, the new empire took on roles of trade with France, especially supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items as well as lending prestige to the motherland and spreading French civilization and language and the Catholic religion. It also provided manpower in the World Wars. 5037:

The political scene in 1944–45 was controlled by the Resistance, but it had numerous factions. Charles de Gaulle and the Free France element had been based outside France, but now came to dominate, in alliance with the Socialists, the Christian Democrats (MRP), and what remained of the Radical party.

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After defeating Russia in 1917, Germany now could concentrate on the Western Front, and planned an all-out assault in the spring of 1918, but had to do it before the very rapidly growing American army played a role. In March 1918 Germany launched its offensive and by May had reached the Marne and was

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after 1945; it reversed a long-term record of low birth rates. In addition, there was a steady immigration, especially from former French colonies in North Africa. The population grew from 41 million in 1946, to 50 million in 1966, and 60 million by 1990. The farming population declined sharply, from

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The cities had a quasi-independent status, and were largely controlled by the leading merchants and guilds. Peasants made up the vast majority of population, who in many cases had well-established rights that the authorities had to respect. In the 17th century peasants had ties to the market economy,

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and French settlers opposed to concessions in the face of Arab nationalist insurrection ripped apart the unstable Fourth Republic. The National Assembly brought De Gaulle back to power during the May 1958 crisis. He founded the Fifth Republic with a strengthened presidency, and he was elected in the

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The richest families were hurt, as the top 1 percent saw their share of wealth drop from about 60% in 1914 to 36% in 1935, then plunge to 20 percent in 1970 to the present. A great deal of physical and financial damage was done during the world wars, foreign investments were cashed in to pay for the

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with controls and rationing. By 1915 the war economy went into high gear, as millions of French women and colonial men replaced the civilian roles of many of the 3 million soldiers. Considerable assistance came with the influx of American food, money and raw materials in 1917. This war economy would

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controlled about 40% of the wealth. The king (not the pope) nominated bishops, but typically had to negotiate with noble families that had close ties to local monasteries and church establishments. The nobility came second in terms of wealth, but there was no unity. Each noble had his own lands, his

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in 2017 questioned whether France was still relevant in world affairs, saying decolonization diminished its terroritorial holdings, and that France's message of "universal values" had encountered greater resistance in many countries. However, France still had military importance, and lead the Paris

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nationalized the canal despite French and British opposition; he determined that a European response was unlikely. Great Britain and France attacked Egypt and built an alliance with Israel against Nasser. Israel attacked from the east, Britain from Cyprus and France from Algeria. Egypt was defeated

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Although the economic situation in France was grim in 1945, resources did exist and the economy regained normal growth by the 1950s. France managed to regain its international status thanks to a successful production strategy, a demographic spurt, and technical and political innovations. Conditions

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Many civilians sought refuge by taking to the roads of France: some 2 million refugees from Belgium and the Netherlands were joined by between 8 and 10 million French civilians, representing a quarter of the French population, all heading south and west. This movement may well have been the largest

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was a major factor by 1917, even reaching the army. The soldiers were reluctant to attack; Mutiny was a factor as soldiers said it was best to wait for the arrival of millions of Americans. The soldiers were protesting not just the futility of frontal assaults in the face of German machine guns but

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by 20 August and soon had captured a large portion of northern France. The original plan was to continue southwest and attack Paris from the west. By early September they were within 65 kilometres (40 mi) of Paris, and the French government had relocated to Bordeaux. The Allies finally stopped

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used the overseas colonies as bases from which they fought to liberate France. "In an effort to restore its world-power status after the humiliation of defeat and occupation, France was eager to maintain its overseas empire at the end of the Second World War." Only two days after the defeat of Nazi

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created by eminent jurists under Napoleon's supervision. Praised for its clarity, it spread rapidly throughout Europe and the world in general, and marked the end of feudalism and the liberation of serfs where it took effect. The Code recognized the principles of civil liberty, equality before the

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In 1801, Napoleon concluded a "Concordat" with Pope Pius VII that opened peaceful relations between church and state in France. The policies of the Revolution were reversed, except the Church did not get its lands back. Bishops and clergy were to receive state salaries, and the government would pay

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The wars were so expensive, and so inconclusive, that although France gained some territory to the east, its enemies gained more strength than it did. Vauban, France's leading military strategist, warned the King in 1689 that a hostile "Alliance" was too powerful at sea. He recommended the best way

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A central feature of the Marshall Plan was to encourage international trade, reduce tariffs, lower barriers, and modernize French management. The Marshall Plan set up intensive tours of American industry. France sent missions of businessmen and experts to tour American factories, farms, stores and

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The Vichy regime sought to collaborate with Germany, keeping peace in France to avoid further occupation although at the expense of personal freedom and individual safety. Some 76,000 Jews were deported during the German occupation, often with the help of the Vichy authorities, and murdered in the

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voted to keep the government in power, and generally supported the government's economic policies, but rejected its foreign policies. The Popular Front passed numerous labor reforms, which increased wages, cut working hours to 40 hours with overtime illegal and provided many lesser benefits to the

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a bit later than other countries, hitting around 1931. While the GDP in the 1920s grew at the very strong rate of 4.43% per year, the 1930s rate fell to only 0.63%. The depression was relatively mild: unemployment peaked under 5%, the fall in production was at most 20% below the 1929 output; there

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France did not expect war in 1914, but when it came in August the entire nation rallied enthusiastically for two years. It specialized in sending infantry forward again and again, only to be stopped again and again by German artillery, trenches, barbed wire and machine guns, with horrific casualty

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within the French Republic. These now total about 1% of the pre-1939 colonial area, with 2.7 million people living in them in 2013. By the 1970s, the last "vestiges of empire held little interest for the French. ... Except for the traumatic decolonization of Algeria, however, what is remarkable is

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territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. A distinction is generally made between the "first colonial empire", that existed until 1814, by which time most of it had been lost, and the "second colonial empire", which began with the conquest of Algiers in 1830. The second

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law, and the secular character of the state. It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son inherited) and required that inheritances be divided equally among all the children. The court system was standardized; all judges were appointed by the national government in Paris.

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Napoleon kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even as it was based on a core of careerists and talented officers. Before the Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps. Now promotion

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in 1976, who advocated numerous complex, strict policies ("Barre Plans"). The plans included a three-month price freeze; wage controls; salary controls; a reduction of the growth in the money supply; increases in taxes and bank rates but a reduction in the value-added tax; measures to restore the

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aid continuing until 1951. France received additional aid from 1951 to 1955 in order to help the country in its war in Indochina. Apart from low-interest loans, the other funds were grants that did not involve repayment. The debts left over from World War I, whose payment had been suspended since

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Wartime damage to the economy was severe, and apart from gold reserves, France had inadequate resources to recover on its own. The transportation system was in total shambles — the Allies had bombed out the railways and the bridges, and the Germans had destroyed the port facilities. Energy was in

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The war was fought in large part on French soil, with 3.4 million French dead including civilians, and four times as many military casualties. The economy was hurt by the 1913 German invasion of major industrial areas in the northeast, which produced 58% of the steel, and 40% of the coal. In

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emerged as a period of cultural flourishing and peace, overshadowed by the growing threats of war and internal discord. The long 19th century set the foundations for modern France, navigating through revolutions, wars, and social upheavals to emerge as a unified nation-state near the front of the

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Political power was widely dispersed. The law courts ("Parlements") were powerful. However, the king had only about 10,000 officials in royal service – very few indeed for such a large country, and with very slow internal communications over an inadequate road system. Travel was usually faster by

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provided a coherent framework for economic policy, and it was strongly supported by the Marshall Plan. It was inspired by moderate, Keynesian free-trade ideas rather than state control. Although relaunched in an original way, the French economy was about as productive as comparable West European

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The French soldiers held as POWs and forced laborers in Germany throughout the war were not at risk of death in combat, but the anxieties of separation for their wives were high. The government provided them a modest allowance, but one in ten became prostitutes to support their families. It gave

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Over the course of the 1st millennium BC the Greeks, Romans, and Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and the offshore islands. The Roman Republic annexed southern Gaul as the province of Gallia Narbonensis in the late 2nd century BC, and Roman forces under Julius Caesar

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Every head of state from 1814 to 1873 spent part of his life in exile. Every regime was the target of assassination attempts of a frequency that put Spanish and Russian politics in the shade. Even in peaceful times governments changed every few months. In less peaceful times, political deaths,

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The period was also marked by significant linguistic and educational reforms, which sought to unify the country through language and secular education, contributing to a stronger national identity. Economically, France struggled to match the industrial growth rates of other advanced nations,

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The population held steady from 40.7 million in 1911, to 41.5 million in 1936. The sense that the population was too small, especially in regard to the rapid growth of more powerful Germany, was a common theme in the early twentieth century. Natalist policies were proposed in the 1930s, and

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The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential than the earliest ones. This period also saw the rise of a complex system of international alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, kings of France and England and the Holy Roman Emperor. The reign of

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essential to the nature of France, de Gaulle initiated his "Politics of Grandeur." He demanded complete autonomy for France in world affairs, which meant that major decisions could not be forced upon it by NATO, the European Community or anyone else. De Gaulle pursued a policy of "national

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The Communists had largely dominated the Resistance inside France, but cooperated closely with the government in 1944–45, on orders from the Kremlin. There was a general consensus that important powers that had been an open collaboration with the Germans should be nationalized, such as

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France's recent economic history has been less turbulent than in many other countries. The average income in mid-century grew by 0.9% per year, a rate which has been outdone almost every year since 1975. By the early 1980s, for instance, wages in France were on or slightly above the

2310:(junior king 1179–80, senior king 1180–1223) saw the French royal domain and influence greatly expanded. He set the context for the rise of power to much more powerful monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip the Fair. Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-called 5162:, Pierre France made a deal that gave the Viet Minh control of Vietnam north of the 17th parallel, and allowed France to pull out all its forces. That left South Vietnam standing alone, and the U.S. would prove support for it afterwards. Pierre France next came to an agreement with 4489:(15 July to 6 August 1918), the Allied line held. The Allies then shifted to the offensive. The Germans, out of reinforcements, were overwhelmed day after day and the high command saw it was hopeless. Austria and Turkey collapsed, and the Kaiser's government fell. Germany signed " 795:, a French peasant girl who led forces against the English, establishing herself as a national heroine. The war ended with a Valois victory in 1453. Victory had the effect of strengthening French nationalism and increasing the power and reach of the French monarchy. During the 4049:

The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s. In the 1790s the government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiled aristocrats. Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow of revenues and made long-term financing possible.

3959:. Napoleon assembled the largest army Europe had ever seen, including troops from all subject states, to invade Russia, which had just left the continental system and was gathering an army on the Polish frontier. Following an exhausting march and the bloody but inconclusive 3208:

for France to fight back was to license French merchants ships to privateer and seize enemy merchant ships, while avoiding its navies. Vauban was pessimistic about France's so-called friends and allies and recommended against expensive land wars, or hopeless naval wars.

3098:, which Louis XIV had greatly expanded. Over time, Louis XIV compelled many members of the nobility, especially the noble elite, to inhabit Versailles. He controlled the nobility with an elaborate system of pensions and privileges, and replaced their power with himself. 3706:(1798–1802). Royalists and their allies still dreamed of restoring the monarchy to power, while the Prussian and Austrian crowns did not accept their territorial losses during the previous war. In 1799, the Russian army expelled the French from Italy in battles such as 2415:

became king when Saint Louis died in 1270 during the Eighth Crusade. Philip III was called "the Bold" on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback, and not because of his character or ruling abilities. Philip III took part in another crusading disaster: the

4965:. On 10 June 1944, a company of the 2nd SS Panzer Division, entered Oradour-sur-Glane, and massacred 642 men, women and children, all of whom were civilians. In 1953, 21 men went on trial for the Oradour killings; all but one were pardoned by the French government. 4037:

Religion had been a major issue during the Revolution, and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems, moving the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him. The Catholic system was reestablished by the

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In order to ruin the British economy, Napoleon set up the Continental System in 1807, and tried to prevent merchants across Europe from trading with British. The large amount of smuggling frustrated Napoleon, and did more harm to his economy than to his enemies'.

5607:" (later Renaissance RE). It declared itself above left and right. He called parliamentary elections that brought him the absolute majority of députés. He appointed a prime minister from the centre right, and ministers from both the centre left and centre right. 5529:

by socially alienated teenagers. Traditional interpretations say these race riots were spurred by radical Muslims or unemployed youth. Another view states that the riots reflected a broader problem of racism and police violence in France. In 2009, there were

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government. However, in practice, most local government was handled by the traditional French officialdom. In November 1942 all of Vichy France was finally occupied by German forces. Vichy continued in existence but it was closely supervised by the Germans.

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which led to his capture and deposition. The Third Republic embarked on modernizing France, with educational reforms and attempts to create a unified national identity. Foreign policy focused on isolation of Germany and forming alliances, leading to the

4141:, and Africa. Despite territorial gains, France faced challenges, including a slow population growth, compared to its European neighbors, and a late industrialization that saw a shift from rural to urban living and the rise of an industrial workforce. 3876:

Freed from his obligation in the east, Napoleon then went back to the west, as the French Empire was still at war with Britain. Only two countries remained neutral in the war: Sweden and Portugal, and Napoleon then looked toward the latter. In the

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By the late 1960s, France's economic growth, while strong, was beginning to lose steam. A global currency crisis meant a devaluation of the Franc against the West German Mark and the U.S. Dollar in 1968, which was one of the leading factors for

1977:, 843). After a last brief reunification (884–887), the imperial title ceased to be held in the western realm, which was to form the basis of the future French kingdom. The eastern realm, which would become Germany, elected the Saxon dynasty of 1693:, who would soon conquer a significant part of southern Gaul as well as most of the Iberian Peninsula. The Burgundians claimed their own kingdom, and northern Gaul was practically abandoned to the Franks. Aside from the Germanic peoples, the 8959:

Le Forestier, Laurent (2004). "L'accueil en France des films américains de réalisateurs français à l'époque des accords Blum-Byrnes" [The reception in France of American films by French directors during the Blum-Byrnes agreements].

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on 22 June, whereby Germany kept most of the French army in camps in Germany, and France had to pay out large sums in gold and food supplies. Germany occupied three-fifths of France's territory, leaving the rest in the southeast to the new

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Another French attack was launched on Spain, led by Napoleon himself, and was described as "an avalanche of fire and steel". However, the French Empire was no longer regarded as invincible by European powers. In 1808, Austria formed the

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After de Gaulle left office in January 1946, the diplomatic logjam was broken in terms of American aid. The U.S. Army shipped in food, from 1944 to 1946, and U.S. Treasury loans and cash grants were disbursed from 1945 until 1947, with

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Within France proper, the organized underground grew as the Vichy regime resorted to more strident policies in order to fulfill the enormous demands of the Nazis and the eventual decline of Nazi Germany became more obvious. They formed

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Preoccupied with internal problems, France paid little attention to foreign policy in the 1911–14 period, although it did extend military service to three years from two over strong Socialist objections in 1913. The rapidly escalating

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had turned into a French political and civil crisis. Algeria was given its independence in 1962, unleashing a massive wave of immigration from the former colony back to France of both Pied-Noir and Algerians who had supported France.

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tactics. Although there still were battles, the Napoleonic army left Russia in late 1812 annihilated, most of all by the Russian winter, exhaustion, and scorched earth warfare. On the Spanish front the French troops were defeated at

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forced a ceasefire; Britain and Israel soon withdrew, leaving France alone in Egypt. Under strong international pressures, the French government ultimately evacuated its troops from Suez and largely disengaged from the Middle East.

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provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town). Although most peasants in France spoke local dialects, an official language emerged in Paris and the

6224:: "In the cities, especially Zaragoza, the repopulation was supplemented with settlers from abroad, mainly of French origin, whose economic activity in many cases was crafted products and trade (Vicens Vives 1964, p.146)."(Page 14) 5525:), settled permanently in France, especially in the larger cities where they lived in subsidized public housing, and suffered very high unemployment rates. In 2005, the predominantly Arab-immigrant suburbs of many French cities 5110:

set out the French five-year plan for recovery and development. The Marshall Plan gave France $ 2.3 billion with no repayment. The total of all American grants and credits to France from 1946 to 1953, amounted to $ 4.9 billion.

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trade balance; limits on expensive oil imports; special aid to exports; an action fund to aid industries; increased financial aid to farmers; and social security. The package was not very popular, but was pursued with vigour.

4046:), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended. Protestants, Jews and atheists were tolerated. 3881:, a Franco-Spanish alliance against Portugal was sealed as Spain eyed Portuguese territories. French armies entered Spain in order to attack Portugal, but then seized Spanish fortresses and took over the kingdom by surprise. 3837:. Although the Coalition was joined by other allies, the French Empire was also not alone since it now had a complex network of allies and subject states. The largely outnumbered French army crushed the Prussian army at 5916: 5386:, potential menaces to mainland France appeared considerably reduced. France began reducing its nuclear capacities and conscription was abolished in 2001. In 1990, France, led by Mitterrand, joined the short successful 4511:

wars, the Russian Bolsheviks expropriated large-scale investments, postwar inflation demolished cash holdings, stocks and bonds plunged during the Great Depression, and progressive taxes ate away at accumulated wealth.

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However, the tribal society of the Gauls did not change fast enough for the centralized Roman state, who would learn to counter them. The Gaulish tribal confederacies were then defeated by the Romans in battles such as

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assumed office after a campaign focused on the need to combat France's high unemployment rate. The economy became strengthened. French leaders increasingly tied the future of France to the continued development of the

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who was Prime Minister for eight months in 1954–55, working with the support of the Socialist and Communist parties. His top priority was ending the deadly war in Indochina in the wake of the humiliating defeat at the

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also degraded conditions at the front lines and at home, especially infrequent leaves, poor food, the use of African and Asian colonials on the home front, and concerns about the welfare of their wives and children.

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in Europe. Therefore, he claimed the Spanish thrones for himself. England and the Dutch Republic joined Leopold against Louis XIV and Philip of Anjou. They inflicted a few resounding defeats on the French army; the

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to Rechristianize Muslim Spain and Portugal. The Iberian reconquista made use of French knights and settlers to repopulate former Muslim settlements that were sacked by conquering Spanish or Portuguese Christians.

5362:, in favour of a more pragmatic approach to economic intervention. Growth resumed later in the decade, only to be slowed down by the economic depression of the early 1990s, which affected the Socialist Party. 2528:(1412–1431). Although this is debatable, the Hundred Years' War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically and militarily. 2193:

in 1023 on the borderline. They agreed to end all claims over each other's realm, setting a new stage of Capetian and Ottonian relationships. The reign of Robert II was quite important because it involved the

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by marching through the Ardennes forest. A second German force was sent into Belgium and the Netherlands to act as a diversion to this main thrust. In six weeks of savage fighting the French lost 90,000 men.

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Economic historians call the era from about 1475 to 1630 the "beautiful 16th century" because of the return of peace, prosperity and optimism across the nation, and the steady growth of population. In 1559,

2016:, in order to protect the land from other raiders. The people that emerged from the interactions between the new Viking aristocracy and the already mixed Franks and Gallo-Romans became known as the Normans. 71: 5015:. Tens of thousands of collaborators were executed without trial. The new government declared the Vichy laws unconstitutional and illegal, and elected new local governments. Women gained the right to vote. 3109:

ordering the destruction of all Protestant churches and schools in France. Its immediate consequence was a large Protestant exodus from France. Over two million people died in two famines in 1693 and 1710.

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as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman) aristocracies were once one and were now split between allegiances. While the French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets, the Church called for the

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France's population was 13 million people in 1484 and 20 million in 1700. It had the second largest population in Europe around 1700. France's lead slowly faded after 1700, as other countries grew faster.

4282:– were offered. In reality the French settlers were given full rights and the natives given very limited rights. Apart from Algeria few settlers permanently settled in its colonies. Even in Algeria, the " 2817:

died in 1559 in a jousting tournament; he was succeeded in turn by his three sons, each of whom assumed the throne as minors or were weak, ineffectual rulers. Into the power vacuum entered Henry's widow,

2337:

and, as Louis VI had done often to his rebellious vassals, Philip II confiscated John's possessions in France. John's defeat was swift and his attempts to reconquer his French possession at the decisive

2342:(1214) resulted in complete failure. Philip II had annexed Normandy and Anjou, plus capturing the Counts of Boulogne and Flanders, although Aquitaine and Gascony remained loyal to the Plantagenet King. 5855: 10125: 7922: 3991:(February 1814), although, the Six Days Campaign is often considered a tactical masterpiece because the allies suffered much higher casualties. Napoleon abdicated on 6 April 1814, and was exiled to 5150:. The U.S. had paid most of the costs of the war, but its support inside France had collapsed. In February 1954, only 7% of the French people wanted to continue the fight to keep Indochina out of 3786:. Napoleon's rule was constitutional, and although autocratic, it was much more advanced than traditional European monarchies of the time. The proclamation of the French Empire was met by the 3117:. This time the theatre was not only in Europe but also in North America. Although the war was long and difficult (it was also called the Nine Years' War), its results were inconclusive. The 5300:, he appeared likely to lose power amidst widespread protests by students and workers, but persisted through the crisis with backing from the army. His party, denouncing radicalism, won the 4701:, designed to fight off any German attack. The Line did not extend into Belgium, which Germany would exploit in 1940. Military alliances were signed with weak powers in 1920–21, called the " 9794: 1518:

Gaul was divided into several different provinces. The Romans displaced populations to prevent local identities from becoming a threat to Roman control. Thus, many Celts were displaced in

4968: 4297:, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached 11,500,000 km (4,400,000 sq mi) in 1920, with a population of 110 million people in 1939. In World War II, the 5204:

In 1956, another crisis struck French colonies, this time in Egypt. The Suez Canal, having been built by the French government, belonged to the French Republic and was operated by the

10147: 10032: 4057:

The modern era of French education began in the 1790s. The Revolution in the 1790s abolished the traditional universities. Napoleon sought to replace them with new institutions, the

9597:

Hibbs, Douglas A. Jr; Vasilatos, Nicholas (1981). "Economics and Politics in France: Economic Performance and Mass Political Support for Presidents Pompidou and Giscard d'Estaing".

7352: 4988:. The German lines finally broke, and they fled back to Germany while keeping control of the major ports. Allied forces liberated France and the Free French were given the honor of 1844:, originally the chief advisor to the kings, would become the real power in the Frankish lands; the Merovingian kings themselves would be reduced to little more than figureheads. 4996:(de Gaulle's formal name for resistance fighters) to continue the war until the final defeat of Germany; this army numbered 300,000 men by September, and 370,000 by spring 1945. 4815:

in 1939 finally caused France and Britain to declare war against Germany. But the Allies did not launch massive assaults and instead kept a defensive stance: this was called the

9465: 5924: 4468:, a pacifist, was assassinated at the start of the war, the French socialist movement abandoned its antimilitarist positions and joined the national war effort. Prime Minister 2039:. The authority of the king was more religious than administrative. The 11th century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states like 4724:, brought together Socialists and Radicals to become Prime Minister from 1936 to 1937; he was the first Jew and the first Socialist to lead France. The Communists in the 4005:

reversed the political changes that had occurred during the wars. Napoleon suddenly returned, seized control of France, raised an army, and marched on his enemies in the

2266:

in Bordeaux, which made Louis VII Duke of Aquitaine and gave him considerable power. The marriage was ultimately annulled and Eleanor soon married the Duke of Normandy —

923:

in 1940. The Third Republic was dismantled, and most of the country was controlled directly by Germany, while the south was controlled until 1942 by the collaborationist

5700: 3983:

was formed under British leadership. The German states of the Confederation of the Rhine switched sides, finally opposing Napoleon. Napoleon was largely defeated in the

3263:, and France seized the opportunity to join the conflict. The war played out in North America and India as well as Europe, and inconclusive terms were agreed to in the 2893:

The religious conflicts that plagued France also ravaged the Habsburg-led Holy Roman Empire. The Thirty Years' War eroded the power of the Catholic Habsburgs. Although

2524:

It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by

4683:

as a means of ensuring German payments. The intervention was a failure, and France accepted the international solution to the reparations issues, as expressed in the

11420: 9690: 4028:

Napoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed by all-powerful prefects whom he selected. They were more powerful than royal intendants of the

5220:

in a mere few days. The Suez crisis caused an outcry of indignation in the Arab world, and Saudi Arabia set an embargo on oil on France and Britain. U.S. President

1824:

but his kingdom would not survive his death in 511. Under Frankish inheritance traditions, all sons inherit part of the land, so four kingdoms emerged: centered on

3741:

because the Scandinavian kingdoms were against the British blockade of France. The Second Coalition was beaten and peace was settled in two distinct treaties: the

2364:(reigned 1226–70). The kingdom was vulnerable: war was still going on in the County of Toulouse, and the royal army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc. 1785:

and subsequently united most of northern and central Gaul under his rule. Clovis then recorded a succession of victories against other Germanic tribes such as the

5572:

from some angered Muslims in Paris. World leaders rallied to Paris to show their support for free speech. There were more terrorist attacks afterwards, including

3275:, in which the alliances seen during the previous war were mostly inverted. France was now allied to Austria and Russia, while Britain was now allied to Prussia. 3094:, according to which France would annex France-Comté and acquire further concessions in the Spanish Netherlands. In May 1682, the royal court moved to the lavish 2521:

was made heir to Charles VI. Henry V failed to outlive Charles so it was Henry VI of England and France who consolidated the Dual-Monarchy of England and France.

