276:
261:
227:
36:
246:
215:
191:
164:
137:
698:
earthquakes. These seismic events can reach greater than MW 8 and result in intense damage to infrastructure. The mid-crustal ramp in the
Himalayas is a key geologic feature in the history for both long-term and short-term seismic processes linked to deformation and shortening. Over the last 15 Ma, the ramp has gradually moved south due to duplexing, accretion, and tectonic undercutting.
1164:
forced back up through the channel they came down due to a space problem. The third model states that the thick continental crust of India further exacerbated the space problem and caused the corner flow of those rocks back up the channel. The fourth model includes the rocks being transported along the Main
Himalayan Thrust.
1160:
on top of lower grade metamorphic rocks still strongly debated, Kohn believes that it is due to long periods of transportation of higher grade metamorphic rocks on the Main
Himalayan Thrust. Essentially, the longer the higher grade rocks were spatially interacting with the thrust, the farther they were transported.
1403:
in the
Western Himalayas. Coulomb stress transfer is used to quantify how earthquakes release stress, identifying areas that are put under increased stress and those that have been unloaded. This study and those like it are important in understanding the current state of fault zones in the region, as
1163:
The exhumation of eclogite and granulite rocks can be explained by several different models. The first model includes slab tear where the lower plate tore off into the mantle leading to high amounts of rebound. The second model states that the rocks got to a certain point in subduction and then were
1159:
The metamorphic rocks of the
Himalaya can be very useful in deciphering and coming up with models of tectonic relationships. According to Kohn (2014), the exhumation of metamorphic rocks can be explained by the Main Himalayan Thrust. Although the mechanism of emplacing higher grade metamorphic rocks
697:
The
Himalayan tectonics result in long term deformation. This includes shortening across the Himalayas that range from 900 to 1,500 km. Said shortening is a product of the significant ongoing seismic activity. The continued convergence of the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate results in mega
628:
from very fast (18-19.5 cm/yr) to fast (4.5 cm/yr) at about 55 Ma is circumstantial support for collision then. Since then there has been about 2500 km of crustal shortening and rotating of India by 45° counterclockwise in the
Northwestern Himalaya to 10°-15° counterclockwise in
1379:
The modern day rate of convergence between the Indian and
Eurasian plates is measured to be approximately 17 mm/yr. This convergence is accommodated through seismic activity in active fault zones. As a result, the Himalayan range is one of the most seismically active regions in the world. This
197:
The earth in the
Cretaceous. The Cimmeridian Superterrane has accreted to Mega Laurasia, the oceanic crust of the Neotethys is subducted to the north along the Dras volcanic arc, the Shigatze Ocean opens as a consequence of back-arc spreading, India is separated from Africa and E. Gondwana and the
2759:
Steck, A.; Spring, L.; Vannay, J.C.; Masson, H.; Bucher, H.; Stutz, E.; Marchant, R.; Tieche, J.C. (1993b). Treloar, P. J.; Searle, M. P. (eds.). "The tectonic evolution of the northwestern
Himalaya in eastern Ladakh and Lahul, India, in Himalayan Tectonics".
693:
Even though it is more than reasonable to argue that this huge amount of crustal shortening most probably results from a combination of these three mechanisms, it is nevertheless the last mechanism which created the high topographic relief of the Himalaya.
2671:
Stampfli, G.M.; Mosar, J.; Favre, P.; Pillevuit, A.; Vannay, J.-C. (2001). "Permo-Mesozoic evolution of the western Tethyan realm: the Neotethys/East- Mediterranean connection". In P.A. Ziegler; W. Cavazza; A.H.F. Robertson; S. Crasquin-Soleau (eds.).
2140:
Burbank, Douglas W.; Leland, John; Fielding, Eric; Anderson, Robert S.; Brozovic, Nicholas; Reid, Mary R.; Duncan, Christopher (8 February 1996). "Bedrock incision, rock uplift and threshold hillslopes in the northwestern Himalayas".
221:
The northward drift of India from 71 Ma ago to present time. Note the simultaneous counter-clockwise rotation of India. Collision of the Indian continent with Eurasia occurred at about 55 million years ago. Source: www.usgs.org
256:. HHCS: High Himalayan Cristalline Sequence; ISZ: Indus Suture Zone; KW: Kishtwar Window; LKRW: Larji-Kulu-Rampur Window; MBT: Main Boundary Thrust; MCT: Main Central Thrust; SF: Sarchu Fault; ZSZ: Zanskar Shear Zone.
2717:
422:(LHCN)), Main Central thrust (MCT), Higher (or Greater) Himalayan crystallines (HHC), South Tibetan detachment system (STD), Tethys Himalaya (TH), and the IndusâTsangpo Suture Zone (ISZ). North of this lies the
414:(type of rocks and their layering) different from the adjacent zones. From south to north, the zones and the major faults separating them are the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), Subhimalaya Zone (also called
640:
during the northward motion of India, at least three major mechanisms have been put forward, either separately or jointly, to explain what happened, since collision, to the 2500 km of "missing
2441:
Klootwijk, Chris T.; Gee, Jeff S.; Peirce, John W.; Smith, Guy M.; McFadden, Phil L. (May 1992). "An early India-Asia contact: Paleomagnetic constraints from Ninetyeast Ridge, ODP Leg 121".
2805:
Yin, An (May 2006). "Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Himalayan orogen as constrained by along-strike variation of structural geometry, exhumation history, and foreland sedimentation".