2380:

had not yet recognized the Capetian overlordship over Aquitaine and still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the Angevin Empire. He landed in 1230 at

11200: 5437: 5106:

of 1946. The United States forgave all $ 2.8 billion in debt from the First World War, and gave France a new loan of $ 650 million. In return, French negotiator

2510:(actually several distinct wars over the period 1337 to 1453) when the Plantagenets claimed the throne of France from the Valois. This was also the time of the 1522:

or were enslaved and moved out of Gaul. There was a strong cultural evolution in Gaul under the Roman Empire, the most obvious one being the replacement of the

1161:

conquered the rest of Gaul in the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC. Afterwards a Gallo-Roman culture emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the Roman empire.

4270:

It became a moral mission to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity and French culture. In 1884, the leading proponent of colonialism,

5486:

in 2011. After 2005, the world economy stagnated, and the 2008 global crisis (including its effects in both the Eurozone and France) dogged Sarkozy, who lost

5285:

in order to create a European counterweight between the "Anglo-Saxon" (American and British) and Soviet spheres of influence. De Gaulle openly criticised the

791:, the Plantagenet claimant to the French throne. Despite early Plantagenet victories, fortunes turned in favor of the Valois. A notable figure of the war was 12968: 5863: 3364: 740:

united most of Gaul in the late 5th century, setting the stage for Frankish dominance for hundreds of years. Frankish power reached its fullest extent under

5246:

independence." He vetoed Britain's entry into the Common Market, fearing it might gain too great a voice on French affairs. While not officially abandoning

5166:, the nationalist leader in Tunisia, for the independence of that colony by 1956, and began discussions with Moroccan nationalists for a French withdrawal. 2189:—was crowned King of the Franks before Capet's demise. Hugh Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured. Robert II, as King of the Franks, met 10133: 3193:

in 1713. Philip of Anjou was confirmed as Philip V, king of Spain; Emperor Leopold did not get the throne, but Philip V was barred from inheriting France.

7921:

Hautcoeur, Pierre-Cyrille (2005). "Was the Great War a watershed? The Economics of World War I in France". In Broadberry, Stephen; Harrison, Mark (eds.).

6233: 3809:, making plans to invade Britain impossible. Despite this defeat, Napoleon inflicted on the Austrian and Russian Empires one of their greatest defeats at 3683:'s idea and the Directory agreed to the plan in order to send the popular general away from the mainland. Napoleon defeated the Ottoman forces during the 9816: 3979:

Since France had been defeated on these two fronts, states that had been conquered and controlled by Napoleon saw a good opportunity to strike back. The

3567: 3491: 649: 5265: 4255:

France lost wars to Britain that stripped away nearly all of its colonies by 1765. France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850, concentrating chiefly

4476:" ("Sacred Union")--Which was a wartime truce between the right and left factions that had been fighting bitterly. France had few dissenters. However, 2921: 6631:

Hodson, Christopher; Rushforth, Brett (January 2010). "Absolutely Atlantic: Colonialism and the Early Modern French State in Recent Historiography".

3003:

in 1626, although formal colonies and trading posts were not established until 1659 with the founding of Saint-Louis. The first French settlement of

3987:

outside Leipzig in October 1813, his forces heavily outnumbered by the Allied coalition armies and was overwhelmed by much larger armies during the

9802: 4020:, younger brother of Louis XVI became king, and the exiles returned. However many of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic reforms were kept in place. 9057:

Mioche, Philippe (1998). "Le Demarrage de l'economie Française au lendemain de la Guerre" [Restarting the French Economy after the War].

7680: 5077:

and civil war. Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the country together while taking steps to end the war. The Algerian War was concluded with the

4937:, that killed about 1,100 sailors, there was nationwide indignation and a feeling of distrust in the French forces, leading to the events of the 4782: 2853:

in 1598, which guaranteed religious liberties to the Protestants, thereby effectively ending the civil war. Henry IV was assassinated in 1610 by

2262:

over France than his predecessors. Powerful vassals paid homage to the French king. Abbot Suger arranged the 1137 marriage between Louis VII and

2297:

into his royal domains. This battle involved a complex set of alliances from three important states, the Kingdoms of France and England and the

1037:, but died out about 40,000 years ago, possibly out-competed by the modern humans during a period of cold weather. The earliest modern humans — 8756: 4778: 4327: 1915: 9900:

Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck; Balz, Michael J. (June 2006). "The October Riots in France: A Failed Immigration Policy or the Empire Strikes Back?".

6217: 5250:, he withdrew from its military integrated command, fearing that the United States had too much control over NATO. He launched an independent 4664:

during five short intervals, directed French foreign policy, using his diplomatic skills and sense of timing to forge friendly relations with

4567:

in 1919. Germany was forced to admit its guilt for starting the war, and was permanently weakened militarily. Germany had to pay huge sums in

3160:

opposed a Bourbon succession, because the power that such a succession would bring to the Bourbon rulers of France would disturb the delicate

11526: 11092: 7444: 5084:

The June 1951 elections saw a re-emergence of the right, and until June 1954 France was governed by a succession of centre-right coalitions.

5000: 3734: 3586: 472: 10155: 2734: 11740: 10040: 5885: 5812: 3900:(June and July 1808). Britain sent a short-lived ground support force to Portugal, and French forces evacuated Portugal as defined in the 3675:

had replaced the National Convention. Five directors then ruled France. As Great Britain was still at war with France, a plan was made to

2787: 12395: 9772: 3321: 3161: 5011:

alliance of communists, socialists, and democratic republicans. The GPRF governed France from 1944 to 1946, when it was replaced by the

4823:— the funny sort of war — in France. It did not prevent the German army from conquering Poland in a matter of weeks with its innovative 3798:

in 1805 and Napoleon used propaganda and nationalism to control the French population. The French army achieved a resounding victory at

2130:

The monarchy overcame the powerful barons over ensuing centuries, and established absolute sovereignty over France in the 16th century.

4859: 2675:, France and the Habsburgs began a long process of dividing his rich Burgundian lands, leading to numerous wars. In 1532, Brittany was 2078:

Some of the king's vassals would grow sufficiently powerful that they would become some of the strongest rulers of western Europe. The

10083: 4672:. He realized France could neither contain the much larger Germany by itself nor secure effective support from Britain or the League. 12961: 10865: 9473: 6023: 5777: 4799: 4399: 3105:

broke out (1683–84), and again Spain, with its ally the Holy Roman Empire, was defeated. Meanwhile, in October 1685 Louis signed the

1534:

languages favoured the transition. Gaul remained under Roman control for centuries and Celtic culture was then gradually replaced by

2897:, the powerful chief minister of France, had mauled the Protestants, he joined this war on their side in 1636 because it was in the 5433: 4694:

Politically, the 1920s was dominated by the Right, with right-wing coalitions in 1919, 1926, and 1928, and later in 1934 and 1938.

4369:

35% of the workforce in 1945 to under 5% by 2000. By 2004, France had the second highest birthrate in Europe, behind only Ireland.

3916:

and could have been definitely expelled from the Iberian peninsula had the Spanish armies attacked again, but the Spanish did not.

3601: 3332: 2325:

and removed him from power. Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward. The two kings then went crusading during the

9957:

Mucchielli, Laurent (May 2009). "Autumn 2005: A review of the most important riot in the history of French contemporary society".

4787: 4145:

maintaining a more traditional economy longer than its counterparts. Politically, the century was characterized by the end of the

3503: 3473:

worked to replace the archaic units of weights and measures by a coherent scientific system. Lavoisier also formulated the law of

11764: 10691: 5755: 5705: 3368: 3169:

in 1704 was the first major land battle lost by France since its victory at Rocroi in 1643. Yet, the extremely bloody battles of

642: 6308:

Then, in 1151, Henry Plantagenet paid homage for the duchy to Louis VII in Paris, homage he repeated as king of England in 1156.

4263:

and the South Pacific. Republicans, at first hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany after 1880 started to build

2917: 2810:, during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant ("Huguenot") and Catholic forces. 2228:, the kingdom enjoyed a modest recovery during his extraordinarily long reign (1060–1108). His reign also saw the launch of the 1957:(emperor 814–840) kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive Louis I's death. Two of his sons — 1229:) of the current territory of France, but this occupation spread in the rest of France only between the 5th and 3rd century BC. 11240: 11225: 11142: 5695: 5255: 4315: 3892:

This occupation of the Iberian peninsula fueled local nationalism, and soon the Spanish and Portuguese fought the French using

3878: 3336: 2860:

When in 1620 the Huguenots proclaimed a constitution for the 'Republic of the Reformed Churches of France', the chief minister

5558:

was hijacked by terrorists; they were captured. In 2012, a Muslim radical shot three French soldiers and four Jewish citizens

4185:

highlighted the nation's divisions, while laws aimed at reducing the Catholic Church's influence sparked further controversy.

10993: 10632: 10586: 10546: 10527: 10478: 10436: 10392: 10364: 10319: 10300: 10278: 10250: 10231: 10212: 10193: 9927: 9854: 9755: 9673: 9581: 9556: 9531: 9506: 9449: 9376: 9333: 9304: 9279: 9215: 9175: 9133: 9108: 8996: 8908: 8868: 8841: 8739: 8714: 8674: 8570: 8545: 8505: 8480: 8407: 8380: 8320: 8264: 8239: 8182: 8080: 8052: 8027: 7940: 7893: 7853: 7788: 7763: 7651: 7510: 7428: 7334: 7285: 7245: 7196: 7159: 7130: 7090: 6818: 6615: 6585: 6560: 6532: 6507: 6482: 6457: 6301: 6256: 6168: 6070: 6007: 5980: 5949: 5305: 4645: 4083: 3551: 292: 9878: 6701: 3976:(July–August 1813). Since the Spanish guerrillas seemed to be uncontrollable, the French troops eventually evacuated Spain. 12954: 11624: 5445: 2113:

An important part of the French aristocracy also involved itself in the crusades, and French knights founded and ruled the

9721: 4957:(the "butcher of Lyon"). Increasing repression culminated in the complete destruction and extermination of the village of 3766: 3078:(1672–78). France attacked the Dutch Republic and was joined by England in this conflict. Through targeted inundations of 2849:; in order to bring peace to a country beset by religious and succession wars, he converted to Catholicism. He issued the 2102:

successfully carved lands outside France for themselves. The most important of these conquests for French history was the

12910: 11347: 11110: 10766: 10756: 10343: 5689: 5479: 5032: 4449:

Trench warfare prevailed on the Western Front from September 1914 until March 1918. Famous battles in France include the

4344: 4087: 4034:

and had a long-term impact in unifying the nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.

3688: 3299: 3223: 2970: 2592: 410: 12298: 5050:. The Fourth Republic consisted of a parliamentary government controlled by a series of coalitions. France attempted to 1840:. Over time, the borders and numbers of Frankish kingdoms were fluid and changed frequently. Also during this time, the 1370:, were born in Marseille. The Celts themselves often fought with Aquitanians and Germans, and a Gaulish war band led by 13096: 12764: 11195: 5726: 5716: 5449: 5130:

Claude Fohlen argues that without the Marshall Plan, France's economic recovery would have been a much slower process.

4311: 2944: 2436:. Philip IV was so powerful that he could name popes and emperors, unlike the early Capetians. The papacy was moved to 2205: 635: 5554:

summarized an ongoing conflict France's secular and individualist values, and a growing Muslim conservatism. In 1994,

4929:

around him, finding support in some French colonies and recognition from Britain but not the United States. After the

3405: 2543:(1415) forced the French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army. 1801:. This gave him greater legitimacy and power over his Christian subjects and granted him clerical support against the 13026: 11167: 11152: 10414: 6750: 5794: 5711: 5611: 5596: 5487: 4493:" that ended the fighting effective 11 November 1918, "the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month." 3655: 2823: 2676: 1366:(Nice), bringing them into conflict with the neighboring Celts and Ligurians. Some Phocean great navigators, such as 1264:

Covering large parts of modern-day France, Belgium, northwest Germany and northern Italy, Gaul was inhabited by many

571: 4386: 3356: 1906:. In 771, Charlemagne reunited the Frankish domains after a further period of division, subsequently conquering the 12895: 12490: 11733: 11435: 11276: 11230: 5559: 5301: 3956: 3841:

in 1806; Napoleon captured Berlin and went as far as Eastern Prussia. There the Russian Empire was defeated at the

3559: 3335:

had allowed them to eclipse France as the leading colonial power. France sought revenge for this defeat, and under

3264: 3071: 2845:, in December 1588. In revenge, a priest assassinated Henry III in 1589. This led to the ascension of the Huguenot 1225:, making it one of the oldest cities in France. At the same time, some Celtic tribes arrived in the eastern parts ( 524: 9691:"Changes in the relative structure of wages and employment: A comparison of the United States, Canada, and France" 4910: 12920: 12523: 12388: 12331: 9415: 8780: 7570: 5818: 5459: 5379: 3676: 3533: 3291: 3047: 2730: 593: 311: 9012:

Hill, John S. (1992). "American Efforts to Aid French Reconstruction Between Lend-Lease and the Marshall Plan".

6220:

By: Francisco J. Beltrán Tapia, Alfonso Díez-Minguela, Julio Martínez-Galarraga, and Daniel A. Tirado Fabregat.

3237: 12707: 12540: 12478: 11759: 11455: 11030: 6661: 5502: 5418: 4903: 4742:

of Germany, in cooperation with Britain, was the policy after 1936, as France sought peace even in the face of

4216: 3582: 3348: 3295: 3260: 3182: 3058:

in 1667. France's defeat of Spain and invasion of the Spanish Netherlands alarmed England and Sweden. With the

1668:, became a greater threat, and Aëtius used the Visigoths against the Huns. The conflict climaxed in 451 at the 17: 9824: 1070: 13340: 13233: 13046: 12915: 12824: 11378: 10998: 10939: 10934: 5521:

At the close of the Algerian war, hundreds of thousands of Muslims, including some who had supported France (

4993: 4378: 3857:

was formed over these territorial losses, and Polish troops entered the Grande Armée in significant numbers.

3737:

had some success at Boulogne but Nelson's Royal Navy destroyed an anchored Danish and Norwegian fleet at the

3660: 3310:

in 1759 and a crippling blockade forced France to keep its ships in port. Finally peace was concluded in the

3241: 3157: 3149: 2710: 2641: 2621:", but in practice the Estates General had no power, for it could petition the king but could not pass laws. 2473: 2012:, some Vikings had settled in Normandy and were granted the land, first as counts and then as dukes, by King 877: 588: 581: 566: 554: 539: 341: 11020: 8924:

Kuo, Laureen (2017). "Improving French Competitiveness through American Investment following World War II".

5537: 3963:, near Moscow, the Grande Armée entered and captured Moscow, only to find it burning as part of the Russian 13299: 13071: 11706: 11445: 10924: 10761: 10663: 8635: 5789: 5762: 5174: 5043: 4725: 3727: 3245: 3134: 3087: 2699: 2317:

During the first part of his reign Philip II allied himself with the Duke of Aquitaine and son of Henry II—

2190: 1852: 1684: 4675:

As a response to the Weimar Republic's default on its reparations in the aftermath of World War I, France

4307: 2951:(1658) by Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne. The terms for the peace inflicted upon the Spanish kingdoms in the 1504: 1114: 264: 12874: 12869: 12485: 11726: 11563: 11283: 11157: 11147: 10895: 10736: 10684: 9498:

Exorbitant Privilege: The Rise and Fall of the Dollar and the Future of the International Monetary System

9232: 8200: 7958: 5833: 5678: 5573: 4953:, sent in France by de Gaulle in order to link all resistance movements; he was captured and tortured by 4641: 4439: 3834: 3738: 3703: 3283: 1301: 561: 8586:

Martin, Thomas (1997). "After Mers-el-Kébir: The Armed Neutrality of the Vichy French Navy, 1940–1943".

5604: 5541:

Over 1 million demonstrators gathering to pledge solidarity to liberal French values, in 2015 after the

4925:

in London declared himself on BBC radio to be the head of a rival government in exile, and gathered the

4872:

was established on 10 July 1940 to govern the unoccupied part of France and its colonies. It was led by

4092: 2980:

The early 17th century saw the first successful French settlements in the New World with the voyages of

1765:(732) marked the furthest Muslim advance and enabled Frankish domination of Europe for the next century. 13361: 13314: 13266: 13158: 13153: 12930: 12925: 12381: 11474: 11395: 11162: 11072: 11051: 10751: 10741: 10731: 10461: 10352: 7534: 7118: 6864: 6666: 6204: 5823: 5801: 5673: 5259: 4709: 4619: 4544: 4486: 4382: 4340: 3980: 3921: 3822: 3814: 3787: 3668: 3609: 2948: 2548: 1573:, which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes, the 576: 544: 519: 79: 51: 7350:

Bradley, Margaret (1976). "Scientific Education for a New Society The Ecole Polytechnique 1795–1830".

6662:"National, Transnational, and Hypernational Historiographies: New France Meets Early American History" 5474:

Jacques Chirac was reelected in 2002, and became a fierce opponent of the Iraq invasion. Conservative

4930: 3339:

France started to rebuild. In 1766, the French Kingdom annexed Lorraine and the following year bought

3082:

by breaking dykes, the French invasion of the Dutch Republic was brought to a halt. The Dutch Admiral

2822:, who became a central figure in the early years of the Wars of Religion. She is often blamed for the 1644:

had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control. He first used the

1586: 12900: 12654: 12615: 11654: 11410: 11325: 11298: 11215: 11010: 10855: 9014: 8588: 7719: 6914: 6385: 6058: 5312:

became a classic of modern French literature and many French political parties and figures claim the

4877: 4774: 4595: 4528: 4432: 4236: 3711: 3578: 3563: 3462:(1750). The leader of the French Enlightenment and a writer of enormous influence across Europe, was 3287: 3271:

was then becoming a new threat, as it had gained substantial territory from Austria. This led to the

3114: 2988:. In 1699, French territorial claims in North America expanded still further, with the foundation of 2624: 2536: 2461: 2025: 1601: 1126: 145: 9624:

Sachs, Jeffrey; Wyplosz, Charles (April 1986). "The economic consequences of President Mitterrand".

8764: 5413:

was introduced to replace the Franc. France also became involved in joint European projects such as

3715: 2977:

was one of the great explorers who ventured deep into American territories during the 16th century.

2251:. When Louis VI died in 1137, much progress had been made towards strengthening Capetian authority. 1541:

The Gauls became better integrated with the Empire with the passage of time. For instance, generals

837:

was established in the 16th century. The French monarchy's power reached a zenith under the rule of

13271: 13118: 12305: 11235: 11205: 10810: 10515: 10402: 8020:

The Unfinished Peace After World War I: America, Britain And the Stabilisation of Europe, 1919–1932

6548: 5304:

with an increased majority in the Assembly. Nonetheless, de Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing a

5159: 4933:

in 1940, where the British fleet destroyed a large part of the French navy, still under command of

4747: 4661: 4575: 4249: 3925: 3838: 3757:

for the building and maintenance of churches. Napoleon reorganized higher learning by dividing the

3723: 3707: 3555: 3360: 2842: 2618: 2373: 2278: 2248: 2059:, were formerly powerful princes themselves who had successfully unseated the weak and unfortunate 1989: 1864: 1782: 1371: 1206: 1197: 107: 37: 7452: 5939: 4097: 3542:

proved unable to manage. A financial crisis and widespread social distress led in May 1789 to the

2868:

when Richelieu forced Protestants to disarm their army and fortresses. This conflict ended in the

1029:

indicate that pre-human ancestors may have been present in France at least 1.6 million years ago.

13276: 13238: 12905: 12563: 11774: 11491: 11373: 11320: 11266: 11220: 10909: 8120:

Coalition Governments in India Problems and Prospects Edited by Kotta P. Karunakaran, 1975, P.105

5784: 5772: 5282: 5147: 4591: 4290: 4256: 4130: 3933: 3687:(1798). Scientists and linguists thoroughly explored Egypt. Weeks later, the British fleet under 3620:. Weakened by external threats and internal opposition, the Republic was replaced in 1795 by the 3547: 3515: 3278:

In the North American theatre, France was allied with various Native American peoples during the

3249: 2830: 2819: 2807: 2758: 2365: 2134:

in 987 became "King of the Franks" (Rex Francorum). He was recorded to be recognised king by the

1740: 1458: 976: 928: 814: 549: 534: 529: 222: 9664:

Levy, Jonah; Cole, Alistair; Le Galès, Patrick (2008). "From Chirac to Sarkozy: A New France?".

9233:"The Impossible Republic: The Reconquest of Algeria and the Decolonization of France, 1945–1962" 5893: 5196:

Smoke rises from oil tanks beside the Suez Canal hit during the initial Anglo-French assault on

5138: 3937: 3864: 3347:. Having lost its colonial empire, France saw a good opportunity for revenge against Britain in 3294:

in Quebec. In 1762, Russia, France, and Austria were on the verge of crushing Prussia, when the

2947:

in 1653. Louis II de Bourbon joined the Spanish army this time, but suffered a severe defeat at

2424:, also called Philip the Fair (reigned 1285–1314). This king was responsible for the end of the 1875:

and earned respect and power within the Frankish Kingdom. The assumption of the crown in 751 by

254: 13218: 12729: 12558: 12141: 11769: 11596: 11558: 11516: 11501: 11293: 11115: 11015: 10677: 7615: 5972: 5684: 5667: 5577: 5569: 5555: 5542: 5142: 5047: 5024: 5012: 4721: 4676: 4633: 4579: 4490: 4355: 4326:

which endured until 1958. Newer remnants of the colonial empire were integrated into France as

4319: 4264: 4210: 3973: 3684: 3594: 3376: 3311: 3307: 3106: 3063: 2964: 2952: 2864:

invoked the entire powers of the state to stop it. Religious conflicts therefore resumed under

2838: 2799: 2795: 2779: 2742: 2718: 2633: 2369: 2195: 2143: 1732: 1546: 1542: 1062: 1044: 968: 936: 916: 912: 904: 881: 849: 834: 482: 361: 9780: 9165: 8397: 8310: 6447: 6246: 6218:

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE RECONQUISTA (718-1492 AD): CONQUEST, REPOPULATION AND LAND DISTRIBUTION

6054: 5497:

Hollande advocated a growth policy in contrast to the austerity policy advocated by Germany's

5355: 4058: 3742: 3536:

are generally agreed to be a combination of social, political and economic factors, which the

13188: 13148: 13128: 13108: 13011: 12809: 12674: 12131: 11521: 11511: 11303: 11127: 11035: 10970: 9325: 8858: 7420: 6158: 5453: 5103: 5028: 4649: 4417: 4303: 4165:, reflecting the ongoing struggle between revolutionary ideals and conservative restoration. 4158: 4017: 3617: 3590: 3455: 3384: 3272: 2544: 2511: 2507: 2107: 2063:

kings. The Capetians, in a way, held a dual status of King and Prince; as king they held the

1631: 1414: 1026: 960: 900: 889: 861: 788: 768: 492: 419: 381: 321: 10183: 9496: 9439: 5289:. He was angry at American economic power, especially what his Finance minister called the " 4602:

wanted a peace that would never allow Germany to be a threat to France again, but after the

3232:

Louis XIV died in 1715 and was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson who reigned as

2854: 2644:

quipped, "I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse."

13304: 13123: 12864: 12859: 12799: 12734: 12639: 12166: 12161: 12126: 12092: 12067: 12057: 11546: 11087: 11025: 10914: 10805: 10649: 9425: 9400: 9193:

The Strange History of Pierre Mendès France and the Great Conflict over French North Africa

8884: 5343: 5290: 5221: 4962: 4603: 4564: 4154: 3901: 3810: 3775: 3771: 3696: 3474: 3422: 3400: 3227: 3174: 3095: 3091: 2902: 2888: 2869: 2865: 2614: 2412: 2397: 2377: 2345: 2318: 2263: 2217: 2170: 2064: 1689:

The Roman Empire was on the verge of collapsing. Aquitania was definitely abandoned to the

1680: 1004: 932: 885: 776: 371: 97: 6031: 5856:"Lithic Assemblage Dated to 1.57 Million Years Found at Lézignan-la-Cébe, Southern France" 5342:, which increased costs in energy and thus on production. Economic instability marked the 4716:

In contrast to the mild economic upheaval, the political upheaval was enormous. Socialist

4225: 3650: 3573:

The next three years were dominated by the struggle for political control, exacerbated by

3090:

in 1674. Because the Netherlands could not resist indefinitely, it agreed to peace in the

2872:(1627–28), in which Protestants and their English supporters were defeated. The following 1810: 1669: 1181: 674:. Greek writers noted the presence of three main ethno-linguistic groups in the area: the 8: 13324: 13309: 13256: 13203: 13198: 13173: 13031: 12829: 12759: 12702: 12619: 12445: 12292: 12195: 12171: 12151: 12121: 12111: 12072: 12052: 12047: 12027: 11958: 11953: 11909: 11785: 11629: 11586: 11506: 11460: 11337: 11330: 11310: 11271: 11183: 10975: 10944: 10919: 10885: 10787: 10782: 7543:, His section on "Ending the Empire" closes in 1980 with the independence of New Hebrides 5738: 5510: 5251: 5051: 4989: 4985: 4754: 4563:

of the United States. Clemenceau demanded the harshest terms and won most of them in the

4454: 4294: 4241: 4173: 4150: 3886: 3869: 3842: 3806: 3783: 3629: 3605: 3574: 3530:, while its values and institutions remain central to modern French political discourse. 3519: 3352: 3279: 3217: 3197: 3170: 3102: 3039: 3032: 3025: 3016: 2981: 2933: 2929: 2834: 2826:

of 1572, when thousands of Huguenots were murdered in Paris and the provinces of France.

2763: 2687: 2667:(1477) marked the division of his lands between the kings of France and Habsburg dynasty. 2588: 2560: 2540: 2491:

Coronation of English King Henry VI as Henri II King of France in Paris 16 December 1431

2421: 2354: 2307: 2282: 2267: 2255: 2209: 2186: 1993: 1970: 1919: 1880: 1841: 1821: 1748: 1535: 1483: 1375: 1297: 1142: 1122: 980: 972: 944: 869: 844:

In the late 18th century the monarchy and associated institutions were overthrown in the

838: 818: 780: 764: 715: 331: 240: 179: 169: 13294: 12946: 12316: 8002:

Top Incomes in France in the Twentieth Century: Inequality and Redistribution, 1901–1998

7804:

Smith, Leonard V. (April 1995). "War and 'Politics': The French Army Mutinies of 1917".

5440:. France became actively involved in fighting against international terrorism. In 2002, 5391: 5262:

which meant a Soviet attack on France would only bring total destruction to both sides.

4750: 3940:

in October 1809 stripped Austria of a large amount of territory, reducing it even more.

3897: 1425:. It was this Gaulish participation that caused Provence to be annexed in 122 BC by the 13228: 13178: 13138: 13091: 13086: 13076: 13061: 13056: 13051: 13036: 13021: 13016: 13006: 13001: 12996: 12991: 12935: 12839: 12623: 12575: 12570: 12473: 12463: 12420: 12412: 12342: 12252: 12215: 12182: 12156: 12087: 12062: 12042: 12037: 11993: 11983: 11978: 11541: 11486: 11440: 11288: 11254: 10838: 10106: 10009: 9974: 9864: 9860: 9842: 9713: 9641: 9610: 9252: 9039: 9031: 8941: 8805: 8797: 8597: 8353: 8295: 8147: 8096: 7841: 7823: 7736: 7699: 7628: 7595: 7587: 6931: 6791: 6410: 5966: 5806: 5550: 5483: 5326: 5297: 5278: 5216: 5205: 4926: 4891: 4852: 4812: 4556: 4548: 4532: 4524: 4275: 4010: 4002: 3999: 3960: 3850: 3846: 3818: 3750: 3692: 3633: 3340: 3166: 2894: 2861: 2846: 2814: 2791: 2767: 2746: 2726: 2556: 2518: 2372:

in 1229, in which he retained much of his lands for life, but his daughter, married to

2361: 2339: 2240: 2225: 2099: 2013: 1997: 1744: 1676: 1562: 1438: 1407: 1403: 1391: 1383: 1048: 830: 806: 784: 749: 30: 5836:, where a DC-10 crashed into a French forest (Ermenonville Forest) in Northern France. 4873: 4196:, mirrored these societal changes, contributing to France's rich cultural legacy. The 3793: 2879:

In the face of persecution, Huguenots dispersed widely throughout Europe and America.

2532: 1421:

fought the Romans, he recruited several Gaulish mercenaries who fought on his side at

1248: 1154: 13319: 13261: 13223: 13213: 13193: 13183: 13168: 13163: 13143: 13113: 13081: 13041: 12977: 12814: 12789: 12769: 12749: 12739: 12629: 12611: 12580: 12513: 12430: 12404: 12116: 12077: 12032: 12003: 11998: 11988: 11687: 11669: 11664: 11649: 11634: 11573: 11536: 11450: 11383: 11361: 11342: 11210: 11137: 10960: 10860: 10746: 10703: 10628: 10582: 10565: 10542: 10523: 10474: 10432: 10424: 10410: 10388: 10360: 10315: 10296: 10274: 10246: 10227: 10208: 10189: 10110: 10013: 9978: 9913: 9850: 9751: 9717: 9669: 9577: 9552: 9527: 9502: 9445: 9372: 9329: 9300: 9275: 9256: 9211: 9171: 9129: 9104: 9066: 9043: 8992: 8945: 8904: 8864: 8837: 8809: 8735: 8710: 8670: 8648: 8566: 8541: 8501: 8476: 8450: 8403: 8376: 8316: 8260: 8235: 8178: 8076: 8048: 8023: 7936: 7889: 7849: 7827: 7784: 7759: 7740: 7703: 7647: 7599: 7516: 7506: 7424: 7330: 7281: 7241: 7192: 7155: 7147: 7126: 7086: 6935: 6814: 6783: 6646: 6611: 6581: 6556: 6528: 6503: 6478: 6453: 6402: 6297: 6252: 6164: 6076: 6066: 6003: 5976: 5945: 5750: 5531: 5526: 5491: 5406: 5334: 4981: 4958: 4946: 4922: 4876:, the aging war hero of the First World War. Petain's representatives signed a harsh 4804: 4733: 4669: 4586:

mandates, and were administered by France and other victors. From the remains of the

4583: 4039: 3988: 3984: 3969: 3924:

in order to break down the French Empire. The Austrian Empire defeated the French at

3905: 3527: 3486: 3470: 3469:

Astronomy, chemistry, mathematics and technology flourished. French chemists such as

3372: 3344: 3325: 3190: 3153: 3118: 3083: 3051: 2898: 2457: 2417: 2298: 2178: 2009: 2001: 1790: 1752: 1698: 1660:, and pushed the Burgundians westward. The Burgundians were resettled by Aëtius near 1437:, the Gauls succumbed to the Roman onslaught. The Gauls had some success at first at 1387: 1244: 1226: 1222: 1150: 1118: 956: 845: 802: 745: 301: 200: 8989:

The Fontana Economic History of Europe: Vol.6 Part 1: Contemporary Economies, part 1

5618:, in the runoff. He was the first re-elected incumbent French president since 2002. 5513:. In 2016, Hollande announced he would not seek re-election as president of France. 2876:(1629) confirmed religious freedom yet dismantled the Protestant military defences. 2717:

was used with great success against French knights. Finally, on 7 January 1558, the

2000:

rose to fame and became kings. This emerging dynasty, whose members were called the

1641: 1636:

The Roman Empire had difficulty integrating all the barbarian newcomers - with whom

13208: 13133: 13103: 12804: 12719: 12664: 12634: 12585: 12545: 12528: 12518: 12453: 12425: 12325: 12278: 12206: 12082: 11948: 11601: 11553: 11425: 11400: 10890: 10288: 10098: 10063: 10001: 9966: 9909: 9705: 9633: 9606: 9244: 9167:

Worse Than a Monolith: Alliance Politics and Problems of Coercive Diplomacy in Asia

9023: 8969: 8933: 8789: 8644: 8345: 8291: 8209: 8170: 8139: 7967: 7928: 7815: 7728: 7691: 7624: 7579: 7361: 6923: 6795: 6773: 6765: 6679: 6642: 6443: 6394: 6383:

Collins, James B. (1991). "Geographic and Social Mobility in Early-modern France".

5767: 5209: 4831: 4758: 4697:

In the 1920s, France established an elaborate system of border defences called the

4552: 4450: 4427: 4260: 4054:

was by merit and achievement—every private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.

4013:

in 1815, and his exile to St. Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic Ocean.

3929: 3893: 3882: 3746: 3719: 3672: 3625: 3621: 3523: 3495: 3429:

was editor in chief of the famous Enlightenment accomplishment, the 72,000-article

3253: 3186: 3075: 2925: 2909: 2771: 2672: 2660: 2656: 2515: 2503: 2349: 2333:, Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a trial against the 2005: 1978: 1974: 1962: 1958: 1609: 1523: 1519: 1497: 1442: 1422: 1309: 1277: 1138: 1096: 971:

become independent, while smaller parts were incorporated into the French state as

927:. Living conditions were harsh as Germany drained away food and manpower, and many 822: 730: 274: 11063: 10902: 10102: 9935: 9351:

French International Policy under de Gaulle and Pompidou: The Politics of Grandeur

5078: 4146: 3538: 3248:, and France joined the war against the Austrian Empire. Peace was settled in the 3067: 2603: 2072: 1859:

became part of the Al-Andalus, which were threatening the Frankish kingdoms. Duke

1508: 1170: 1130: 797: 441: 246: 12844: 12819: 12607: 12590: 12435: 12102: 11968: 11943: 11927: 11696: 11659: 11644: 11639: 11581: 11496: 11056: 10797: 10608: 10596: 10442: 9886: 9404: 9366: 8563:

Vichy and the Eternal Feminine: A Contribution to a Political-Sociology of Gender

8259:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 172, 215, 278–287, quotation on page 287. 8227: 7932: 7756:

The Marne, 1914: The Opening of World War I and the Battle That Changed the World

7078: 6709: 6633: 5997: 5828: 5745: 5600: 5475: 5463: 5339: 5270: 5234: 5163: 5074: 4938: 4792: 4657: 4615: 4568: 4458: 4423: 4302:

Germany, France suppressed Algerian calls for independence, who were celebrating

4101: 4070: 3854: 3645: 3613: 3435:(1751–72). It sparked a revolution in learning throughout the enlightened world. 3303: 3211: 3178: 2974: 2850: 2691: 2664: 2568: 2552: 2485: 2425: 2404: 2376:, produced him no heir and so the County of Toulouse went to the King of France. 2330: 2294: 2259: 2199: 2114: 2103: 1954: 1876: 1872: 1762: 1757: 1627:. Those same Goths had sacked Rome in 410 and established a capital in Toulouse. 1605: 1350:

Long before any Roman settlements, Greek navigators settled in what would become

1305: 1146: 1134: 1074: 987:. It played a central role in the unification process after 1945 that led to the 952: 873: 857: 817:, France became embroiled in another succession crisis, as the last Valois king, 772: 667: 430: 11042: 8399:

Britain, France and Appeasement: Anglo-French Relations in the Popular Front Era

8097:"The Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, German Reparations, and Inter-allied War Debts" 4473: 4469: 4235:

The second colonial empire constituted the overseas colonies, protectorates and

4197: 3943: 3431: 3410: 3387:

and France finished the war with huge debts and the minor gain of the island of

3244:

against Spain. In 1733 another war broke in central Europe, this time about the

3086:

inflicted a few strategic defeats on the Anglo-French naval alliance and forced

2969:

During the 16th century, the king began to claim North American territories and

392: 12794: 12784: 12779: 12774: 12754: 12744: 12659: 12602: 12495: 12458: 12013: 11874: 11619: 11614: 11606: 11430: 11388: 10965: 10338: 10126:"What's in Emmanuel Macron's intray after his re-election as French president?" 7997: 7819: 7806: 7583: 7012: 6425: 6347: 5661: 5652: 5588: 5478:

was elected and took office in 2007. Sarkozy was very actively involved in the

5402: 5397: 5066: 5059: 4702: 4665: 4653: 4599: 4587: 4560: 4536: 4443: 4182: 4178: 3964: 3948: 3604:, the constitution was suspended and effective political power passed from the 3558:

on 14 July led to a series of radical measures by the Assembly, among them the

3317: 3137:. This peace was considered a truce by all sides, thus war was to start again. 3059: 3055: 3043: 2873: 2695: 2441: 2437: 2408: 2389: 2311: 2068: 2052: 1868: 1665: 1653: 1613: 1597: 1558: 1426: 1214: 988: 964: 908: 896: 826: 757: 703: 625: 211: 10084:"The Phantom Revolution. The Presidential and Parliamentary Elections of 2017" 9970: 9441:

The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity after World War II

8937: 7520: 6912:

Comsa, Maria Teodora; et al. (2016). "The French Enlightenment Network".

6769: 4465: 3813:

on December 2, 1805, destroying the Third Coalition. Peace was settled in the

2617:— the clergy, the nobility, and commoners — occasionally met together in the " 1820:

in what would become Spain. Clovis made Paris his capital and established the

13355: 12890: 12689: 11973: 11899: 11864: 11829: 11701: 11531: 11315: 11003: 10067: 10005: 9070: 8615: 8468: 8282: 8198:

Beaudry, Paul; Portier, Franck (2002). "The French Depression in the 1930s".

8174: 7956:

Beaudry, Paul; Portier, Franck (2002). "The French depression in the 1930s".

7568:

Huss, Marie-Monique (1990). "Pronatalism in the inter-war period in France".

7365: 6406: 6080: 5638: 5615: 5564: 5498: 5467: 5441: 5347: 5098: 4477: 4274:, declared; "The higher races have a right over the lower races, they have a 4220: 4162: 4134: 3936:(April 1809). Although not as decisive as the previous Austrian defeats, the 3799: 3426: 3021: 2637: 2429: 2385: 2326: 2247:. Louis VI successfully defeated, both military and politically, many of the 2229: 2213: 1860: 1817: 1774: 1570: 1492: 1488: 1434: 1430: 1339: 1293: 1100: 707: 699: 610: 351: 10446: 9992:

Schneider, Cathy Lisa (March 2008). "Police Power and Race Riots in Paris".

9272:

The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France

8633:

Haglund, David G. (2007). "Roosevelt as 'Friend of France'—But Which One?".

7717:

Remak, Joachim (1971). "1914 — The Third Balkan War: Origins Reconsidered".

7695: 7417:

The End of Empire in French West Africa: France's Successful Decolonization?

4606:

was signed he said, "This is not a peace. It is an armistice for 20 years."

3349:

signing an alliance with the Americans in 1778, and sending an army and navy

2447: 2420:, which cost him his life in 1285. More administrative reforms were made by 1867:

in 721 but failed to repel a raiding party in 732. The mayor of the palace,

1813:

in 507 and annexed Aquitaine, and thus Toulouse, into his Frankish kingdom.

12849: 12679: 12550: 12468: 12351: 11894: 11884: 11879: 11859: 11854: 11799: 11415: 11120: 11077: 10877: 10848: 9795:"Jacques Chirac, French President Who Opposed U.S. Iraq War, Is Dead At 86" 9408: 9392: 8538:

Women and the Second World War in France 1939–1948: Choices and Constraints

8213: 7971: 6787: 6671: 6398: 5506: 5062: 4954: 4934: 4882: 4869: 4843: 4770: 4743: 4698: 4323: 4245: 4169: 4113: 4061:, focused on technology. The elementary schools received little attention. 4006: 3201: 2683: 2083: 1950: 1935: 1895: 1527: 1281: 1039: 951:

drained French resources and ended in political defeat. In the wake of the

948: 924: 920: 753: 719: 670:. What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as 459: 190: 8973: 4753:

refused to go to war against Germany and Italy without British support as

4331:

how few long-lasting effects on France the giving up of empire entailed."

3181:

for the allies, as they had lost too many men to continue the war. Led by

1110:) are among the many remains of local prehistoric activity in the region. 12834: 12712: 12697: 12669: 12505: 12287: 12267: 11963: 11937: 11889: 11844: 11834: 11819: 11809: 11082: 10985: 10830: 10620: 8662: 8068: 6683: 5286: 5187: 5151: 5123: 5107: 4950: 4803:

Vichy police escorting French Jewish citizens for deportation during the

4739: 4732:

The government joined Britain in establishing an arms embargo during the

4503: 4413: 4298: 4271: 4189: 4108: 3636:. This is generally seen as marking the end of the Revolutionary period. 3543: 3447: 3443: 3418: 2783: 2652: 2525: 2499: 2244: 2174: 2166: 2161: 2147: 2118: 2091: 2060: 2036: 1985: 1946: 1903: 1891: 1798: 1736: 1710: 1649: 1395: 1034: 1030: 992: 810: 792: 741: 711: 454: 9397:

De Gaulle and the World: The Foreign Policy of the Fifth French Republic

8987:

Fohlen, Claude (1976). "France, 1920–1970". In Cipolla, Carlo M. (ed.).

4391: 3955:

In 1812, war broke out with Russia, engaging Napoleon in the disastrous

3446:. Around 1750 the Philosophes reached their most influential period, as 3101:

Peace did not last, and war between France and Spain again resumed. The

2752: 2348:(the future Louis VIII, reigned 1223–26) was involved in the subsequent 2329:; however, their alliance and friendship broke down during the crusade. 12597: 12241: 12220: 12022: 11932: 11914: 11839: 11824: 11804: 11591: 10820: 9645: 9035: 8801: 8151: 7503:

Globalizing Morocco: transnational activism and the post-colonial state

6414: 5733: 4835: 4824: 4816: 4688: 4684: 3510:

The French Revolution was a period of political and societal change in

3380: 3196:

Louis XIV wanted to be remembered as a patron of the arts, and invited

3126: 3004: 2985: 2940: 2928:(1643), and the Spanish army was decimated; the Tercio was broken. The 2749:. This ended long-lasting conflicts between France, England and Spain. 2440:

and all the contemporary popes were French, such as Philip IV's puppet

2381: 2131: 2095: 2056: 2019: 1927: 1911: 1886: 1856: 1478: 1399: 853: 127: 10473:. The Cambridge History of Modern France. Cambridge University Press. 8601: 8357: 7591: 6578:

Memory and Identity: The Huguenots in France and the Atlantic Diaspora

6111:

The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians

4609: 4571:

to the Allies (who in turn had large loans from the U.S. to pay off).

3782:

In 1804, Napoleon was titled Emperor by the senate, thus founding the

3749:. A brief interlude of peace ensued in 1802–03, during which Napoleon 2051:

enjoyed a local authority comparable to kingdoms in all but name. The

1829: 1714: 12644: 12235: 12225: 12146: 11869: 11849: 11718: 10929: 10625:

Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914

8707:

Workers and Communists in France: From Popular Front to Eurocommunism

7145: 7065:

1805: Austerlitz: Napoleon and the Destruction of the Third Coalition

6778: 5422: 5197: 5192: 5170: 5155: 5070: 5055: 4839: 4717: 4624: 4365: 4283: 4193: 4138: 3909: 3185:, French forces recovered much of the lost ground in battles such as 3156:

was designated heir to the throne of Spain as Philip V. The Habsburg

3130: 2989: 2913: 2706: 2579: 2433: 2393: 2233: 2087: 2048: 1966: 1931: 1806: 1690: 1637: 1554: 1390:

during the 3rd century BC. In the early 3rd century BC, some Belgae (

1359: 1257: 1218: 1189: 1185: 940: 726: 12373: 10655: 9637: 8793: 8143: 3438:

In the early part of the 18th century the movement was dominated by

1949:

was crowned Emperor of the Romans, or Roman Emperor in the West, by

706:

annexed southern Gaul in the late 2nd century BC, and legions under

12854: 12649: 12261: 12230: 12136: 11918: 11794: 9248: 9027: 8778:

Crozier, Brian; Mansell, Gerard (July 1960). "France and Algeria".

8349: 7732: 7152:

Napoleon's War in Spain: The French Peninsular Campaigns, 1807–1814

6927: 5721: 5614:

president Macron was re-elected after beating his far-right rival,

5387: 5383: 5313: 4574:

France regained Alsace-Lorraine and occupied the German industrial

4120:

The century after the fall of Napoleon I was politically unstable:

4043: 3680: 3499: 3463: 3439: 3236:

until his death in 1774. In 1718, France was once again at war, as

3233: 3140: 3074:. War broke out again between France and the Dutch Republic in the 3070:, but in face of an indefensible position, Louis XIV agreed to the 2334: 2290: 2286: 2177:

and marked an important step in the cultural rebirth following the

2044: 2040: 1907: 1833: 1786: 1778: 1770: 1706: 1694: 1661: 1593: 1582: 1578: 1566: 1550: 1454: 1446: 1418: 1351: 1333: 1329: 1253: 1058: 1009: 865: 737: 695: 679: 10409:. Vol. II: The Appeal to Posterity. Oxford University Press. 10175:

France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc

9709: 5996:

Carpentier, Jean; Lebrun, François; Carpentier, Élisabeth (2000).

5390:

against Iraq; the French participation to this war was called the

3252:, according to which France would annex, through inheritance, the 2694:. The French monarchy then sought for allies and found one in the 2547:(reigned 1422–61) established the first French standing army, the 2479:

Coronation of Charles VII as King of France in Reims 17 July 1429

2452: 2400:, Louis established a cordial relation with the Plantagenet King. 2357:. Southern France was then largely absorbed in the royal domains. 1941:

In recognition of his successes and his political support for the

1581:, entered Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor 1512: 833:, won and established the Bourbon dynasty. A burgeoning worldwide 12724: 12535: 11814: 10843: 10711: 9549:

Economic Management and French Business: From de Gaulle to Chirac

7099: 6234:

The French Presence in the Spanish Military By: Benito Tauler Cid

5212:

and was the second-largest owner of the canal before the crisis.

5039: 4863: 3913: 3268: 3066:

to check Louis XIV's expansion. Louis II de Bourbon had captured

3000: 2628:

own network of regional connections, and his own military force.

2321:—and together they launched a decisive attack on Henry's home of 2155: 2139: 2079: 1726: 1702: 1657: 1624: 1367: 1355: 1325: 1313: 1285: 1210: 1085: 1022: 1014: 691: 154: 10669: 10148:"France's re-elected president prepares for a tough second term" 10033:"Days of Sirens, Fear and Blood: 'France Is Turned Upside Down'" 8373:

France since the Popular Front: Government and People, 1936–1986

7259: 7257: 3718:. Napoleon then seized power through a coup and established the 3710:, while the Austrian army defeated the French in Switzerland at 2686:(1494–1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France. 2270:, who would become King of England as Henry II two years later. 1902:

Carolingian power reached its fullest extent under Pepin's son,

11132: 10700: 10539:

The Third Republic from its Origins to the Great War, 1871–1914

9879:"France presidency: Francois Hollande decides not to run again" 9748:

A Taste for Intrigue: The Multiple Lives of François Mitterrand

9524:

The Imaginary Revolution: Parisian Students and Workers in 1968

9126:

France since the Popular Front: Government and People 1936–1996

7781:

The Long Silence: The Tragedy of Occupied France in World War I

5522: 5448:, was secretly established in Paris. France contributed to the 5414: 4830:

When Germany had its hands free for an attack in the west, the

3695:. Napoleon planned to move into Syria, but was defeated at the 3511: 3388: 3122: 3079: 2996: 2714: 2583:

France in the late 15th century: a mosaic of feudal territories

2564: 2322: 1942: 1923: 1848: 1837: 1574: 1466: 1462: 1321: 1269: 979:. Since World War II France has been a permanent member in the 801:

over the next centuries, France transformed into a centralized

733: 683: 158: 36:"French History" redirects here. For the academic journal, see 8822:

France Since 1815 By Martin Evans, Emmanuel Godin, 2014, P.137

7505:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 6. 4858:

Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June 1940, but not before the

3212:

Major changes in France, Europe, and North America (1718–1783)

2916:. France was served by some very efficient commanders such as 2636:

became the preferred language of Europe's aristocracy and the

2173:

monastery that was the centre of monastic life revival in the

1530:. It has been argued the similarities between the Gaulish and 9849:. Precision and Purpose. RAND Corporation. pp. 183–204. 8860:

The United States and the Making of Postwar France, 1945–1954

7306: 7278:

The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order

7254: 6844: 6842: 4977: 4827:

tactics, also helped by the Soviet Union's attack on Poland.

4629: 3699:. He returned to France without his army, which surrendered. 3526:. Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles of 2803: 2640:

of diplomacy and international relations. Holy Roman Emperor

2514:, as well as several devastating civil wars. In 1420, by the 2151: 2135: 1825: 1802: 1794: 1640:

treaties were concluded - within the empire, and generals as

1620: 1531: 1343: 1317: 1273: 1265: 1203: 1054: 725:

In the later stages of the Roman Empire, Gaul was subject to

687: 675: 8709:. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 20–25. 8280:

Johnson, Douglas (1970). "Léon Blum and the Popular Front".

6090: 5432:

and EU policy in the Balkans, to prevent genocide in former

4668:

as the basis of a genuine peace within the framework of the

4240:

colonial empire came to an end after the loss in later wars

3853:, and Prussia handed half of its territories to France. The 2912:, while Louis XIII died one year later and was succeeded by 29:

For the Jules Michelet work called "History of France", see

11405: 10815: 9128:(2nd revised ed.). Clarendon Press. pp. 240–241. 8013: 8011: 7294: 7217: 7168: 6248:

Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society: To 1789

5429: 5410: 5358:. A recession in the early 1980s led to the abandonment of 5329:. Industrial policy was used to bolster French industries. 5247: 4680: 4519: 4310:, which killed at least 30,000 Muslims. However, gradually 3992: 3421:" were 18th-century French intellectuals who dominated the 2798:(1551). Renewed Catholic reaction — headed by the powerful 2411:. Both proved to be complete failures for the French King. 2258:(junior king 1131–37, senior king 1137–80) enjoyed greater 1645: 1450: 1433:— conquered all of Gaul. Despite Gaulish opposition led by 1363: 1238: 984: 756:, and achieved increasing prominence under the rule of the 671: 117: 7978: 7205: 7123:

Legacy of Glory: The Bonaparte Kingdom of Spain, 1808–1813

6839: 6827: 5995: 4416:

caught France unaware, and it played only a small role in

4125:

imprisonments and deportations are literally incalculable.

3825:

was created by Napoleon over former Austrian territories.

2647: 2403:

The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Louis: the

12976: 9466:"De Gaulle urges the United States to get out of Vietnam" 8130:

Laufenburger, Henry (1936). "France and the Depression".

5621:

The problem of high unemployment has yet to be resolved.

5505:. In 2014, Hollande stood with Merkel and U.S. President 5367: 5346:

government (1974–1981). Giscard turned to Prime Minister

5235:

May 1958 seizure of power in Algiers by French army units

4980:, without a French component. On 15 August Allied forces 2955:(1659) were harsh, as France annexed Northern Catalonia. 2833:(1584–98), at the height of which bodyguards of the King 2448:

Early Valois Kings and the Hundred Years' War (1328–1453)

1965:— swore allegiance to each other against their brother — 1561:

also came from a Gaulish family. In the decade following

8416: 8008: 7146:

Tranié, J.; Carmigniani, Juan Carlos; Lachouque, Henry;

7083:

The End of the Old Order: Napoleon and Europe, 1801–1805

6993: 5917:"Fossil Teeth Put Humans in Europe Earlier Than Thought" 3932:

while the Polish allies defeated the Austrian Empire at

993:

strong economic, cultural, military and political factor

939:

was established. France slowly recovered, and enjoyed a

10656:

History of France, from Middle Ages to the 19th century

9689:

Card, David; Kramarz, Francis; Lemieux, Thomas (1996).

8887:(Report). U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1955. p. 899. 7058: 7056: 7028: 7026: 6969: 6452:. Vol. 1948–1952, Book 8. MIT Press. p. 299. 5701:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

5456:, even threatening to veto the US proposed resolution. 5169:

With over a million European residents in Algeria (the

3460:

Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences

2786:, began to challenge the legitimacy and rituals of the 2709:

were the dominant power in Europe. The many domains of

2702:

captured Nice in 1543 and handed it down to Francis I.

1973:, and the empire was divided among Louis's three sons ( 876:, France went through regime changes, being ruled as a 9368:

The General: Charles De Gaulle and the France He Saved

8885:

Statistical Abstract of the United States: August 1954

8777: 8732:

The General: Charles de Gaulle and The France He Saved

8455:

The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940

8257:

Popular Front in France: Defending Democracy 1934–1938

7539:

Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion

5065:

and the debate over whether or not to keep control of

4949:. The most famous figure of the French resistance was 4644:

following the Armistice. Foch supported Poland in the

4286:" (French settlers) always remained a small minority. 3007:

began in 1642 with the establishment of Fort Dauphin.

2531:

Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at the

2396:, was founded in these times. After his conflict with 1398:

in northern Gaul after battles supposedly against the

718:

emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the

694:. Over the first millennium BC the Greeks, Romans and 10054:

Meunier, Sophie (2017). "Is France Still Relevant?".

8561:

Muel-Dreyfus, Francine; Johnson, Kathleen A. (2001).

8336:

Wall, Irwin M. (1987). "Teaching the Popular Front".

6981: 6328: 5964: 4851:

single movement of civilians in history prior to the

3828: 3365:

Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau

2958: 2753:

Protestant Huguenots and wars of religion (1562–1629)

1121:

the territory of France was largely dominated by the

9353:. Ithaca, NJ: Cornell University Press. p. 618. 7660: 7476:

Empire and Culture: The French Experience, 1830–1940

7053: 7023: 6608:

Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years' War

6272: 6270: 6268: 6063:

Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archaeology

5628: 4972:

A Resistance fighter during street fighting in 1944.

4911:

by 1945 it was higher than it had been for a century

3833:

Prussia joined Britain and Russia, thus forming the

3425:

and were influential across Europe. The philosopher

3379:; the United States became independent. The British 3189:(1712). Finally, a compromise was achieved with the 2020:

State building into the Kingdom of France (987–1453)

1592:

A migration of Celts occurred in the 4th century in

8903:. University of California Press. pp. 70–102. 8901:

Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization

8757:"In France, a War of Memories Over Memories of War" 8560: 7902: 7396: 7384: 6744: 6742: 6740: 6727: 6725: 6723: 6721: 6719: 6442: 6182: 6180: 5428:The French stood among the strongest supporters of 5354:Economic troubles continued into the presidency of 5208:. Great Britain had bought the Egyptian share from 4610:

Interwar years: Foreign policy and Great Depression

3885:, Napoleon's brother, was made King of Spain after 3753:to the United States, because it was indefensible. 3480: 3371:joined American forces in defeating the British at 3282:and, despite a temporary success at the battles of 2901:. Imperial Habsburg forces invaded France, ravaged 1914:in what is now northern Italy (774), incorporating 943:that reversed its low fertility rate. Long wars in 10492:. University of Pennsylvania Press. Chapters 9–16. 9688: 9668:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–21. 7888:. University of California Press. pp. 87–88. 7482: 6942: 6575: 5173:), France refused to grant independence until the 5005:gouvernement provisoire de la République française 3679:from the Ottoman Empire, a British ally. This was 3383:scored a major victory over France in 1782 at the 3302:. At sea, naval defeats against British fleets at 3113:France would soon be involved in another war, the 2705:During the 16th century, the Spanish and Austrian 2574: 1992:. In this struggle some important figures such as 1600:and came from Britain. They spoke the now extinct 872:was declared in 1804. Following his defeat in the 10579:The French Revolution Faith, Desire, and Politics 10537:Mayeur, Jean-Marie; Rebérioux, Madeleine (1984). 10508:Children of the Revolution: The French, 1799–1914 10188:(1992 ed.). University of California Press. 9576:. London: George Allen & Unwin. p. 135. 6875: 6601: 6599: 6597: 6576:Sparks, Randy J.; Van Ruymbeke, Bertrand (2003). 6516: 6363: 6361: 6265: 6122: 6120: 5965:Orrieux, Claude; Schmitt Pantel, Pauline (1999). 5228: 5058:in 1954. Only months later, France faced another 3577:. Military defeats following the outbreak of the 3259:Two years later, in 1740, war broke out over the 2035:France was a very decentralised state during the 1672:, in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila. 1457:(Narbonne) and allow in a correspondence between 13353: 10271:The Ancien Régime: A History of France 1610–1774 10185:The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity 9663: 9170:. Princeton University Press. pp. 123–125. 9151:The 1954 Geneva Conference: Indo-China and Korea 8836:. Leicester University Press. pp. 215–227. 8473:Vichy France, Old Guard and New Order, 1940-1944 7927:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–205. 7613:King, Leslie (1998). "'France needs children'". 7372: 6737: 6716: 6177: 5308:in which he proposed more decentralization. His 4457:in 1916, and five separate conflicts called the 4426:was to quickly defeat the French. They captured 4314:successfully challenged European authority. The 4168:Significant social and political reforms marked 3639: 3290:, French forces were defeated at the disastrous 2882: 2360:France became a truly centralised kingdom under 2071:they held their personal fiefdom, best known as 1619:In 418 the Aquitanian province was given to the 440: 10536: 10241:Jones, Colin; Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy (1999). 8831: 8692:Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943–1944 6897:Reill, Peter Hanns; Wilson, Ellen Judy (2004). 6630: 6430:The French Peasantry in the Seventeenth Century 5319: 5206:Compagnie universelle du canal maritime de Suez 4783:German occupation of France during World War II 3722:in 1799. The Austrian army was defeated at the 3691:unexpectedly destroyed the French fleet at the 2922:Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne 1394:) conquered the surrounding territories of the 748:emerged from the western part of Charlemagne's 10650:History of France, from Prehistory to Nowadays 10268: 9596: 8197: 7955: 6848: 6751:"Famine And Market In 'Ancient Régime' France" 6594: 6358: 6313: 6117: 4838:tactics proved just as devastating there. The 4779:Military history of France during World War II 4100:– the seat of Paris's government – during the 4023: 3947:Napoleon Bonaparte retreating from Moscow, by 3802:, where an entire Austrian army was captured. 2924:. The French forces won a decisive victory at 1720: 12962: 12389: 11734: 10685: 10601:The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918 10558:A Social History of Nineteenth-Century France 8308: 8232:Léon Blum: Prime Minister, Socialist, Zionist 7758:. Random House Publishing. pp. 266–306. 7644:Population and Society in 20th Century France 7189:Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807–1815 6749:Ó Gráda, Cormac; Chevet, Jean-Michel (2002). 6748: 6555:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 100+. 6085:founding of Massalia (Marseilles) in 600 B.C. 5938:Edwards, I. E. S.; et al., eds. (1970). 5452:in Afghanistan, but it strongly rejected the 5003:was quickly put into place by de Gaulle. The 5001:Provisional Government of the French Republic 4438:The war now became a stalemate – the famous " 3314:, and France lost its North American empire. 2273: 2117:. The French were also active in the Iberian 729:raids and migration, most importantly by the 643: 11061: 11040: 10900: 10293:Napoleon: From Tilsit to Waterloo, 1807–1815 10240: 9623: 9295:Gorst, Anthony & Johnman, Lewis (2013). 9294: 8958: 8312:The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914–1938 8129: 7047:Religion and revolution in France, 1780–1804 6527:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 6477:. Vol. 3. CUP Archive. pp. 91–93. 6201:The Struggle for Mastery: Britain, 1066-1284 6096: 6046: 6002:(in French). Éditions du Seuil. p. 29. 5886:"Ancient skulls trace Neanderthal evolution" 5847: 5081:in 1962 which led to Algerian independence. 4791:German soldiers on parade marching past the 4029: 3791: 3758: 2908:Richelieu died in 1642 and was succeeded by 2690:faced powerful foes, and he was captured at 2563:(1453) was the last engagement of this war; 2384:with a massive force. This evolved into the 1445:in 52 BC. The Romans founded cities such as 1374:invaded Rome c. 393 or 388 BC following the 10499:The Oxford History of the French Revolution 10331:Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era 10243:The Cambridge Illustrated History of France 10030: 9750:. New York City: Henry Holt & Company. 9494: 9163: 8315:. Cambridge University Press. p. 328. 8167:The French Economy in the Twentieth Century 8075:. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 125. 6896: 6884:A Diplomatic History of American Revolution 6367: 6163:. Manchester University Press. p. 23. 5944:. Cambridge University Press. p. 754. 5562:. In January 2015, the satirical newspaper 4999:The Vichy regime disintegrated. An interim 4387:Home front during World War I § France 4016:The monarchy was subsequently restored and 12969: 12955: 12396: 12382: 11741: 11727: 10692: 10678: 10576: 9985: 9956: 9899: 8863:. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. 8022:. Cambridge University Press. p. 50. 7312: 7275: 6859: 6857: 6811:War, Diplomacy, and Imperialism, 1618–1763 6376: 6244: 5073:, wracked the country and nearly led to a 4992:in late August. The French army recruited 4523:The Council of Four (from left to right): 4403:The 114th infantry in Paris, 14 July 1917. 4129:The period from 1789 to 1914, dubbed the " 3845:(14 June 1807). Peace was dictated in the 3522:in November 1799 and the formation of the 3121:in 1697 confirmed French sovereignty over 2794:severely persecuted Protestants under the 2254:Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advice, 1623:in exchange for their support against the 1033:were present in Europe from about 400,000 650: 636: 10312:Making Democracy in the French Revolution 10224:Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe 9991: 9348: 9230: 8962:Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 8754: 8620:Hostile allies: FDR and Charles de Gaulle 8309:Bernard, Philippe; Dubief, Henri (1988). 7920: 7011: 6777: 6695: 6693: 6446:; Holzberger, William G. (31 July 2008). 6238: 6156: 5813:Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 5778:Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France 5338:era (1945–1975) ended with the worldwide 4984:, this time including 260,000 men of the 4640:France was part of the Allied force that 4201:global stage, by the early 20th century. 3908:(21 August 1808). France only controlled 3612:. About 16,000 people were executed in a 3333:Britain's success in the Seven Years' War 1926:plain (796), advancing the frontier with 1549:were both born in Gaul, as were emperors 1332:(Bordeaux) while the Aquitanians founded 860:(1793–94). The country was governed as a 10328: 10287: 9322:A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 9274:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 8832:Footitt, Hilary; Simmonds, John (1988). 8226: 7552: 7300: 7238:The restoration era in France, 1814–1830 7223: 7174: 7105: 7032: 5536: 5509:in imposing sanctions on Russia for its 5458: 5264: 5191: 4967: 4897: 4798: 4786: 4652:and France also joined Spain during the 4623: 4518: 4398: 4390: 4224: 4107: 4091: 4009:. It ended with his final defeat at the 3942: 3863: 3817:; the Austrian Empire lost the title of 3765: 3649: 3490: 3404: 3316: 3139: 3020: 3010: 2939:France was hit by civil unrest known as 2762: 2651: 2613:ocean ship or river boat. The different 2578: 2551:, and defeated the Plantagenets once at 2451: 2277: 2204: 2160: 1885: 1879:(son of Charles Martel) established the 1756: 1503: 1482: 1338: 1296:. On the lower Garonne the people spoke 1252: 1180: 1053: 1008: 10514: 10468: 10351: 10337: 10309: 10202: 10081: 10053: 9959:Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 9546: 9521: 9269: 9098: 8661: 8632: 8535: 8495: 8449: 8279: 8254: 8164: 8101:Dept. of State, Office of the Historian 7996: 7984: 7908: 7883: 7840: 7778: 7533: 7500: 7402: 7349: 7324: 7263: 7235: 7211: 6987: 6863: 6854: 6702:"Count Miklós Zrínyi, the Poet-Warlord" 6547: 6472: 6424: 6382: 6346: 6108: 5937: 5915:Wilford, John Noble (2 November 2011). 5914: 5756:Historiography of the French Revolution 3805:A Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated at 3394: 3369:Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette 2829:The Wars of Religion culminated in the 2648:Consolidation (15th and 16th centuries) 2125: 1346:expansion in Europe, 6th–3rd century BC 1192:) Greek silver coin, 5th–1st century BC 14: 13354: 11748: 10607: 10595: 10564: 10505: 10401: 10123: 10056:French Politics, Culture & Society 10031:Erlangerjan, Steven (9 January 2015). 10026: 10024: 9836: 9834: 9770: 9659: 9657: 9655: 9599:European Journal of Political Research 9571: 9501:. Oxford University Press. p. 4. 9421: 9391: 9123: 9056: 8986: 8898: 8614: 8585: 8520: 8467: 8422: 8395: 8370: 7753: 7488: 7414: 7117: 6948: 6833: 6808: 6690: 6605: 6525:The French Wars of Religion, 1562–1629 6497: 6334: 6319: 6291: 6276: 6141: 5568:and a Jewish grocery store came under 5133: 4485:again close to Paris. However, in the 4431:the advance northeast of Paris at the 4316:French Constitution of 27 October 1946 4188:Cultural and artistic movements, from 4157:, the tumultuous establishment of the 3144:The expansion of France, 1552 to 1798. 1596:. They were led by the legendary king 1500:. Painting by Lionel-Noël Royer, 1899. 1272:tribes whom the Romans referred to as 12978:History of current European countries 12950: 12403: 12377: 11722: 10673: 10619: 10555: 10496: 10462:Bibliography of France § History 10382: 10373: 10259: 10181: 9847:The French Experience: Sarkozy's War? 9840: 9745: 9666:Developments in French Politics Vol.4 9437: 9399:. Syracuse University Press. p. 9364: 9319: 9205: 9190: 9148: 8729: 8434: 8073:The Hollow Years: France in the 1930s 8067: 8042: 8017: 7868: 7803: 7716: 7678: 7666: 7473: 7390: 7077: 7062: 7044: 6999: 6975: 6960: 6911: 6659: 6198: 6126: 6052: 5853: 5260:dissuasion du faible au fort doctrine 5181: 4656:. From 1925 until his death in 1932, 4514: 4291:one of the largest empires in history 4084:France in the long nineteenth century 3896:, defeating the French forces at the 1871:, defeated that raiding party at the 1304:related to (or a direct ancestor of) 1260:, central France, late 6th century BC 686:. The Gauls, the largest group, were 12362:Debatable or disputed rulers are in 10664:History of France: Primary Documents 10487: 10471:The Republican Experiment, 1848–1852 10423: 10221: 10172: 9011: 8856: 8704: 8689: 8335: 7681:"La population de la France en 2005" 7641: 7612: 7567: 7378: 7186: 6881: 6731: 6522: 6186: 5446:Counterterrorist Intelligence Center 5087: 4349: 4328:overseas departments and territories 4231:Dark blue = Second Empire 1830–1960. 4161:, and the radical experiment of the 3702:The Directory was threatened by the 3477:and discovered oxygen and hydrogen. 2984:in 1608. The largest settlement was 2918:Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé 2802:— led to a massacre of Huguenots at 2571:remained ruled by the Plantagenets. 2555:(1429) and again, using cannons, at 1918:(788) into his realm, defeating the 1491:throws down his arms at the feet of 88: 12911:History of the Mediterranean region 10344:Capital in the Twenty-First Century 10021: 9831: 9773:"Chirac Wins Re-Election in France" 9652: 9210:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8923: 8755:Kimmelman, Michael (4 March 2009). 8375:. Clarendon Press. pp. 45–62. 7327:Education and the French Revolution 6963:The Cambridge Companion to Voltaire 6245:Perry, Marvin; et al. (2008). 6157:Van Houts, Elisabeth M. C. (2000). 5890:Australian Broadcasting Corporation 5706:International relations (1919–1939) 5690:History of French foreign relations 5405:(EU). In 1992, France ratified the 5033:History of French foreign relations 4866:, along with many French soldiers. 4502:1914, the government implemented a 4345:History of French foreign relations 4276:duty to civilize the inferior races 4229:French empire, 17th-20th centuries. 4088:History of French foreign relations 3300:Miracle of the House of Brandenburg 3224:French colonization of the Americas 2806:in 1562, starting the first of the 2593:History of French foreign relations 2535:(1421), the humiliating defeats of 2498:The tensions between the Houses of 1863:defeated a major invading force at 1705:formed three kingdoms in Armorica: 1565:'s capture by the Persians in 260, 1324:. The Celts founded cities such as 24: 10570:The Collapse of the Third Republic 10455: 9611:10.1111/j.1475-6765.1981.tb00595.x 9231:McDougall, James (December 2017). 9083: 8296:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1970.tb02493.x 7629:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1998.tb02348.x 6699: 6368:Baumgartner, Frederick J. (1995). 6053:Brown, Clifford M. (11 May 2015). 5727:International relations since 1989 5717:Diplomatic history of World War II 5696:International relations, 1648–1814 5583: 5516: 5409:establishing the EU. In 1999, the 5052:regain control of French Indochina 4204: 4064: 3849:, in which Russia had to join the 3829:Coalitions formed against Napoleon 3763:into four (later five) academies. 2959:Colonies (16th and 17th centuries) 2936:(1648) brought an end to the war. 2055:, as they were descended from the 1938:after a prolonged campaign (804). 1652:, and these mercenaries destroyed 1164: 831:Henry, the Bourbon King of Navarre 779:. The war began in 1337 following 710:conquered the rest of Gaul in the 662:The first written records for the 25: 13373: 10699: 10652:(in French + English translation) 10643: 10572:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 10269:Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel (1999). 9934:. 9 November 2005. Archived from 9928:"Special Report: Riots in France" 9885:. 1 December 2016. Archived from 9817:"Sarkozy is new French president" 9698:The Canadian Journal of Economics 9526:. New York City: Berghahn Books. 8498:France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 7646:. Holmes & Meier Publishers. 7085:. Hachette Books. p. 141ff. 6899:Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment 6251:. Cengage Learning. p. 235. 5795:List of prime ministers of France 5712:Diplomatic history of World War I 5592:Agreement climate change accord. 5576:in Paris in November 2015, and a 4496: 3656:Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne 2212:, a French knight, leader of the 2030: 1761:Victory over the Umayyads at the 1358:founded important cities such as 1176: 12896:Bibliography of European history 12491:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 10488:Bury, John Patrick Tuer (1949). 10140: 10117: 10091:Modern & Contemporary France 10075: 10047: 9950: 9920: 9914:10.1111/j.1468-2435.2006.00362.x 9893: 9871: 9809: 9787: 9764: 9739: 9682: 9617: 9590: 9574:France in the Giscard Presidency 9565: 9540: 9515: 9488: 9458: 9431: 9385: 9357: 9342: 9313: 9288: 9263: 9224: 9208:Algeria: France's Undeclared War 9199: 9184: 9157: 9142: 9117: 9101:The French Indochina War 1946–54 9092: 9077: 9050: 9005: 8980: 8952: 8917: 8892: 8877: 8850: 8825: 8816: 8771: 8748: 8734:. London: Simon & Schuster. 8723: 8698: 8683: 8655: 8649:10.1111/j.1467-7709.2007.00658.x 8626: 8608: 8579: 8554: 8529: 8514: 8489: 8461: 8443: 8428: 8402:. Berg Publishers. p. 137. 8389: 8364: 8329: 8302: 8273: 8248: 8220: 8191: 8158: 8123: 8114: 7727:(3): 354–366, quote at 354–355. 6647:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00635.x 6580:. Univ of South Carolina Press. 6475:The New Cambridge Modern History 6279:Medieval France: An Encyclopedia 6277:Kibler, William W., ed. (1995). 5645: 5631: 5438:1999 NATO bombing of the country 5327:the social upheaval of that year 5069:, then home to over one million 4834:began in May 1940, and the same 4710:Great Depression affected France 4543:Peace terms were imposed by the 4395:A French bayonet charge in 1913. 4248:(1962), and relatively peaceful 4181:. Domestically, issues like the 4116:under construction in July 1888. 4069:Of permanent importance was the 3957:French invasion of Russia (1812) 3904:following the Allied victory at 3624:. Four years later in 1799, the 3504:Musée de la Révolution française 3481:Revolutionary France (1789–1799) 3265:Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) 2721:seized Calais from the English. 2597: 2484: 2472: 2442:Bertrand de Goth, Pope Clement V 1410:, where sanctuaries were found. 1320:according to other authors like 852:executed political opponents by 702:coast and offshore islands. The 619: 604: 70: 12921:History of Western civilization 12524:Christianity in the Middle Ages 10154:. 30 April 2022. Archived from 9164:Christensen, Thomas J. (2011). 8089: 8061: 8045:Versailles and After, 1919–1933 8036: 7990: 7949: 7914: 7877: 7862: 7834: 7797: 7772: 7747: 7710: 7672: 7635: 7606: 7571:Journal of Contemporary History 7561: 7546: 7527: 7494: 7467: 7437: 7408: 7343: 7318: 7269: 7229: 7180: 7139: 7111: 7071: 7038: 7005: 6954: 6905: 6890: 6813:. Macmillan. pp. 236–237. 6802: 6758:The Journal of Economic History 6653: 6624: 6569: 6541: 6491: 6466: 6449:The letters of George Santayana 6436: 6370:France in the Sixteenth Century 6340: 6285: 6227: 6211: 6192: 6150: 6135: 6102: 5854:Jones, Tim (17 December 2009). 5819:Territorial evolution of France 5373: 5102:1931, were renegotiated in the 4764: 4578:, a coal and steel region. The 3375:. The war was concluded by the 3292:Battle of the Plains of Abraham 2943:which in turn evolved into the 2905:, and nearly threatened Paris. 2841:, leader of the Spanish-backed 2782:, inspired in France mainly by 2731:Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor 2575:Early Modern France (1453–1789) 2456:The capture of the French king 2004:, were the predecessors of the 12765:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 12708:Christianity in the modern era 12479:Christianity in late antiquity 11031:Government of National Defense 10541:. Cambridge University Press. 10245:. Cambridge University Press. 10165: 9771:Noveck, Jocelyn (6 May 2002). 9551:. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 9371:. Skyhorse. pp. 380–626. 7886:The First World War: 1914–1918 7846:The Second Battle of the Marne 7325:Barnard, Howard Clive (1969). 7276:Sutherland, D. M. G. (2003) . 6809:Simcox, Geoffrey, ed. (1974). 6016: 5989: 5958: 5931: 5908: 5892:. 19 June 2014. Archived from 5878: 5603:, the founder of a new party " 5503:European sovereign debt crisis 5450:toppling of the Taliban regime 5229:President de Gaulle, 1958–1969 5160:Geneva Conference in July 1954 4904:Women in the French Resistance 4677:occupied the industrial region 4372: 4217:Evolution of the French Empire 3879:Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) 3790:. The French army was renamed 3583:insurrection of 10 August 1792 3581:in April 1792 resulted in the 3328:to American and French allies. 3088:England to retire from the war 2824:St. Bartholomew's Day massacre 2506:climaxed during the so-called 2392:, which would evolve into the 1465:to formalize the existence of 1429:. Later, the Consul of Gaul — 821:, fought against factions the 13: 1: 12916:History of the European Union 10940:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 10935:War of the Spanish Succession 10627:. Stanford University Press. 10124:Henley, Jon (24 April 2022). 10103:10.1080/09639489.2017.1375643 9349:Kolodziej, Edward A. (1974). 9237:The Journal of Modern History 8165:Dormois, Jean-Pierre (2004). 8043:Henig, Ruth Beatrice (1995). 6961:Cronk, Nicholas, ed. (2009). 6292:Hallam, Elizabeth M. (1980). 5941:The Cambridge Ancient History 5841: 5018: 4994:French Forces of the Interior 4916: 4379:French entry into World War I 4278:." Full citizenship rights – 3661:Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres 3640:Napoleonic France (1799–1815) 3550:, which was converted into a 3273:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 3242:War of the Quadruple Alliance 3150:War of the Spanish Succession 3129:. Louis also had to evacuate 3125:, yet rejected its claims to 2883:Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) 2729:signed (with the approval of 2366:Count Raymond VII of Toulouse 2165:A view of the remains of the 1988:, the kingdom was ravaged by 1472: 1104: 1089: 1078: 998: 10613:Europe: Grandeur and Decline 10359:. Viking. pp. 662–712. 10329:Nafziger, George F. (2002). 10314:. Harvard University Press. 10205:The Course of French History 9823:. 6 May 2007. Archived from 8991:. Fontana. pp. 72–127. 8690:Funk, Arthur Layton (1959). 8525:. Stanford University Press. 8004:. pp. 101–148, 468–477. 7933:10.1017/CBO9780511497339.007 7924:The Economics of World War I 7848:. Indiana University Press. 7679:Pison, Gilles (March 2006). 7553:Spengler, Joseph J. (1938). 7419:. Berg Publishers. pp. 6610:. Harvard University Press. 6065:. Routledge. p. PT453. 5790:List of presidents of France 5763:History of French journalism 5320:Economic crises: 1970s-1980s 5287:U.S. intervention in Vietnam 5175:Algerian War of Independence 5007:, or GPRF, operated under a 4547:, meeting in Paris in 1919: 4334: 4077: 3972:(June 1813) and then at the 3359:defeated a British fleet at 2971:established several colonies 2679:into the Kingdom of France. 1883:as the kings of the Franks. 1685:Burgundian Revolt of Gunther 1664:in 443. The Huns, united by 787:from its hereditary holder, 698:established colonies on the 7: 12875:Russian invasion of Ukraine 12486:Crisis of the Third Century 10376:France in the Enlightenment 10295:. Routledge & K. Paul. 9495:Eichengreen, Barry (2011). 9444:. MIT Press. pp. 7–9. 8899:Kuisel, Richard F. (1993). 8500:. Oxford University Press. 8201:Review of Economic Dynamics 7959:Review of Economic Dynamics 7754:Herwig, Holger H. (2011) . 7451:(in French). Archived from 7280:. Wiley. pp. 329–333. 7236:Stewart, John Hall (1968). 5968:A History of Ancient Greece 5834:Turkish Airlines Flight 981 5679:Foreign relations of France 5624: 5597:2017 election for president 5480:military operation in Libya 5436:; French troops joined the 5252:nuclear development program 4976:On 6 June 1944, the Allies 4860:British Expeditionary Force 4424:Germany's "Schlieffen Plan" 4149:, the rise and fall of the 4024:Napoleon's impact on France 3739:Battle of Copenhagen (1801) 3050:in 1664. France fought the 2682:France engaged in the long 2198:(beginning in 989) and the 1721:Frankish kingdoms (486–987) 1149:saw the development of the 1145:culture, among others. The 10: 13378: 12931:Military history of Europe 12926:Maritime history of Europe 11421:French subdivisions by GDP 11168:2022 presidential election 11153:2017 presidential election 10459: 10262:Paris: Biography of a City 9324:(4th ed.). New York: 9149:Young, Kenneth T. (1968). 8018:Cohrs, Patrick O. (2006). 7820:10.1177/096834459500200203 7584:10.1177/002200949002500102 6882:Dull, Jonathan R. (1985). 6667:Canadian Historical Review 6205:Penguin History of Britain 6097:Jones & Ladurie (1999) 6059:de Grummond, Nancy Thomson 5824:Timeline of French history 5802:Military history of France 5674:Economic history of France 5612:2022 presidential election 5419:Galileo positioning system 5258:. France then adopted the 5185: 5022: 4901: 4768: 4620:Great Depression in France 4613: 4487:Second Battle of the Marne 4383:French Army in World War I 4376: 4361:implemented in the 1940s. 4353: 4341:France in the 20th century 4338: 4214: 4208: 4081: 3823:Confederation of the Rhine 3669:War of the First Coalition 3643: 3610:Committee of Public Safety 3484: 3398: 3221: 3215: 3014: 2962: 2886: 2756: 2700:Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa 2671:With the death in 1477 of 2601: 2586: 2274:Late Capetians (1165–1328) 2023: 1953:in 800. Charlemagne's son 1730: 1724: 1701:from the Pyrenees and the 1674: 1629: 1569:established a short-lived 1476: 1302:Pre-Indo-European language 1242: 1236: 1195: 1168: 1021:Stone tools discovered at 1002: 767:crisis in 1328 led to the 35: 28: 13333: 13285: 13247: 12984: 12901:Genetic history of Europe 12883: 12688: 12504: 12444: 12411: 12360: 12341: 12315: 12277: 12251: 12205: 12180: 12101: 12012: 11908: 11784: 11754: 11682: 11572: 11482: 11473: 11369: 11360: 11262: 11253: 11191: 11182: 11103: 10984: 10953: 10925:Second Hundred Years' War 10876: 10829: 10796: 10775: 10767:Liberalism and radicalism 10719: 10710: 10577:Shusterman, Noah (2013). 10469:Agulhon, Maurice (1983). 9971:10.1080/13691830902826137 9522:Seidman, Stephen (2004). 9438:Hecht, Gabrielle (2009). 9191:Werth, Alexander (1957). 9015:Journal of Modern History 8938:10.1017/S0007680517000605 8589:English Historical Review 8565:. Duke University Press. 8523:Vichy France and the Jews 8437:The French Defeat of 1940 8435:Blatt, Joel, ed. (1998). 8234:. Yale University Press. 7720:Journal of Modern History 7555:France Faces Depopulation 7191:. Yale University Press. 7154:. Arms and Armour Press. 7108:, pp. 1–32, 205–262. 7063:Goetz, Robert P. (2005). 6915:Journal of Modern History 6770:10.1017/S0022050702001055 6606:Wilson, Peter H. (2009). 6386:Journal of Social History 5574:another series of attacks 5560:in Toulouse and Montauban 5501:as a way of tackling the 4775:Diplomacy of World War II 4529:Vittorio Emanuele Orlando 4418:the coming of World War I 4265:their own colonial empire 3579:French Revolutionary Wars 3564:Catholic Church in France 3562:, state control over the 3115:War of the Grand Alliance 2737:Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis 2398:King Henry III of England 2378:King Henry III of England 2026:France in the Middle Ages 1604:, which evolved into the 1127:Armorican Tumulus culture 1047:by 43,000 years ago (the 892:was established in 1870. 11196:Administrative divisions 10520:France: A Modern History 10222:Grab, Alexander (2003). 10203:Goubert, Pierre (1988). 10068:10.3167/fpcs.2017.350206 10006:10.1177/0032329208314802 9365:Fenby, Jonathan (2010). 9320:Horne, Alistair (2006). 9124:Larkin, Maurice (1997). 9099:Windrow, Martin (2013). 9059:Historiens et Géographes 8730:Fenby, Jonathan (2010). 8521:Marrus, Michael (1995). 8496:Jackson, Julian (2003). 8371:Larkin, Maurice (1988). 8255:Jackson, Julian (1988). 8175:10.1017/CBO9780511616969 7873:. Yale University Press. 7690:(in French) (421): 1–4. 7366:10.1080/0046760760050103 6500:John Calvin: A Biography 6498:Parker, T.H.L. (2006) . 6294:Capetian France 987-1328 5670:, For population history 5605:La République En Marche! 5269:De Gaulle and Germany's 5054:but was defeated by the 4628:French cavalry entering 4472:called for unity—for a " 3556:Storming of the Bastille 3048:Battle of Saint Gotthard 1198:Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul 1169:Not to be confused with 911:. France was one of the 783:'s attempt to seize the 429: 391: 221: 210: 189: 12906:History of Christianity 11775:List of French monarchs 11416:Franc (former currency) 11021:Coup of 2 December 1851 10994:Long nineteenth century 10522:. Textbook Publishers. 10506:Gildea, Robert (2008). 10497:Doyle, William (1989). 10310:Livesey, James (2001). 9902:International Migration 9865:10.7249/j.ctt16f8d7x.13 9843:"The French Experience" 9841:Grand, Camille (2015). 9547:Maclean, Mairi (2002). 9363:On his presidency, see 9195:. London: Barrie Books. 8926:Business History Review 8857:Wall, Irwin M. (1991). 8667:In Search of the Maquis 8536:Diamond, Hanna (1999). 8396:Thomas, Martin (1996). 7783:. Bloomsbury Academic. 7779:McPhail, Helen (2014). 7696:10.3917/popsoc.421.0001 7642:Dyer, Colin L. (1978). 7501:Stenner, David (2019). 6706:The Balkans In Our Eyes 6473:Wernham, R. B. (1968). 6296:. Longman. p. 64. 6109:Heather, P. J. (2007). 5785:List of French monarchs 5773:Legal history of France 5511:actions against Ukraine 5283:Franco-German relations 5215:The Egyptian President 5148:Battle of Dien Bien Phu 4931:Attack on Mers-el-Kébir 4746:'s escalating demands. 4713:was no banking crisis. 4646:Greater Poland Uprising 4580:German African colonies 4464:After Socialist leader 4435:(5–12 September 1914). 4312:anti-colonial movements 4131:Long nineteenth century 3516:Estates General of 1789 3296:Anglo-Prussian Alliance 3250:Treaty of Vienna (1738) 2995:The French presence in 2831:War of the Three Henrys 2808:French Wars of Religion 2759:French Wars of Religion 2549:Compagnies d'ordonnance 2374:Count Alfonso of Poitou 1934:(801), and subjugating 1805:Visigoths. He defeated 1741:Carolingian Renaissance 1459:Lucius Munatius Plancus 1232: 1221:) on the shores of the 919:, but was conquered by 888:, until a more lasting 815:French Wars of Religion 813:. At the height of the 13027:Bosnia and Herzegovina 12730:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 12281:(1814–1815; 1815–1830) 11770:List of Frankish kings 11765:Simplified family tree 11436:Science and technology 11093:Provisional Government 11062: 11041: 10901: 10383:Tombs, Robert (2014). 10374:Roche, Daniel (1998). 10182:Fehér, Ferenc (1990). 10173:Duby, Georges (1993). 10082:Hewlett, Nick (2017). 9994:Politics & Society 9746:Short, Philip (2014). 9270:Shepard, Todd (2006). 9206:Evans, Martin (2011). 8214:10.1006/redy.2001.0143 7972:10.1006/redy.2001.0143 7884:Hardach, Gerd (1977). 7688:Population et Sociétés 7616:Sociological Quarterly 7474:Evans, Martin (2004). 6553:Richelieu and Olivares 6523:Holt, Mack P. (2005). 6142:Wilson, Derek (2007). 6127:James, Edward (1981). 5685:French colonial empire 5668:Demographics of France 5556:Air France Flight 8969 5545: 5543:Charlie Hebdo shooting 5471: 5293:" of the U.S. dollar. 5274: 5201: 5025:French Fourth Republic 5013:French Fourth Republic 4973: 4808: 4796: 4642:occupied the Rhineland 4637: 4634:Occupation of the Ruhr 4590:, France acquired the 4540: 4404: 4396: 4356:Demographics of France 4252:elsewhere after 1960. 4232: 4211:French colonial empire 4127: 4117: 4105: 4030: 3974:Battle of the Pyrenees 3952: 3873: 3792: 3779: 3759: 3689:Admiral Horatio Nelson 3685:Battle of the Pyramids 3664: 3595:Louis XVI was executed 3587:monarchy was abolished 3560:abolition of feudalism 3507: 3414: 3377:Treaty of Paris (1783) 3329: 3312:Treaty of Paris (1763) 3240:'s regency joined the 3145: 3107:Edict of Fontainebleau 3029: 2965:French colonial empire 2953:Treaty of the Pyrenees 2800:Francis, Duke of Guise 2796:Edict of Chateaubriand 2780:Protestant Reformation 2775: 2743:Elizabeth I of England 2713:encircled France. The 2668: 2584: 2465: 2432:, and established the 2302: 2221: 2196:Peace and Truce of God 2182: 1899: 1766: 1733:List of Frankish kings 1547:Gnaeus Julius Agricola 1543:Marcus Antonius Primus 1515: 1501: 1441:, but were ultimately 1347: 1261: 1193: 1066: 1018: 969:French colonial empire 895:France was one of the 850:Revolutionary Tribunal 265:Valois-Angoulême kings 12810:Industrial Revolution 10556:Price, Roger (1987). 10260:Jones, Colin (2004). 9805:on 26 September 2019. 9572:Frears, J.R. (1981). 9326:New York Review Books 9299:. London: Routledge. 9103:. Osprey Publishing. 8974:10.3917/rhmc.514.0078 8781:International Affairs 8705:Ross, George (1982). 8132:International Affairs 7869:Rudin, Harry (1944). 7415:Chafer, Tony (2002). 7045:Aston, Nigel (2000). 6849:Le Roy Ladurie (1999) 6660:Greer, Allan (2010). 6320:Frankl, Paul (2001). 6160:The Normans in Europe 5540: 5462: 5454:2003 invasion of Iraq 5268: 5254:that made France the 5195: 5104:Blum-Byrnes agreement 5029:French Fifth Republic 4971: 4961:at the height of the 4898:Women in Vichy France 4802: 4790: 4627: 4614:Further information: 4522: 4461:(from 1914 to 1918). 4414:Balkan crisis of 1914 4402: 4394: 4364:France experienced a 4228: 4215:Further information: 4122: 4111: 4095: 3985:Battle of the Nations 3946: 3867: 3769: 3751:sold French Louisiana 3728:Battle of Hohenlinden 3653: 3591:French First Republic 3568:declaration of rights 3518:, and ended with the 3502:was the first riot. ( 3494: 3456:Jean Jacques Rousseau 3408: 3385:Battle of the Saintes 3320: 3143: 3024: 3011:Louis XIV (1643–1715) 2770:was the first French 2766: 2655: 2582: 2512:Black Death in France 2455: 2281: 2208: 2164: 2108:William the Conqueror 1889: 1816:The Goths retired to 1760: 1632:Crossing of the Rhine 1507: 1486: 1342: 1256: 1184: 1057: 1012: 995:in the 21st century. 961:French Fifth Republic 890:French Third Republic 789:Edward III of England 12865:European debt crisis 12860:European integration 12800:Age of Enlightenment 12640:Republic of Florence 11760:Detailed family tree 11241:World Heritage Sites 11158:Coronavirus pandemic 10429:Louis XIV: A Profile 7353:History of Education 6869:The Seven Years' War 6836:, pp. 237, 242. 6684:10.3138/chr.91.4.695 6502:. pp. 161–164. 6399:10.1353/jsh/24.3.563 5927:on 15 November 2012. 5291:exorbitant privilege 5256:fourth nuclear power 5222:Dwight D. Eisenhower 5143:Radical party leader 5139:Pierre Mendès France 5042:automobiles and the 4759:save peace at Munich 4604:Treaty of Versailles 4565:Treaty of Versailles 4289:At its apex, it was 3928:, yet was beaten at 3902:Convention of Sintra 3772:Battle of Austerlitz 3593:in September, while 3589:and replaced by the 3514:that began with the 3475:Conservation of mass 3423:French Enlightenment 3401:Age of Enlightenment 3395:French Enlightenment 3238:Philip II of Orléans 3228:Age of Enlightenment 3177:(1709) proved to be 3096:Palace of Versailles 3092:Treaties of Nijmegen 2870:Siege of La Rochelle 2855:a fanatical Catholic 2820:Catherine de' Medici 2615:estates of the realm 2264:Eleanor of Aquitaine 2218:Kingdom of Jerusalem 2210:Godefroy de Bouillon 2126:Rise of the monarchy 2065:Crown of Charlemagne 1842:Mayors of the Palace 1681:Gothic War (436-439) 1312:was spoken north of 1280:roughly between the 1005:Prehistory of France 973:overseas departments 953:1958 Algerian Crisis 777:House of Plantagenet 736:. The Frankish king 473:Provisional Republic 255:Valois-Orléans kings 13248:States with limited 12830:Revolutions of 1848 12760:Early modern France 12541:Anglo-Saxon England 12446:Classical antiquity 12196:Henry VI of England 11379:Automotive industry 11163:2021 labor protests 10920:Peace of Westphalia 10788:History of Normandy 10783:History of Brittany 10666:(English interface) 10347:. pp. 339–345. 10043:on 10 January 2015. 9938:on 24 November 2005 9889:on 1 December 2016. 9088:. pp. 102–103. 8669:. Clarendon Press. 7987:, pp. 339–345. 7842:Neiberg, Michael S. 7541:. pp. 304–305. 7315:, pp. 336–372. 7303:, pp. 171–179. 7226:, pp. 353–372. 7214:, pp. 662–712. 7187:Muir, Rory (1996). 7177:, pp. 309–352. 7002:, pp. 117–130. 6423:interpretation see 6322:Gothic Architecture 6034:on 5 September 2015 5739:French criminal law 5444:, an international 5382:and the end of the 5356:François Mitterrand 5134:Vietnam and Algeria 5063:conflict in Algeria 4982:landing in Provence 4892:extermination camps 4862:was evacuated from 4755:Neville Chamberlain 4726:Chamber of Deputies 4455:Battle of the Somme 4322:), established the 4295:metropolitan France 4174:Franco-Prussian War 4133:" by the historian 4059:École Polytechnique 3843:Battle of Friedland 3815:Treaty of Pressburg 3784:First French Empire 3743:Treaty of Lunéville 3606:National Convention 3602:revolt in June 1793 3575:economic depression 3520:coup of 18 Brumaire 3353:American Revolution 3261:Austrian succession 3198:Jean-Baptiste Lully 3152:began. The Bourbon 3103:War of the Reunions 3042:fought against the 3040:League of the Rhine 3026:Louis XIV of France 3017:Louis XIV of France 2982:Samuel de Champlain 2934:Peace of Westphalia 2930:Truce of Ulm (1647) 2663:. His death at the 2625:The Catholic Church 2589:Early Modern France 2561:Battle of Castillon 2368:finally signed the 2355:Albigensian Crusade 2216:and founder of the 2098:, and the House of 1971:Oaths of Strasbourg 1881:Carolingian dynasty 1822:Merovingian dynasty 1749:Carolingian dynasty 1536:Gallo-Roman culture 1376:Battle of the Allia 1143:Atlantic Bronze Age 1123:Bell Beaker culture 981:UN Security Council 716:Gallo-Roman culture 12936:Crusading movement 12840:Russian Revolution 12675:Hundred Years' War 12571:Maritime republics 12474:Early Christianity 12464:Hellenistic period 12421:Paleolithic Europe 12343:House of Bonaparte 12253:House of Bonaparte 12183:House of Lancaster 11749:Monarchs of France 11446:Telecommunications 11148:2015 Paris attacks 11011:Revolution of 1848 10839:Visigothic Kingdom 10566:Shirer, William L. 10072:Quoting pp. 61–62. 10037:The New York Times 10018:(Quote on p. 136.) 9153:. Greenwood Press. 8761:The New York Times 8636:Diplomatic history 8451:Doughty, Robert A. 7148:de Beaufort, Louis 6712:on 3 January 2009. 6199:Carpenter, David. 5999:Histoire de France 5921:The New York Times 5807:Politics of France 5681:, Since the 1950s 5551:The New York Times 5546: 5490:against Socialist 5488:reelection in 2012 5484:Gaddafi government 5472: 5275: 5217:Gamal Abdel Nasser 5202: 5200:, 5 November 1956. 5182:Suez crisis (1956) 4978:landed in Normandy 4974: 4963:Battle of Normandy 4927:Free French Forces 4853:Partition of India 4813:invasion of Poland 4809: 4797: 4638: 4596:Mandate of Lebanon 4557:Georges Clemenceau 4549:David Lloyd George 4541: 4533:Georges Clemenceau 4525:David Lloyd George 4515:Postwar settlement 4405: 4397: 4233: 4118: 4106: 4096:The taking of the 4042:(signed with Pope 4011:Battle of Waterloo 4003:Congress of Vienna 3961:Battle of Borodino 3953: 3874: 3868:The height of the 3851:Continental System 3847:Treaties of Tilsit 3819:Holy Roman Emperor 3780: 3693:Battle of the Nile 3665: 3634:Napoleon Bonaparte 3628:seized power in a 3618:ended in July 1794 3508: 3415: 3355:into a world war. 3330: 3167:Battle of Blenheim 3146: 3030: 2945:Franco-Spanish War 2895:Cardinal Richelieu 2862:Cardinal Richelieu 2776: 2768:Henry IV of France 2747:Philip II of Spain 2727:Henry II of France 2669: 2659:, the last Valois 2585: 2508:Hundred Years' War 2466: 2434:Parlement of Paris 2340:Battle of Bouvines 2308:Philip II Augustus 2303: 2222: 2183: 2014:Charles the Simple 1994:Count Odo of Paris 1900: 1890:The coronation of 1853:conquered Hispania 1767: 1745:Carolingian Empire 1677:Frankish War (428) 1587:victory at Châlons 1516: 1502: 1443:defeated at Alesia 1408:Gournay-sur-Aronde 1404:Ribemont-sur-Ancre 1392:Germani cisrhenani 1348: 1326:Lutetia Parisiorum 1276:and who spoke the 1262: 1215:colony of Massalia 1194: 1125:, followed by the 1073:cave paintings of 1067: 1049:Upper Palaeolithic 1019: 856:, instituting the 841:, "The Sun King". 785:Duchy of Aquitaine 769:Hundred Years' War 760:, founded in 987. 750:Carolingian Empire 626:History portal 122: until 50 BC 31:Histoire de France 13362:History of France 13349: 13348: 12944: 12943: 12870:COVID-19 pandemic 12815:French Revolution 12790:Habsburg monarchy 12770:Cossack Hetmanate 12750:Portuguese Empire 12740:Absolute monarchy 12735:Thirty Years' War 12630:Holy Roman Empire 12555:Bulgarian Empire 12514:Early Middle Ages 12431:Bronze Age Europe 12405:History of Europe 12371: 12370: 12332:Louis Philippe II 12255:(1804–1814; 1815) 11716: 11715: 11678: 11677: 11469: 11468: 11356: 11355: 11348:Political parties 11284:Foreign relations 11249: 11248: 11178: 11177: 10961:French Revolution 10915:Thirty Years' War 10896:Absolute monarchy 10861:Kingdom of France 10757:Foreign relations 10737:Political history 10634:978-0-8047-1013-8 10588:978-1-1344-5600-0 10548:978-2-7351-0067-5 10529:978-0-7581-2078-6 10490:France, 1814–1940 10480:978-0-5212-8988-7 10438:978-1-3490-1470-5 10394:978-1-3178-7143-9 10366:978-0-6700-2532-9 10321:978-0-6740-0624-9 10302:978-0-7100-8014-1 10289:Lefebvre, Georges 10280:978-0-6312-1196-9 10252:978-0-5216-6992-4 10233:978-1-4039-3757-5 10214:978-0-5311-5054-2 10195:978-0-5200-7120-9 10158:on 28 April 2022. 10136:on 24 April 2022. 9856:978-0-8330-8793-5 9757:978-0-8050-8853-3 9675:978-0-2305-3700-2 9583:978-0-0435-4025-1 9558:978-0-3337-6148-9 9533:978-1-5718-1675-7 9508:978-0-1997-8148-5 9451:978-0-2622-6617-8 9378:978-1-6208-7447-9 9335:978-1-5901-7218-6 9306:978-1-1350-9728-8 9281:978-0-8014-4360-2 9217:978-0-1928-0350-4 9177:978-1-4008-3881-3 9135:978-0-1987-3151-1 9110:978-1-4728-0430-3 8998:978-0-0063-4261-8 8910:978-0-5200-7962-5 8870:978-0-5214-0217-0 8843:978-0-7185-1231-6 8834:France, 1943–1945 8767:on 30 April 2011. 8741:978-1-8473-7392-2 8716:978-0-5200-4075-5 8676:978-0-1915-9178-5 8572:978-0-8223-2777-6 8547:978-0-5822-9910-8 8507:978-0-1992-5457-6 8482:978-0-3944-7360-4 8469:Paxton, Robert O. 8425:, pp. 63–81. 8409:978-1-8597-3192-5 8382:978-0-1987-3034-7 8322:978-0-5213-5854-5 8266:978-0-5213-1252-3 8241:978-0-3002-1373-7 8184:978-0-5216-6092-1 8082:978-0-3933-1479-3 8054:978-0-2031-3430-6 8029:978-1-1394-5256-4 7942:978-0-5218-5212-8 7895:978-0-5200-3060-2 7855:978-0-2533-5146-3 7790:978-1-7845-3053-2 7765:978-0-8129-7829-2 7653:978-0-8419-0308-1 7512:978-1-5036-0900-6 7455:on 25 August 2006 7430:978-1-8597-3557-2 7336:978-0-5210-7256-4 7329:. Cambridge U.P. 7313:Sutherland (2003) 7287:978-0-6312-3362-6 7247:978-0-8446-3013-7 7198:978-0-3001-9757-0 7161:978-0-8536-8506-7 7132:978-0-6841-2558-9 7092:978-0-3068-1645-1 7017:Napoleon in Egypt 6820:978-0-3331-6633-8 6617:978-0-6740-3634-5 6587:978-1-5700-3484-8 6562:978-0-5214-0674-1 6534:978-1-1394-4767-6 6509:978-0-7459-5228-4 6484:978-0-5210-4543-8 6459:978-0-2621-9571-3 6444:Santayana, George 6352:The Ancien Régime 6303:978-0-5824-8909-7 6258:978-0-5471-4742-0 6170:978-0-7190-4751-0 6099:, pp. 29–30. 6072:978-1-1342-6861-0 6009:978-2-0201-0879-9 5982:978-0-6312-0309-4 5971:. Wiley. p. 5951:978-0-5210-8691-2 5866:on 2 January 2010 5751:French Revolution 5580:in Nice in 2016. 5492:Francois Hollande 5407:Maastricht Treaty 5344:Giscard d'Estaing 5335:Trente Glorieuses 5158:movement. At the 5088:Economic recovery 5071:European settlers 4986:French First Army 4959:Oradour-sur-Glane 4923:Charles de Gaulle 4805:Marseille roundup 4734:Spanish Civil War 4670:League of Nations 4650:Polish–Soviet War 4598:. French Marshal 4584:League of Nations 4428:Brussels, Belgium 4350:Population trends 4040:Concordat of 1801 3989:Six Days Campaign 3760:Institut National 3724:Battle of Marengo 3671:(1792–1797), the 3597:in January 1793. 3552:National Assembly 3528:liberal democracy 3487:French Revolution 3471:Antoine Lavoisier 3357:Admiral de Grasse 3298:was saved by the 3284:the Great Meadows 3254:Duchy of Lorraine 3246:Polish succession 3200:to establish the 3191:Treaty of Utrecht 3179:Pyrrhic victories 3119:Treaty of Ryswick 3084:Michiel de Ruyter 3052:War of Devolution 3038:France dominated 3028:, the "Sun King". 2899:national interest 2889:Thirty Years' War 2418:Aragonese Crusade 2350:English civil war 2319:Richard Lionheart 2299:Holy Roman Empire 2268:Henry Fitzempress 1753:Early Middle Ages 1670:Battle of Châlons 1316:but north of the 1245:Hallstatt culture 1227:Germania superior 1223:Mediterranean Sea 1151:Hallstatt culture 1095:) as well as the 1061:megalithic tomb, 1013:Cave painting in 963:. Into the 1960s 957:Charles de Gaulle 846:French Revolution 803:absolute monarchy 746:Kingdom of France 664:history of France 660: 659: 611:France portal 504: 503: 401: 400: 312:Kingdom of France 302:French Revolution 293:Long 19th century 283: 282: 231: 230: 201:Kingdom of France 136: 135: 16:(Redirected from 13369: 13286:Dependencies and 12985:Sovereign states 12971: 12964: 12957: 12948: 12947: 12805:Great Divergence 12720:Age of Discovery 12665:Late Middle Ages 12635:High Middle Ages 12546:Byzantine Empire 12529:Christianization 12519:Migration Period 12454:Classical Greece 12426:Neolithic Europe 12398: 12391: 12384: 12375: 12374: 12326:Louis Philippe I 12317:House of Orléans 12279:House of Bourbon 12207:House of Bourbon 11743: 11736: 11729: 11720: 11719: 11480: 11479: 11396:Economic history 11367: 11366: 11260: 11259: 11189: 11188: 11067: 11046: 10945:Seven Years' War 10910:Wars of Religion 10906: 10891:House of Bourbon 10886:Early modern era 10866:Fundamental laws 10742:Military history 10717: 10716: 10694: 10687: 10680: 10671: 10670: 10660: 10638: 10616: 10609:Taylor, A. J. P. 10604: 10597:Taylor, A. J. P. 10592: 10573: 10561: 10552: 10533: 10511: 10502: 10493: 10484: 10450: 10420: 10398: 10385:France 1814–1914 10379: 10370: 10357:Napoleon: A Life 10348: 10334: 10325: 10306: 10284: 10265: 10256: 10237: 10218: 10199: 10178: 10160: 10159: 10144: 10138: 10137: 10132:. Archived from 10121: 10115: 10114: 10088: 10079: 10073: 10071: 10051: 10045: 10044: 10039:. Archived from 10028: 10019: 10017: 9989: 9983: 9982: 9954: 9948: 9947: 9945: 9943: 9924: 9918: 9917: 9897: 9891: 9890: 9875: 9869: 9868: 9838: 9829: 9828: 9827:on 22 July 2022. 9813: 9807: 9806: 9801:. Archived from 9791: 9785: 9784: 9779:. Archived from 9768: 9762: 9761: 9743: 9737: 9736: 9734: 9732: 9726: 9720:. Archived from 9695: 9686: 9680: 9679: 9661: 9650: 9649: 9621: 9615: 9614: 9594: 9588: 9587: 9569: 9563: 9562: 9544: 9538: 9537: 9519: 9513: 9512: 9492: 9486: 9485: 9483: 9481: 9472:. 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Archived from 8752: 8746: 8745: 8727: 8721: 8720: 8702: 8696: 8695: 8687: 8681: 8680: 8659: 8653: 8652: 8630: 8624: 8623: 8612: 8606: 8605: 8596:(447): 643–670. 8583: 8577: 8576: 8558: 8552: 8551: 8533: 8527: 8526: 8518: 8512: 8511: 8493: 8487: 8486: 8465: 8459: 8458: 8447: 8441: 8440: 8432: 8426: 8420: 8414: 8413: 8393: 8387: 8386: 8368: 8362: 8361: 8333: 8327: 8326: 8306: 8300: 8299: 8290:(184): 199–206. 8277: 8271: 8270: 8252: 8246: 8245: 8228:Birnbaum, Pierre 8224: 8218: 8217: 8208:(73–99): 73–99. 8195: 8189: 8188: 8162: 8156: 8155: 8127: 8121: 8118: 8112: 8111: 8109: 8107: 8093: 8087: 8086: 8065: 8059: 8058: 8040: 8034: 8033: 8015: 8006: 8005: 7994: 7988: 7982: 7976: 7975: 7953: 7947: 7946: 7918: 7912: 7906: 7900: 7899: 7881: 7875: 7874: 7866: 7860: 7859: 7838: 7832: 7831: 7801: 7795: 7794: 7776: 7770: 7769: 7751: 7745: 7744: 7714: 7708: 7707: 7685: 7676: 7670: 7664: 7658: 7657: 7639: 7633: 7632: 7610: 7604: 7603: 7565: 7559: 7558: 7550: 7544: 7542: 7531: 7525: 7524: 7498: 7492: 7486: 7480: 7479: 7471: 7465: 7464: 7462: 7460: 7441: 7435: 7434: 7412: 7406: 7400: 7394: 7388: 7382: 7376: 7370: 7369: 7347: 7341: 7340: 7322: 7316: 7310: 7304: 7298: 7292: 7291: 7273: 7267: 7261: 7252: 7251: 7240:. Van Nostrand. 7233: 7227: 7221: 7215: 7209: 7203: 7202: 7184: 7178: 7172: 7166: 7165: 7143: 7137: 7136: 7115: 7109: 7103: 7097: 7096: 7079:Kagan, Frederick 7075: 7069: 7068: 7060: 7051: 7050: 7042: 7036: 7030: 7021: 7020: 7009: 7003: 6997: 6991: 6985: 6979: 6973: 6967: 6966: 6958: 6952: 6946: 6940: 6939: 6909: 6903: 6902: 6894: 6888: 6887: 6879: 6873: 6872: 6861: 6852: 6846: 6837: 6831: 6825: 6824: 6806: 6800: 6799: 6781: 6755: 6746: 6735: 6729: 6714: 6713: 6708:. Archived from 6697: 6688: 6687: 6657: 6651: 6650: 6628: 6622: 6621: 6603: 6592: 6591: 6573: 6567: 6566: 6545: 6539: 6538: 6520: 6514: 6513: 6495: 6489: 6488: 6470: 6464: 6463: 6440: 6434: 6433: 6418: 6380: 6374: 6373: 6365: 6356: 6355: 6344: 6338: 6332: 6326: 6325: 6317: 6311: 6310: 6289: 6283: 6282: 6274: 6263: 6262: 6242: 6236: 6231: 6225: 6215: 6209: 6208: 6196: 6190: 6184: 6175: 6174: 6154: 6148: 6147: 6139: 6133: 6132: 6124: 6115: 6114: 6106: 6100: 6094: 6088: 6087: 6050: 6044: 6043: 6041: 6039: 6030:. Archived from 6020: 6014: 6013: 5993: 5987: 5986: 5962: 5956: 5955: 5935: 5929: 5928: 5923:. Archived from 5912: 5906: 5905: 5903: 5901: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5873: 5871: 5862:. Archived from 5860:Anthropology.net 5851: 5768:History of Paris 5664:, historiography 5655: 5650: 5649: 5648: 5641: 5636: 5635: 5634: 5527:erupted in riots 5392:Opération Daguet 5380:fall of the USSR 5060:anti-colonialist 5044:major newspapers 4990:liberating Paris 4832:Battle of France 4751:Édouard Daladier 4592:Mandate of Syria 4553:Vittorio Orlando 4451:Battle of Verdun 4033: 3898:Battle of Bailén 3894:guerilla tactics 3883:Joseph Bonaparte 3835:Fourth Coalition 3797: 3770:Napoléon at the 3762: 3747:Treaty of Amiens 3704:Second Coalition 3524:French Consulate 3496:Day of the Tiles 3351:that turned the 3280:Seven Years' War 3218:Seven Years' War 3162:balance of power 3076:Franco-Dutch War 3062:they formed the 2910:Cardinal Mazarin 2673:Charles the Bold 2661:Duke of Burgundy 2657:Charles the Bold 2516:Treaty of Troyes 2488: 2476: 2289:, thus annexing 2191:Emperor Henry II 2187:Robert the Pious 2006:Capetian dynasty 1996:and his brother 1979:Henry the Fowler 1975:Treaty of Verdun 1963:Louis the German 1959:Charles the Bald 1930:as far south as 1773:, leader of the 1602:British language 1524:Gaulish language 1498:Battle of Alesia 1362:(Marseille) and 1310:Belgian language 1292:), according to 1278:Gaulish language 1153:followed by the 1139:Urnfield culture 1119:Early Bronze Age 1109: 1106: 1094: 1093: 15,000 BC 1091: 1083: 1082: 25,000 BC 1080: 1027:Lézignan-la-Cèbe 967:saw most of the 929:Jews were killed 925:Vichy government 823:House of Bourbon 690:people speaking 666:appeared in the 652: 645: 638: 624: 623: 622: 609: 608: 607: 500: 416: 415: 298: 297: 251: 250: 212:Direct Capetians 151: 150: 94: 93: 74: 64: 46: 45: 21: 13377: 13376: 13372: 13371: 13370: 13368: 13367: 13366: 13352: 13351: 13350: 13345: 13329: 13287: 13281: 13267:Northern Cyprus 13249: 13243: 13159:North Macedonia 12980: 12975: 12945: 12940: 12879: 12845:Interwar period 12820:Napoleonic Wars 12684: 12655:Mongol invasion 12608:Crown of Aragon 12500: 12440: 12436:Iron Age Europe 12407: 12402: 12372: 12367: 12356: 12337: 12311: 12273: 12247: 12201: 12176: 12103:House of Valois 12097: 12008: 11969:Charles the Fat 11928:Pepin the Short 11913: 11904: 11780: 11779: 11750: 11747: 11717: 11712: 11711: 11692: 11674: 11655:Public holidays 11568: 11527:Life expectancy 11465: 11352: 11245: 11174: 11143:Great Recession 11116:Fourth Republic 11111:1900 to present 11099: 11016:Second Republic 10980: 10949: 10872: 10825: 10792: 10771: 10706: 10698: 10658: 10646: 10641: 10635: 10589: 10549: 10530: 10516:Guérard, Albert 10481: 10464: 10458: 10456:Further reading 10453: 10439: 10417: 10395: 10367: 10353:Roberts, Andrew 10339:Piketty, Thomas 10322: 10303: 10281: 10253: 10234: 10215: 10196: 10168: 10163: 10146: 10145: 10141: 10122: 10118: 10086: 10080: 10076: 10052: 10048: 10029: 10022: 9990: 9986: 9955: 9951: 9941: 9939: 9926: 9925: 9921: 9898: 9894: 9877: 9876: 9872: 9857: 9839: 9832: 9815: 9814: 9810: 9793: 9792: 9788: 9769: 9765: 9758: 9744: 9740: 9730: 9728: 9727:on 30 July 2020 9724: 9693: 9687: 9683: 9676: 9662: 9653: 9638:10.2307/1344559 9626:Economic Policy 9622: 9618: 9595: 9591: 9584: 9570: 9566: 9559: 9545: 9541: 9534: 9520: 9516: 9509: 9493: 9489: 9479: 9477: 9476:on 8 March 2010 9464: 9463: 9459: 9452: 9436: 9432: 9420: 9416: 9390: 9386: 9379: 9362: 9358: 9347: 9343: 9336: 9318: 9314: 9307: 9297:The Suez Crisis 9293: 9289: 9282: 9268: 9264: 9229: 9225: 9218: 9204: 9200: 9189: 9185: 9178: 9162: 9158: 9147: 9143: 9136: 9122: 9118: 9111: 9097: 9093: 9082: 9078: 9055: 9051: 9010: 9006: 8999: 8985: 8981: 8957: 8953: 8922: 8918: 8911: 8897: 8893: 8883: 8882: 8878: 8871: 8855: 8851: 8844: 8830: 8826: 8821: 8817: 8794:10.2307/2610008 8776: 8772: 8753: 8749: 8742: 8728: 8724: 8717: 8703: 8699: 8688: 8684: 8677: 8660: 8656: 8631: 8627: 8613: 8609: 8584: 8580: 8573: 8559: 8555: 8548: 8534: 8530: 8519: 8515: 8508: 8494: 8490: 8483: 8466: 8462: 8448: 8444: 8433: 8429: 8421: 8417: 8410: 8394: 8390: 8383: 8369: 8365: 8338:History Teacher 8334: 8330: 8323: 8307: 8303: 8278: 8274: 8267: 8253: 8249: 8242: 8225: 8221: 8196: 8192: 8185: 8163: 8159: 8144:10.2307/2601740 8128: 8124: 8119: 8115: 8105: 8103: 8095: 8094: 8090: 8083: 8066: 8062: 8055: 8041: 8037: 8030: 8016: 8009: 7998:Piketty, Thomas 7995: 7991: 7983: 7979: 7954: 7950: 7943: 7919: 7915: 7907: 7903: 7896: 7882: 7878: 7871:Armistice, 1918 7867: 7863: 7856: 7839: 7835: 7802: 7798: 7791: 7777: 7773: 7766: 7752: 7748: 7715: 7711: 7683: 7677: 7673: 7665: 7661: 7654: 7640: 7636: 7611: 7607: 7566: 7562: 7551: 7547: 7535:Aldrich, Robert 7532: 7528: 7513: 7499: 7495: 7487: 7483: 7472: 7468: 7458: 7456: 7443: 7442: 7438: 7431: 7413: 7409: 7401: 7397: 7389: 7385: 7377: 7373: 7348: 7344: 7337: 7323: 7319: 7311: 7307: 7301:Lefebvre (1969) 7299: 7295: 7288: 7274: 7270: 7262: 7255: 7248: 7234: 7230: 7224:Lefebvre (1969) 7222: 7218: 7210: 7206: 7199: 7185: 7181: 7175:Lefebvre (1969) 7173: 7169: 7162: 7144: 7140: 7133: 7119:Glover, Michael 7116: 7112: 7106:Lefebvre (1969) 7104: 7100: 7093: 7076: 7072: 7061: 7054: 7043: 7039: 7033:Nafziger (2002) 7031: 7024: 7013:Strathern, Paul 7010: 7006: 6998: 6994: 6986: 6982: 6974: 6970: 6959: 6955: 6947: 6943: 6910: 6906: 6901:(2nd ed.). 6895: 6891: 6880: 6876: 6865:Marston, Daniel 6862: 6855: 6847: 6840: 6832: 6828: 6821: 6807: 6803: 6753: 6747: 6738: 6730: 6717: 6700:Vincze, Gabor. 6698: 6691: 6658: 6654: 6634:History Compass 6629: 6625: 6618: 6604: 6595: 6588: 6574: 6570: 6563: 6546: 6542: 6535: 6521: 6517: 6510: 6496: 6492: 6485: 6471: 6467: 6460: 6441: 6437: 6426:Goubert, Pierre 6381: 6377: 6372:. pp. 4–7. 6366: 6359: 6354:. pp. 2–9. 6348:Goubert, Pierre 6345: 6341: 6333: 6329: 6318: 6314: 6304: 6290: 6286: 6275: 6266: 6259: 6243: 6239: 6232: 6228: 6216: 6212: 6197: 6193: 6185: 6178: 6171: 6155: 6151: 6140: 6136: 6125: 6118: 6107: 6103: 6095: 6091: 6073: 6051: 6047: 6037: 6035: 6022: 6021: 6017: 6010: 5994: 5990: 5983: 5963: 5959: 5952: 5936: 5932: 5913: 5909: 5899: 5897: 5896:on 17 June 2022 5884: 5883: 5879: 5869: 5867: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5839: 5829:Women in France 5746:French peasants 5651: 5646: 5644: 5637: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5601:Emmanuel Macron 5599:the winner was 5586: 5584:2017 to present 5519: 5517:Muslim tensions 5476:Nicolas Sarkozy 5464:Emmanuel Macron 5376: 5340:1973 oil crisis 5322: 5271:Konrad Adenauer 5231: 5190: 5184: 5164:Habib Bourguiba 5136: 5090: 5048:Fourth Republic 5035: 5021: 4939:Battle of Dakar 4919: 4906: 4900: 4874:Philippe Pétain 4821:Drôle de guerre 4807:, January 1943. 4793:Arc de Triomphe 4785: 4769:Main articles: 4767: 4658:Aristide Briand 4622: 4616:Interwar France 4612: 4582:were put under 4569:war reparations 4559:of France, and 4517: 4499: 4459:Battle of Ypres 4389: 4375: 4358: 4352: 4347: 4339:Main articles: 4337: 4320:Fourth Republic 4250:decolonizations 4230: 4223: 4213: 4207: 4205:Colonial empire 4102:July Revolution 4090: 4082:Main articles: 4080: 4071:Napoleonic Code 4067: 4065:Napoleonic Code 4026: 3981:Sixth Coalition 3922:Fifth Coalition 3855:Duchy of Warsaw 3831: 3794:La Grande Armée 3788:Third Coalition 3776:François Gérard 3648: 3646:Napoleonic wars 3642: 3614:Reign of Terror 3548:Estates General 3489: 3483: 3403: 3397: 3322:Lord Cornwallis 3230: 3220: 3214: 3158:Emperor Leopold 3154:Philip of Anjou 3072:peace of Aachen 3064:Triple Alliance 3019: 3013: 2975:Jacques Cartier 2967: 2961: 2891: 2885: 2851:Edict of Nantes 2843:Catholic league 2788:Catholic Church 2761: 2755: 2665:Battle of Nancy 2650: 2634:French language 2619:Estates General 2606: 2600: 2595: 2587:Main articles: 2577: 2569:Channel Islands 2533:Battle of Baugé 2496: 2495: 2494: 2493: 2492: 2489: 2481: 2480: 2477: 2450: 2426:Knights Templar 2405:Seventh Crusade 2370:Treaty of Paris 2276: 2260:moral authority 2200:Cluniac Reforms 2128: 2115:Crusader states 2104:Norman Conquest 2033: 2028: 2022: 1955:Louis the Pious 1877:Pepin the Short 1873:Battle of Tours 1797:Clovis adopted 1763:Battle of Tours 1755: 1729: 1723: 1687: 1675:Main articles: 1634: 1614:Welsh languages 1481: 1475: 1251: 1249:La Tène culture 1241: 1235: 1200: 1179: 1174: 1167: 1165:Ancient history 1155:La Tène culture 1135:Tumulus culture 1108: 4,500 BC 1107: 1092: 1081: 1007: 1001: 991:. It remains a 937:Fourth Republic 882:Second Republic 874:Napoleonic Wars 858:Reign of Terror 835:colonial empire 773:House of Valois 744:. The medieval 714:of 58–51 BC. A 656: 620: 618: 605: 603: 598: 506: 505: 498: 483:Fourth Republic 464: 431:Interwar period 413: 403: 402: 362:Second Republic 295: 285: 284: 243: 233: 232: 148: 138: 137: 91: 62: 55: 44: 34: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13375: 13365: 13364: 13347: 13346: 13344: 13343: 13341:European Union 13337: 13335: 13334:Other entities 13331: 13330: 13328: 13327: 13322: 13317: 13312: 13307: 13302: 13297: 13291: 13289: 13288:other entities 13283: 13282: 13280: 13279: 13274: 13269: 13264: 13259: 13253: 13251: 13245: 13244: 13242: 13241: 13236: 13234:United Kingdom 13231: 13226: 13221: 13216: 13211: 13206: 13201: 13196: 13191: 13186: 13181: 13176: 13171: 13166: 13161: 13156: 13151: 13146: 13141: 13136: 13131: 13126: 13121: 13116: 13111: 13106: 13101: 13099: 13094: 13089: 13084: 13079: 13074: 13069: 13064: 13059: 13054: 13049: 13047:Czech Republic 13044: 13039: 13034: 13029: 13024: 13019: 13014: 13009: 13004: 12999: 12994: 12988: 12986: 12982: 12981: 12974: 12973: 12966: 12959: 12951: 12942: 12941: 12939: 12938: 12933: 12928: 12923: 12918: 12913: 12908: 12903: 12898: 12893: 12887: 12885: 12881: 12880: 12878: 12877: 12872: 12867: 12862: 12857: 12852: 12847: 12842: 12837: 12832: 12827: 12822: 12817: 12812: 12807: 12802: 12797: 12795:Russian Empire 12792: 12787: 12785:British Empire 12782: 12780:Dutch Republic 12777: 12775:Swedish Empire 12772: 12767: 12762: 12757: 12755:Spanish Empire 12752: 12747: 12745:Ottoman Empire 12742: 12737: 12732: 12727: 12722: 12717: 12716: 12715: 12705: 12700: 12694: 12692: 12686: 12685: 12683: 12682: 12677: 12672: 12667: 12662: 12660:Serbian Empire 12657: 12652: 12647: 12642: 12637: 12632: 12627: 12605: 12600: 12595: 12594: 12593: 12588: 12583: 12578: 12568: 12567: 12566: 12561: 12553: 12548: 12543: 12538: 12533: 12532: 12531: 12521: 12516: 12510: 12508: 12502: 12501: 12499: 12498: 12496:Late antiquity 12493: 12488: 12483: 12482: 12481: 12471: 12466: 12461: 12459:Roman Republic 12456: 12450: 12448: 12442: 12441: 12439: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12423: 12417: 12415: 12409: 12408: 12401: 12400: 12393: 12386: 12378: 12369: 12368: 12361: 12358: 12357: 12355: 12354: 12348: 12346: 12339: 12338: 12336: 12335: 12328: 12322: 12320: 12313: 12312: 12310: 12309: 12302: 12295: 12290: 12284: 12282: 12275: 12274: 12272: 12271: 12264: 12258: 12256: 12249: 12248: 12246: 12245: 12238: 12233: 12228: 12223: 12218: 12212: 12210: 12203: 12202: 12200: 12199: 12191: 12189: 12178: 12177: 12175: 12174: 12169: 12164: 12159: 12154: 12149: 12144: 12139: 12134: 12129: 12124: 12119: 12114: 12108: 12106: 12099: 12098: 12096: 12095: 12090: 12085: 12080: 12075: 12070: 12065: 12060: 12055: 12050: 12045: 12040: 12035: 12030: 12025: 12019: 12017: 12014:House of Capet 12010: 12009: 12007: 12006: 12001: 11996: 11991: 11986: 11981: 11976: 11971: 11966: 11961: 11956: 11951: 11946: 11941: 11935: 11930: 11924: 11922: 11906: 11905: 11903: 11902: 11897: 11892: 11887: 11882: 11877: 11875:Childebert III 11872: 11867: 11862: 11857: 11852: 11847: 11842: 11837: 11832: 11827: 11822: 11817: 11812: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11791: 11789: 11782: 11781: 11778: 11777: 11772: 11767: 11762: 11756: 11755: 11752: 11751: 11746: 11745: 11738: 11731: 11723: 11714: 11713: 11710: 11709: 11704: 11699: 11693: 11691: 11690: 11684: 11683: 11680: 11679: 11676: 11675: 11673: 11672: 11667: 11662: 11657: 11652: 11647: 11642: 11637: 11632: 11627: 11622: 11617: 11612: 11611:Cultural icons 11609: 11604: 11599: 11594: 11589: 11584: 11578: 11576: 11570: 11569: 11567: 11566: 11561: 11556: 11551: 11550: 11549: 11539: 11534: 11529: 11524: 11519: 11514: 11509: 11504: 11499: 11494: 11489: 11483: 11477: 11471: 11470: 11467: 11466: 11464: 11463: 11458: 11453: 11448: 11443: 11438: 11433: 11431:Stock exchange 11428: 11423: 11418: 11413: 11408: 11403: 11398: 11393: 11392: 11391: 11381: 11376: 11370: 11364: 11358: 11357: 11354: 11353: 11351: 11350: 11345: 11340: 11335: 11334: 11333: 11328: 11323: 11313: 11308: 11307: 11306: 11301: 11291: 11286: 11281: 11280: 11279: 11269: 11263: 11257: 11251: 11250: 11247: 11246: 11244: 11243: 11238: 11233: 11231:National parks 11228: 11223: 11218: 11213: 11208: 11206:Climate change 11203: 11198: 11192: 11186: 11180: 11179: 11176: 11175: 11173: 11172: 11171: 11170: 11165: 11160: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11140: 11135: 11128:Fifth Republic 11125: 11124: 11123: 11113: 11107: 11105: 11101: 11100: 11098: 11097: 11096: 11095: 11090: 11085: 11080: 11070: 11069: 11068: 11054: 11049: 11048: 11047: 11036:Third Republic 11033: 11028: 11023: 11018: 11013: 11007: 11006: 11001: 10996: 10990: 10988: 10982: 10981: 10979: 10978: 10973: 10971:First Republic 10968: 10966:Napoleonic era 10963: 10957: 10955: 10951: 10950: 10948: 10947: 10942: 10937: 10932: 10927: 10922: 10917: 10912: 10907: 10898: 10893: 10888: 10882: 10880: 10874: 10873: 10871: 10870: 10869: 10868: 10858: 10853: 10852: 10851: 10841: 10835: 10833: 10827: 10826: 10824: 10823: 10818: 10813: 10811:Greek colonies 10808: 10802: 10800: 10794: 10793: 10791: 10790: 10785: 10779: 10777: 10773: 10772: 10770: 10769: 10764: 10759: 10754: 10749: 10744: 10739: 10734: 10729: 10723: 10721: 10714: 10708: 10707: 10697: 10696: 10689: 10682: 10674: 10668: 10667: 10661: 10653: 10645: 10644:External links 10642: 10640: 10639: 10633: 10617: 10605: 10593: 10587: 10574: 10562: 10553: 10547: 10534: 10528: 10512: 10503: 10494: 10485: 10479: 10465: 10460:Main article: 10457: 10454: 10452: 10451: 10437: 10421: 10415: 10403:Wilson, Arthur 10399: 10393: 10380: 10371: 10365: 10349: 10335: 10326: 10320: 10307: 10301: 10285: 10279: 10266: 10257: 10251: 10238: 10232: 10226:. Bloomsbury. 10219: 10213: 10200: 10194: 10179: 10169: 10167: 10164: 10162: 10161: 10139: 10116: 10097:(4): 377–390. 10074: 10046: 10020: 10000:(1): 133–159. 9984: 9965:(5): 731–751. 9949: 9919: 9892: 9870: 9855: 9830: 9808: 9786: 9783:on 6 May 2022. 9763: 9756: 9738: 9704:(4): 843–877. 9681: 9674: 9651: 9632:(2): 261–306. 9616: 9605:(2): 133–145. 9589: 9582: 9564: 9557: 9539: 9532: 9514: 9507: 9487: 9457: 9450: 9430: 9414: 9384: 9377: 9356: 9341: 9334: 9312: 9305: 9287: 9280: 9262: 9249:10.1086/694427 9243:(4): 772–811. 9223: 9216: 9198: 9183: 9176: 9156: 9141: 9134: 9116: 9109: 9091: 9076: 9049: 9028:10.1086/244513 9022:(3): 500–524. 9004: 8997: 8979: 8951: 8932:(1): 129–155. 8916: 8909: 8891: 8876: 8869: 8849: 8842: 8824: 8815: 8788:(3): 310–321. 8770: 8747: 8740: 8722: 8715: 8697: 8682: 8675: 8663:Kedward, H. R. 8654: 8643:(5): 883–908. 8625: 8616:Viorst, Milton 8607: 8578: 8571: 8553: 8546: 8528: 8513: 8506: 8488: 8481: 8460: 8442: 8427: 8415: 8408: 8388: 8381: 8363: 8350:10.2307/493125 8344:(3): 361–378. 8328: 8321: 8301: 8272: 8265: 8247: 8240: 8219: 8190: 8183: 8169:. p. 31. 8157: 8138:(2): 202–224. 8122: 8113: 8088: 8081: 8060: 8053: 8047:. p. 52. 8035: 8028: 8007: 7989: 7985:Piketty (2014) 7977: 7948: 7941: 7913: 7909:McPhail (2014) 7901: 7894: 7876: 7861: 7854: 7833: 7814:(2): 180–201. 7807:War in History 7796: 7789: 7771: 7764: 7746: 7733:10.1086/240647 7709: 7671: 7669:, p. 438. 7659: 7652: 7634: 7605: 7560: 7545: 7526: 7511: 7493: 7481: 7466: 7445:"Ferry, Jules" 7436: 7429: 7407: 7403:Aldrich (1996) 7395: 7383: 7371: 7342: 7335: 7317: 7305: 7293: 7286: 7268: 7264:Goubert (1988) 7253: 7246: 7228: 7216: 7212:Roberts (2014) 7204: 7197: 7179: 7167: 7160: 7138: 7131: 7110: 7098: 7091: 7070: 7052: 7049:. p. 324. 7037: 7022: 7004: 6992: 6980: 6968: 6953: 6941: 6928:10.1086/687927 6922:(3): 495–534. 6904: 6889: 6874: 6853: 6838: 6826: 6819: 6801: 6764:(3): 706–733. 6736: 6715: 6689: 6678:(4): 695–724. 6652: 6641:(1): 101–117. 6623: 6616: 6593: 6586: 6568: 6561: 6549:Elliott, J. H. 6540: 6533: 6515: 6508: 6490: 6483: 6465: 6458: 6435: 6393:(3): 563–577. 6375: 6357: 6339: 6337:, p. 264. 6327: 6312: 6302: 6284: 6264: 6257: 6237: 6226: 6210: 6191: 6176: 6169: 6149: 6134: 6116: 6101: 6089: 6071: 6045: 6028:Britannica.com 6015: 6008: 5988: 5981: 5957: 5950: 5930: 5907: 5877: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5837: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5798: 5797: 5792: 5782: 5781: 5780: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5759: 5758: 5748: 5743: 5742: 5741: 5731: 5730: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5687: 5676: 5671: 5665: 5662:Annales School 5658: 5657: 5656: 5653:History portal 5642: 5626: 5623: 5589:Sophie Meunier 5585: 5582: 5518: 5515: 5466:and Germany's 5403:European Union 5398:Jacques Chirac 5375: 5372: 5321: 5318: 5230: 5227: 5186:Main article: 5183: 5180: 5135: 5132: 5089: 5086: 5020: 5017: 4947:the Resistance 4918: 4915: 4899: 4896: 4819:in Britain or 4766: 4763: 4748:Prime Minister 4720:, leading the 4703:Little Entente 4666:Weimar Germany 4662:Prime Minister 4611: 4608: 4600:Ferdinand Foch 4588:Ottoman Empire 4561:Woodrow Wilson 4539:in Versailles. 4537:Woodrow Wilson 4516: 4513: 4498: 4497:Wartime losses 4495: 4444:Trench warfare 4374: 4371: 4354:Main article: 4351: 4348: 4336: 4333: 4209:Main article: 4206: 4203: 4183:Dreyfus affair 4179:Triple Entente 4159:Third Republic 4155:Second Empires 4098:Hôtel de Ville 4079: 4076: 4066: 4063: 4025: 4022: 3965:scorched earth 3949:Adolf Northern 3926:Aspern-Essling 3839:Jena-Auerstedt 3830: 3827: 3641: 3638: 3600:After another 3485:Main article: 3482: 3479: 3452:Spirit of Laws 3399:Main article: 3396: 3393: 3361:Chesapeake Bay 3324:surrenders at 3216:Main article: 3213: 3210: 3060:Dutch Republic 3015:Main article: 3012: 3009: 2963:Main article: 2960: 2957: 2887:Main article: 2884: 2881: 2874:Peace of Alais 2839:Henry de Guise 2790:. French King 2757:Main article: 2754: 2751: 2735:two treaties ( 2715:Spanish Tercio 2696:Ottoman Empire 2649: 2646: 2602:Main article: 2599: 2596: 2576: 2573: 2490: 2483: 2482: 2478: 2471: 2470: 2469: 2468: 2467: 2449: 2446: 2409:Eighth Crusade 2390:Conseil du Roi 2312:Angevin Empire 2285:victorious at 2275: 2272: 2256:King Louis VII 2232:to regain the 2167:Abbey of Cluny 2154:, Spanish and 2127: 2124: 2069:Count of Paris 2032: 2031:Strong princes 2029: 2024:Main article: 2021: 2018: 1990:Viking raiders 1869:Charles Martel 1725:Main article: 1722: 1719: 1656:, killed king 1642:Flavius Aëtius 1630:Main article: 1598:Conan Meriadoc 1559:Antoninus Pius 1477:Main article: 1474: 1471: 1427:Roman Republic 1419:Hannibal Barca 1290:Gallia Celtica 1237:Main article: 1234: 1231: 1196:Main article: 1178: 1177:Greek colonies 1175: 1166: 1163: 1065:, 4200-4000 BC 1045:entered Europe 1003:Main article: 1000: 997: 989:European Union 977:collectivities 965:decolonization 909:Central Powers 897:Triple Entente 827:House of Guise 758:House of Capet 704:Roman Republic 658: 657: 655: 654: 647: 640: 632: 629: 628: 600: 599: 597: 596: 591: 586: 585: 584: 579: 574: 564: 559: 558: 557: 547: 542: 537: 532: 527: 522: 516: 513: 512: 508: 507: 502: 501: 495: 493:Fifth Republic 489: 488: 485: 479: 478: 475: 469: 468: 465: 463: 462: 457: 451: 448: 447: 444: 437: 436: 433: 426: 425: 422: 420:Third Republic 414: 409: 408: 405: 404: 399: 398: 395: 388: 387: 384: 382:Third Republic 378: 377: 374: 368: 367: 364: 358: 357: 354: 348: 347: 344: 338: 337: 334: 328: 327: 324: 322:First Republic 318: 317: 314: 308: 307: 304: 296: 291: 290: 287: 286: 281: 280: 277: 271: 270: 267: 261: 260: 257: 244: 239: 238: 235: 234: 229: 228: 225: 218: 217: 214: 207: 206: 203: 197: 196: 193: 186: 185: 182: 176: 175: 172: 166: 165: 162: 149: 144: 143: 140: 139: 134: 133: 132:50 BC – 486 AD 130: 124: 123: 120: 114: 113: 112:600 BC – 49 BC 110: 108:Greek colonies 104: 103: 100: 92: 87: 86: 83: 82: 76: 75: 67: 66: 57: 56: 49: 39:French History 18:French history 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13374: 13363: 13360: 13359: 13357: 13342: 13339: 13338: 13336: 13332: 13326: 13323: 13321: 13318: 13316: 13313: 13311: 13308: 13306: 13303: 13301: 13300:Faroe Islands 13298: 13296: 13293: 13292: 13290: 13284: 13278: 13275: 13273: 13272:South Ossetia 13270: 13268: 13265: 13263: 13260: 13258: 13255: 13254: 13252: 13246: 13240: 13237: 13235: 13232: 13230: 13227: 13225: 13222: 13220: 13217: 13215: 13212: 13210: 13207: 13205: 13202: 13200: 13197: 13195: 13192: 13190: 13187: 13185: 13182: 13180: 13177: 13175: 13172: 13170: 13167: 13165: 13162: 13160: 13157: 13155: 13152: 13150: 13147: 13145: 13142: 13140: 13137: 13135: 13132: 13130: 13127: 13125: 13122: 13120: 13119:Liechtenstein 13117: 13115: 13112: 13110: 13107: 13105: 13102: 13100: 13098: 13095: 13093: 13090: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13080: 13078: 13075: 13073: 13070: 13068: 13065: 13063: 13060: 13058: 13055: 13053: 13050: 13048: 13045: 13043: 13040: 13038: 13035: 13033: 13030: 13028: 13025: 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12244: 12243: 12239: 12237: 12234: 12232: 12229: 12227: 12224: 12222: 12219: 12217: 12214: 12213: 12211: 12208: 12204: 12198: 12197: 12193: 12192: 12190: 12188: 12185: 12184: 12179: 12173: 12170: 12168: 12165: 12163: 12160: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12145: 12143: 12140: 12138: 12135: 12133: 12130: 12128: 12125: 12123: 12120: 12118: 12115: 12113: 12110: 12109: 12107: 12104: 12100: 12094: 12091: 12089: 12086: 12084: 12081: 12079: 12076: 12074: 12071: 12069: 12066: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12036: 12034: 12031: 12029: 12026: 12024: 12021: 12020: 12018: 12015: 12011: 12005: 12002: 12000: 11997: 11995: 11992: 11990: 11987: 11985: 11982: 11980: 11977: 11975: 11972: 11970: 11967: 11965: 11962: 11960: 11957: 11955: 11952: 11950: 11947: 11945: 11942: 11939: 11936: 11934: 11931: 11929: 11926: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11916: 11911: 11907: 11901: 11900:Childeric III 11898: 11896: 11893: 11891: 11888: 11886: 11883: 11881: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11871: 11868: 11866: 11865:Theuderic III 11863: 11861: 11858: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11843: 11841: 11838: 11836: 11833: 11831: 11830:Childebert II 11828: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11811: 11808: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11792: 11790: 11787: 11783: 11776: 11773: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11763: 11761: 11758: 11757: 11753: 11744: 11739: 11737: 11732: 11730: 11725: 11724: 11721: 11708: 11705: 11703: 11700: 11698: 11695: 11694: 11689: 11686: 11685: 11681: 11671: 11668: 11666: 11663: 11661: 11658: 11656: 11653: 11651: 11648: 11646: 11643: 11641: 11638: 11636: 11633: 11631: 11628: 11626: 11623: 11621: 11618: 11616: 11613: 11610: 11608: 11605: 11603: 11600: 11598: 11595: 11593: 11590: 11588: 11585: 11583: 11580: 11579: 11577: 11575: 11571: 11565: 11562: 11560: 11557: 11555: 11552: 11548: 11545: 11544: 11543: 11540: 11538: 11535: 11533: 11530: 11528: 11525: 11523: 11520: 11518: 11515: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11503: 11500: 11498: 11495: 11493: 11492:Birth control 11490: 11488: 11485: 11484: 11481: 11478: 11476: 11472: 11462: 11459: 11457: 11454: 11452: 11449: 11447: 11444: 11442: 11439: 11437: 11434: 11432: 11429: 11427: 11424: 11422: 11419: 11417: 11414: 11412: 11409: 11407: 11404: 11402: 11399: 11397: 11394: 11390: 11387: 11386: 11385: 11382: 11380: 11377: 11375: 11372: 11371: 11368: 11365: 11363: 11359: 11349: 11346: 11344: 11341: 11339: 11336: 11332: 11329: 11327: 11324: 11322: 11319: 11318: 11317: 11314: 11312: 11309: 11305: 11302: 11300: 11297: 11296: 11295: 11292: 11290: 11287: 11285: 11282: 11278: 11275: 11274: 11273: 11270: 11268: 11267:Constitutions 11265: 11264: 11261: 11258: 11256: 11252: 11242: 11239: 11237: 11234: 11232: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11219: 11217: 11214: 11212: 11209: 11207: 11204: 11202: 11199: 11197: 11194: 11193: 11190: 11187: 11185: 11181: 11169: 11166: 11164: 11161: 11159: 11156: 11154: 11151: 11149: 11146: 11144: 11141: 11139: 11136: 11134: 11131: 11130: 11129: 11126: 11122: 11119: 11118: 11117: 11114: 11112: 11109: 11108: 11106: 11102: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11075: 11074: 11071: 11066: 11065: 11064:Années folles 11060: 11059: 11058: 11055: 11053: 11050: 11045: 11044: 11039: 11038: 11037: 11034: 11032: 11029: 11027: 11026:Second Empire 11024: 11022: 11019: 11017: 11014: 11012: 11009: 11008: 11005: 11004:July Monarchy 11002: 11000: 10997: 10995: 10992: 10991: 10989: 10987: 10983: 10977: 10974: 10972: 10969: 10967: 10964: 10962: 10959: 10958: 10956: 10952: 10946: 10943: 10941: 10938: 10936: 10933: 10931: 10928: 10926: 10923: 10921: 10918: 10916: 10913: 10911: 10908: 10905: 10904: 10903:Ancien Régime 10899: 10897: 10894: 10892: 10889: 10887: 10884: 10883: 10881: 10879: 10875: 10867: 10864: 10863: 10862: 10859: 10857: 10854: 10850: 10847: 10846: 10845: 10842: 10840: 10837: 10836: 10834: 10832: 10828: 10822: 10819: 10817: 10814: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10803: 10801: 10799: 10795: 10789: 10786: 10784: 10781: 10780: 10778: 10774: 10768: 10765: 10763: 10760: 10758: 10755: 10753: 10750: 10748: 10745: 10743: 10740: 10738: 10735: 10733: 10730: 10728: 10725: 10724: 10722: 10718: 10715: 10713: 10709: 10705: 10702: 10695: 10690: 10688: 10683: 10681: 10676: 10675: 10672: 10665: 10662: 10657: 10654: 10651: 10648: 10647: 10636: 10630: 10626: 10622: 10618: 10614: 10610: 10606: 10602: 10598: 10594: 10590: 10584: 10581:. Routledge. 10580: 10575: 10571: 10567: 10563: 10559: 10554: 10550: 10544: 10540: 10535: 10531: 10525: 10521: 10517: 10513: 10509: 10504: 10500: 10495: 10491: 10486: 10482: 10476: 10472: 10467: 10466: 10463: 10448: 10444: 10440: 10434: 10430: 10426: 10425:Wolf, John B. 10422: 10418: 10416:0-1950-1506-1 10412: 10408: 10404: 10400: 10396: 10390: 10387:. Routledge. 10386: 10381: 10377: 10372: 10368: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10350: 10346: 10345: 10340: 10336: 10332: 10327: 10323: 10317: 10313: 10308: 10304: 10298: 10294: 10290: 10286: 10282: 10276: 10272: 10267: 10263: 10258: 10254: 10248: 10244: 10239: 10235: 10229: 10225: 10220: 10216: 10210: 10206: 10201: 10197: 10191: 10187: 10186: 10180: 10176: 10171: 10170: 10157: 10153: 10152:The Economist 10149: 10143: 10135: 10131: 10127: 10120: 10112: 10108: 10104: 10100: 10096: 10092: 10085: 10078: 10069: 10065: 10061: 10057: 10050: 10042: 10038: 10034: 10027: 10025: 10015: 10011: 10007: 10003: 9999: 9995: 9988: 9980: 9976: 9972: 9968: 9964: 9960: 9953: 9937: 9933: 9929: 9923: 9915: 9911: 9907: 9903: 9896: 9888: 9884: 9880: 9874: 9866: 9862: 9858: 9852: 9848: 9844: 9837: 9835: 9826: 9822: 9818: 9812: 9804: 9800: 9796: 9790: 9782: 9778: 9774: 9767: 9759: 9753: 9749: 9742: 9723: 9719: 9715: 9711: 9710:10.3386/w5487 9707: 9703: 9699: 9692: 9685: 9677: 9671: 9667: 9660: 9658: 9656: 9647: 9643: 9639: 9635: 9631: 9627: 9620: 9612: 9608: 9604: 9600: 9593: 9585: 9579: 9575: 9568: 9560: 9554: 9550: 9543: 9535: 9529: 9525: 9518: 9510: 9504: 9500: 9499: 9491: 9475: 9471: 9467: 9461: 9453: 9447: 9443: 9442: 9434: 9427: 9423: 9422:Kulski (1966) 9418: 9410: 9406: 9402: 9398: 9394: 9393:Kulski, W. W. 9388: 9380: 9374: 9370: 9369: 9360: 9352: 9345: 9337: 9331: 9327: 9323: 9316: 9308: 9302: 9298: 9291: 9283: 9277: 9273: 9266: 9258: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9242: 9238: 9234: 9227: 9219: 9213: 9209: 9202: 9194: 9187: 9179: 9173: 9169: 9168: 9160: 9152: 9145: 9137: 9131: 9127: 9120: 9112: 9106: 9102: 9095: 9087: 9080: 9072: 9068: 9064: 9061:(in French). 9060: 9053: 9045: 9041: 9037: 9033: 9029: 9025: 9021: 9017: 9016: 9008: 9000: 8994: 8990: 8983: 8975: 8971: 8967: 8964:(in French). 8963: 8955: 8947: 8943: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8927: 8920: 8912: 8906: 8902: 8895: 8886: 8880: 8872: 8866: 8862: 8861: 8853: 8845: 8839: 8835: 8828: 8819: 8811: 8807: 8803: 8799: 8795: 8791: 8787: 8783: 8782: 8774: 8766: 8762: 8758: 8751: 8743: 8737: 8733: 8726: 8718: 8712: 8708: 8701: 8693: 8686: 8678: 8672: 8668: 8664: 8658: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8637: 8629: 8621: 8617: 8611: 8603: 8599: 8595: 8591: 8590: 8582: 8574: 8568: 8564: 8557: 8549: 8543: 8539: 8532: 8524: 8517: 8509: 8503: 8499: 8492: 8484: 8478: 8474: 8470: 8464: 8456: 8452: 8446: 8438: 8431: 8424: 8423:Larkin (1988) 8419: 8411: 8405: 8401: 8400: 8392: 8384: 8378: 8374: 8367: 8359: 8355: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8339: 8332: 8324: 8318: 8314: 8313: 8305: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8285: 8284: 8283:History Today 8276: 8268: 8262: 8258: 8251: 8243: 8237: 8233: 8229: 8223: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8202: 8194: 8186: 8180: 8176: 8172: 8168: 8161: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8141: 8137: 8133: 8126: 8117: 8102: 8098: 8092: 8084: 8078: 8074: 8070: 8064: 8056: 8050: 8046: 8039: 8031: 8025: 8021: 8014: 8012: 8003: 7999: 7993: 7986: 7981: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7961: 7960: 7952: 7944: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7925: 7917: 7910: 7905: 7897: 7891: 7887: 7880: 7872: 7865: 7857: 7851: 7847: 7843: 7837: 7829: 7825: 7821: 7817: 7813: 7809: 7808: 7800: 7792: 7786: 7782: 7775: 7767: 7761: 7757: 7750: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7721: 7713: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7693: 7689: 7682: 7675: 7668: 7663: 7655: 7649: 7645: 7638: 7630: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7617: 7609: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7585: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7572: 7564: 7556: 7549: 7540: 7536: 7530: 7522: 7518: 7514: 7508: 7504: 7497: 7490: 7489:Chafer (2002) 7485: 7477: 7470: 7454: 7450: 7446: 7440: 7432: 7426: 7422: 7418: 7411: 7404: 7399: 7393:, p. 15. 7392: 7387: 7380: 7375: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7355: 7354: 7346: 7338: 7332: 7328: 7321: 7314: 7309: 7302: 7297: 7289: 7283: 7279: 7272: 7266:, Chapter 14. 7265: 7260: 7258: 7249: 7243: 7239: 7232: 7225: 7220: 7213: 7208: 7200: 7194: 7190: 7183: 7176: 7171: 7163: 7157: 7153: 7149: 7142: 7134: 7128: 7124: 7120: 7114: 7107: 7102: 7094: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7074: 7066: 7059: 7057: 7048: 7041: 7034: 7029: 7027: 7018: 7014: 7008: 7001: 6996: 6990:, p. 19. 6989: 6984: 6977: 6972: 6964: 6957: 6950: 6949:Wilson (1972) 6945: 6937: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6916: 6908: 6900: 6893: 6885: 6878: 6870: 6866: 6860: 6858: 6850: 6845: 6843: 6835: 6834:Simcox (1974) 6830: 6822: 6816: 6812: 6805: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6759: 6752: 6745: 6743: 6741: 6733: 6728: 6726: 6724: 6722: 6720: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6696: 6694: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6669: 6668: 6663: 6656: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6635: 6627: 6619: 6613: 6609: 6602: 6600: 6598: 6589: 6583: 6579: 6572: 6564: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6544: 6536: 6530: 6526: 6519: 6511: 6505: 6501: 6494: 6486: 6480: 6476: 6469: 6461: 6455: 6451: 6450: 6445: 6439: 6431: 6427: 6422: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6387: 6379: 6371: 6364: 6362: 6353: 6349: 6343: 6336: 6335:Hallam (1980) 6331: 6323: 6316: 6309: 6305: 6299: 6295: 6288: 6280: 6273: 6271: 6269: 6260: 6254: 6250: 6249: 6241: 6235: 6230: 6223: 6219: 6214: 6207:. p. 91. 6206: 6202: 6195: 6188: 6183: 6181: 6172: 6166: 6162: 6161: 6153: 6145: 6138: 6130: 6123: 6121: 6112: 6105: 6098: 6093: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6049: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6019: 6011: 6005: 6001: 6000: 5992: 5984: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5969: 5961: 5953: 5947: 5943: 5942: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5911: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5881: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5850: 5846: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5814: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5787: 5786: 5783: 5779: 5776: 5775: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5757: 5754: 5753: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5740: 5737: 5736: 5735: 5732: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5669: 5666: 5663: 5660: 5659: 5654: 5643: 5640: 5639:France portal 5629: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5616:Marine Le Pen 5613: 5608: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5593: 5590: 5581: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5566: 5565:Charlie Hebdo 5561: 5557: 5553: 5552: 5544: 5539: 5535: 5533: 5528: 5524: 5514: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5499:Angela Merkel 5495: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5469: 5468:Angela Merkel 5465: 5461: 5457: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5442:Alliance Base 5439: 5435: 5431: 5426: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5399: 5395: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5371: 5369: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5352: 5349: 5348:Raymond Barre 5345: 5341: 5337: 5336: 5330: 5328: 5317: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5302:1968 election 5299: 5294: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5272: 5267: 5263: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5236: 5226: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5211: 5210:Isma'il Pasha 5207: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5179: 5176: 5172: 5167: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5144: 5140: 5131: 5128: 5125: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5109: 5105: 5100: 5099:Marshall Plan 5094: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5079:Évian Accords 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5016: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4997: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4970: 4966: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4942: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4914: 4912: 4905: 4895: 4893: 4887: 4884: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4865: 4861: 4856: 4854: 4848: 4845: 4842:bypassed the 4841: 4837: 4833: 4828: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4806: 4801: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4762: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4735: 4730: 4727: 4723: 4722:Popular Front 4719: 4714: 4711: 4706: 4704: 4700: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4673: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4635: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4617: 4607: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4572: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4521: 4512: 4508: 4505: 4494: 4492: 4491:The Armistice 4488: 4482: 4479: 4478:war-weariness 4475: 4471: 4467: 4462: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4447: 4445: 4441: 4440:Western Front 4436: 4434: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4419: 4415: 4409: 4401: 4393: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4370: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4346: 4342: 4332: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4287: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4268: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4253: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4238: 4227: 4222: 4221:French Africa 4218: 4212: 4202: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4186: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4164: 4163:Paris Commune 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4147:ancien régime 4142: 4140: 4136: 4135:Eric Hobsbawm 4132: 4126: 4121: 4115: 4110: 4103: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4085: 4075: 4072: 4062: 4060: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4045: 4041: 4035: 4032: 4031:ancien régime 4021: 4019: 4014: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4001: 3996: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3977: 3975: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3950: 3945: 3941: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3917: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3871: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3826: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3803: 3801: 3796: 3795: 3789: 3785: 3777: 3773: 3768: 3764: 3761: 3754: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3733:While at sea 3731: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3700: 3698: 3697:Siege of Acre 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3662: 3658: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3637: 3635: 3631: 3630:military coup 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3598: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3571: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3554:in June. The 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3540: 3539:Ancien Régime 3535: 3531: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3478: 3476: 3472: 3467: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3434: 3433: 3428: 3427:Denis Diderot 3424: 3420: 3412: 3409:Cover of the 3407: 3402: 3392: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3229: 3225: 3219: 3209: 3205: 3203: 3199: 3194: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3148:In 1701, the 3142: 3138: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3111: 3108: 3104: 3099: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3068:Franche-Comté 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3044:Ottoman Turks 3041: 3036: 3034: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3008: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2993: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2976: 2972: 2966: 2956: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2937: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2890: 2880: 2877: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2858: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2837:assassinated 2836: 2832: 2827: 2825: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2750: 2748: 2745:and one with 2744: 2740: 2738: 2732: 2728: 2722: 2720: 2719:Duke of Guise 2716: 2712: 2708: 2703: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2638:lingua franca 2635: 2629: 2626: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2610: 2605: 2604:Ancien Régime 2598:Ancien Regime 2594: 2590: 2581: 2572: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2527: 2522: 2520: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2487: 2475: 2463: 2459: 2454: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2430:Auld Alliance 2428:, signed the 2427: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2386:Saintonge War 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2358: 2356: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2341: 2336: 2332: 2331:John 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Retrieved 8100: 8091: 8072: 8069:Weber, Eugen 8063: 8044: 8038: 8019: 8001: 7992: 7980: 7966:(1): 73–99. 7963: 7957: 7951: 7923: 7916: 7904: 7885: 7879: 7870: 7864: 7845: 7836: 7811: 7805: 7799: 7780: 7774: 7755: 7749: 7724: 7718: 7712: 7687: 7674: 7667:Jones (2004) 7662: 7643: 7637: 7623:(1): 33–52. 7620: 7614: 7608: 7578:(1): 39–68. 7575: 7569: 7563: 7554: 7548: 7538: 7529: 7502: 7496: 7484: 7475: 7469: 7457:. Retrieved 7453:the original 7449:Tatamis.info 7448: 7439: 7416: 7410: 7398: 7391:Tombs (2014) 7386: 7374: 7360:(1): 11–24. 7357: 7351: 7345: 7326: 7320: 7308: 7296: 7277: 7271: 7237: 7231: 7219: 7207: 7188: 7182: 7170: 7151: 7141: 7125:. 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Including 4288: 4280:assimilation 4279: 4269: 4254: 4234: 4198:Belle Époque 4187: 4170:Napoleon III 4167: 4143: 4128: 4123: 4119: 4114:Eiffel Tower 4068: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4036: 4027: 4015: 4007:Hundred Days 4000:conservative 3997: 3978: 3954: 3938:peace treaty 3918: 3891: 3875: 3870:First Empire 3859: 3832: 3804: 3781: 3755: 3732: 3701: 3666: 3654: 3599: 3572: 3537: 3532: 3509: 3468: 3459: 3451: 3437: 3432:Encyclopédie 3430: 3416: 3411:Encyclopédie 3331: 3308:Quiberon Bay 3277: 3258: 3231: 3206: 3202:French opera 3195: 3147: 3112: 3100: 3037: 3031: 2994: 2979: 2968: 2938: 2907: 2892: 2878: 2859: 2828: 2812: 2777: 2736: 2723: 2704: 2684:Italian Wars 2681: 2677:incorporated 2670: 2630: 2623: 2611: 2607: 2559:(1450). The 2530: 2523: 2497: 2402: 2359: 2346:Prince Louis 2344: 2316: 2304: 2253: 2238: 2223: 2184: 2129: 2112: 2084:Plantagenets 2077: 2034: 1986:Carolingians 1983: 1951:Pope Leo III 1940: 1936:Lower Saxony 1901: 1896:Jean Fouquet 1846: 1815: 1768: 1688: 1648:against the 1635: 1618: 1591: 1540: 1528:Vulgar Latin 1517: 1509:Roman Temple 1487: 1469:(Grenoble). 1415:Carthaginian 1412: 1380: 1349: 1336:(Toulouse). 1328:(Paris) and 1289: 1263: 1213:founded the 1201: 1159: 1115:Chalcolithic 1112: 1068: 1040:Homo sapiens 1038: 1031:Neanderthals 1020: 1017:, 15,000 BC. 931:. Following 921:Nazi Germany 917:World War II 894: 843: 805:through the 796: 771:between the 762: 754:West Francia 724: 720:Roman Empire 663: 661: 614: 572:Christianity 460:Vichy France 411:20th century 393:Belle Époque 332:First Empire 245: 241:Early modern 191:West Francia 180:Carolingians 170:Merovingians 60: 38: 26: 13315:Isle of Man 13250:recognition 13219:Switzerland 13154:Netherlands 12835:World War I 12825:Nationalism 12713:Reformation 12698:Renaissance 12670:Black Death 12603:Kievan Rus' 12506:Middle Ages 12345:(1852–1870) 12319:(1830–1848) 12288:Louis XVIII 12268:Napoleon II 12209:(1589–1792) 12187:(1422–1453) 12132:Charles VII 12105:(1328–1589) 11979:Charles III 11964:Carloman II 11940:(Charles I) 11938:Charlemagne 11890:Chlothar IV 11845:Sigebert II 11835:Chlothar II 11820:Chilperic I 11810:Charibert I 11707:WikiProject 11522:Immigration 11512:Health care 11374:Agriculture 11326:enforcement 11083:Free France 11052:World War I 10999:Restoration 10986:Late Modern 10856:Middle Ages 10831:Middle Ages 10816:Celtic Gaul 10659:(in French) 10166:Works cited 9942:17 November 9470:History.com 8889:Table 1075. 8540:. Longman. 7379:Grab (2003) 6732:Wolf (1968) 6187:Duby (1993) 6144:Charlemagne 5310:War Memoirs 5188:Suez crisis 5171:Pieds-Noirs 5152:Ho Chi Minh 5127:countries. 5124:Monnet Plan 5108:Jean Monnet 5009:tripartisme 4951:Jean Moulin 4740:Appeasement 4648:and in the 4632:during the 4504:war economy 4466:Jean Jaurès 4433:Marne River 4373:World War I 4299:Free French 4272:Jules Ferry 4259:as well as 4244:(1954) and 4190:Romanticism 4018:Louis XVIII 3889:abdicated. 3667:During the 3544:convocation 3498:in 1788 at 3454:(1748) and 3448:Montesquieu 3444:Montesquieu 3419:Philosophes 3288:Monongahela 3173:(1706) and 2784:John Calvin 2741:: one with 2545:Charles VII 2539:(1356) and 2526:Joan of Arc 2500:Plantagenet 2245:Abbot Suger 2239:It is from 2185:Hugh's son— 2175:Middle Ages 2171:Benedictine 2148:Aquitanians 2119:Reconquista 2092:Hautevilles 2061:Carolingian 2037:Middle Ages 1998:King Robert 1947:Charlemagne 1904:Charlemagne 1892:Charlemagne 1799:Catholicism 1777:, defeated 1737:Merovingian 1711:Cornouaille 1650:Burgundians 1455:Narbonensis 1202:In 600 BC, 1071:Paleolithic 959:set up the 901:World War I 811:Reformation 807:Renaissance 793:Joan of Arc 752:, known as 742:Charlemagne 712:Gallic Wars 525:Health care 455:Free France 342:Restoration 146:Middle Ages 118:Celtic Gaul 61:History of 13189:San Marino 13149:Montenegro 13129:Luxembourg 13109:Kazakhstan 13012:Azerbaijan 12598:Viking Age 12413:Prehistory 12262:Napoleon I 12242:Louis XVII 12221:Louis XIII 12167:Charles IX 12162:Francis II 12127:Charles VI 12093:Charles IV 12068:Philip III 12058:Louis VIII 12023:Hugh Capet 12016:(987–1328) 11949:Charles II 11933:Carloman I 11915:Robertians 11840:Dagobert I 11825:Sigebert I 11805:Chlothar I 11650:Philosophy 11635:Literature 11547:secularism 11343:Parliament 11138:2005 riots 11088:Liberation 10954:Revolution 10821:Roman Gaul 10806:Prehistory 10762:Journalism 9821:Al Jazeera 9731:5 December 9424:, p. 8106:26 October 7521:1082294927 7000:Fehér 1990 6129:The Franks 6038:19 January 6024:"Provence" 5842:References 5734:French law 5532:more riots 5434:Yugoslavia 5378:After the 5316:heritage. 5306:referendum 5023:See also: 5019:Since 1945 4917:Resistance 4902:See also: 4836:Blitzkrieg 4825:Blitzkrieg 4817:Phoney War 4811:Germany's 4757:wanted to 4689:Young Plan 4685:Dawes Plan 4576:Saar Basin 4555:of Italy, 4377:See also: 4308:a massacre 4242:of Vietnam 3887:Charles IV 3811:Austerlitz 3735:the French 3677:take Egypt 3644:See also: 3534:Its causes 3458:published 3450:published 3381:Royal Navy 3222:See also: 3175:Malplaquet 3135:Palatinate 3127:Luxembourg 3005:Madagascar 2986:New France 2941:The Fronde 2866:Louis XIII 2413:Philip III 2382:Saint-Malo 2132:Hugh Capet 2096:Ramnulfids 2057:Robertians 2002:Robertines 1984:Under the 1928:Al-Andalus 1912:Desiderius 1857:Septimania 1793:. In 496, 1731:See also: 1557:. Emperor 1496:after the 1479:Roman Gaul 1473:Roman Gaul 1417:commander 1400:Armoricani 1308:whereas a 1298:Aquitanian 1258:Vix palace 1243:See also: 999:Prehistory 933:liberation 899:powers in 854:guillotine 765:succession 161:settlement 128:Roman Gaul 98:Prehistory 13305:Gibraltar 13124:Lithuania 12645:Feudalism 12616:Catalonia 12299:Louis XIX 12293:Charles X 12236:Louis XVI 12226:Louis XIV 12172:Henry III 12152:Francis I 12147:Louis XII 12122:Charles V 12112:Philip VI 12073:Philip IV 12053:Philip II 12048:Louis VII 12028:Robert II 11959:Louis III 11921:(751–987) 11870:Clovis IV 11850:Clovis II 11788:(509–751) 11507:Education 11461:Transport 11311:Judiciary 11272:Elections 11226:Mountains 11184:Geography 10930:Louis XIV 10720:Overviews 10447:32357699W 10291:(1969) . 10273:. Wiley. 10111:149200645 10014:145068866 9979:144434973 9718:154902220 9257:148602270 9071:0046-757X 9044:144892957 8946:157255687 8810:153591784 8475:. Knopf. 8439:. 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Led by 1969:— in the 1967:Lothair I 1932:Barcelona 1807:Alaric II 1691:Visigoths 1638:foederati 1555:Caracalla 1520:Aquitania 1330:Burdigala 1219:Marseille 1190:Marseille 1097:Neolithic 945:Indochina 941:baby boom 839:Louis XIV 819:Henry III 781:Philip VI 727:barbarian 594:Territory 487:1946–1958 477:1944–1946 467:1940–1944 446:1920–1929 435:1919–1939 424:1870–1940 397:1871–1914 386:1870–1940 376:1852–1870 366:1848–1852 356:1830–1848 346:1814–1830 336:1804–1814 326:1792–1804 316:1791–1792 306:1789–1799 279:1589–1792 269:1515–1589 259:1498–1515 227:1328–1498 41:(journal) 13356:Category 13325:Svalbard 13310:Guernsey 13257:Abkhazia 13204:Slovenia 13199:Slovakia 13174:Portugal 13032:Bulgaria 12884:See also 12855:Cold War 12650:Crusades 12620:Valencia 12231:Louis XV 12216:Henry IV 12157:Henry II 12137:Louis XI 12088:Philip V 12063:Louis IX 12043:Louis VI 12038:Philip I 11994:Louis IV 11984:Robert I 11954:Louis II 11919:Bosonids 11795:Clovis I 11697:Category 11630:Language 11542:Religion 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