1930:
Achache, JosĂŠ; Courtillot, Vincent; Xiu, Zhou Yao (1984). "Paleogeographic and tectonic evolution of southern Tibet since Middle Cretaceous time: New paleomagnetic data and synthesis".
2629:
Stampfli, G.M.; Mosar, J.; Favre, P.; Pillevuit, A.; Vannay, J.-C. (1998). "Permo-Triassic evolution of the western Tethyan realm: the Neotethys/east-Mediterranean basin connection".
2386:
Girard, M.; Bussy, F. (1998). "Late Pan-African magmatism in Himalaya: new geochronological and geochemical data from the Ordovician Tso Morari metagranites (Ladakh, NW India)".
1959:
Besse, J.; Courtillot, V.; Pozzi, J.P.; Westphal, M.; Zhou, Y.X. (18 October 1984). "Palaeomagnetic estimates of crustal shortening in the Himalayan thrusts and Zangbo Suture".
3119:
2412:
Klootwijk, C.T.; Conaghan, P.J.; Powell, C.McA. (October 1985). "The Himalayan Arc: large-scale continental subduction, oroclinal bending and back-arc spreading".
2507:
Patriat, Philippe; Achache, JosĂŠ (18 October 1984). "India-Eurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates".
713:
One of the most striking aspects of the Himalayan orogen is the lateral continuity of its major tectonic elements. The Himalaya is classically divided into four
418:), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), Lesser Himalaya (further subdivided into the "Lesser Himalayan Sedimentary Zone (LHSZ) and the Lesser Himalayan Crystalline
1889:"Coulomb Stress Modeling and Seismicity in the Western Himalaya, India Since 1905: Implications for the Incomplete Ruptures of the Main Himalayan Thrust"
761:
1191:
2881:
1103:
rocks. As with the HHCS, these metamorphic rocks represent the metamorphic equivalent of the sediments forming the base of the Tethys Himalaya. The
147:(290 million years ago) when India was part of Gondwana and bordered to the north by the Cimmerian Superterrane. Paleogeographic reconstruction by
1996:
Besse, Jean; Courtillot, Vincent (10 October 1988). "Paleogeographic maps of the continents bordering the Indian Ocean since the Early Jurassic".
2920:
2033:
Bingham, Douglas K.; Klootwijk, Chris T. (27 March 1980). "Palaeomagnetic constraints on Greater India's underthrusting of the Tibetan Plateau".
3094:
2741:"Geological Transect Across the Northwestern Himalaya in eastern Ladakh and Lahul (A Model for the Continental Collision of India and Asia)"
2683:"A plate tectonic model for the Paleozoic and Mesozoic constrained by dynamic plate boundaries and restored synthetic oceanic isochrons"
596:(84 Ma), the Indian plate began its very rapid northward drift covering a distance of about 6000 km, with the oceanic-oceanic
100:
573:(210 Ma), a major rifting episode split Gondwana in two parts. The Indian continent became part of East Gondwana, together with
72:
53:
2642:
Stampfli, G.M. (2000). E. Bozkurt; J.A. Winchester; J.D.A. Piper (eds.). "Tectonics and magmatism in Turkey and surrounding area".
2336:
Le Fort, P.; Cronin, V. S. (1 September 1988). "Granites in the Tectonic Evolution of the Himalaya, Karakoram and Southern Tibet".
1887:
Parija, Mahesh Prasad; Kumar, Sushil; Tiwari, V. M.; Biswal, Shubhasmita; Biswas, Arkoprovo; Velliyidathu, Arjun (September 2021).
2596:"Tethys reconstructed: plates, continental fragments and their Boundaries since 260 Ma from Central America to South-eastern Asia"
2293:
DiPietro, Joseph A.; Pogue, Kevin R. (September 2004). "Tectonostratigraphic subdivisions of the Himalaya: A view from the west".
294:) lies within the Transhimalayas in its east side. Bangong-Nujiang Suture Zone separates Qiangtang Terrane from the Lahsa Terrane
17:
2373:
Frank, W.; Gansser, A.; Trommsdorff, V. (1977). "Geological observations in the Ladakh area (Himalayas); a preliminary report".
79:
2875:
2547:; Fournier, Marc; Jolivet, Laurent (1992). "Kinematics, topography, shortening, and extrusion in the India-Eurasia collision".
1049:
is usually progressive. But in many places along the Himalayan belt, this transition zone is marked by a major structure, the
2729:
1029:
of the TH. Stratigraphic analysis of these sediments yields important indications on the geological history of the northern
2864:"Geology and Petrographic study of the area from Chiraundi Khola to Thulo Khola, Dhading/Nawakot district, central Nepal".
874:
Approximately 30 different names exist in the literature to describe this unit; the most frequently found equivalents are
581:. However, the separation of East and West Gondwana, together with the formation of oceanic crust, occurred later, in the
86:
2913:
554:
ocean (Fig. 2). From that time on, the Cimmerian Superterranes drifted away from Gondwana towards the north. Nowadays,
410:
which extend across the length of Himalaya orogen. Each zone, flanked by the thrust faults on its north and south, has
372:
1523:
1503:
3006:
119:
68:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3140:
2718:"The TRANSMED Transects in Space and Time: Constraints on the Paleotectonic Evolution of the Mediterranean Domain"
267:
Simplified cross-section of the north-western Himalaya showing the main tectonic units and structural elements by
2996:
2986:
2966:
2462:
2906:
57:
2853:
Geochronologic and Thermobarometric Constraints on the Evolution of the Main Central Thrust, Himalayan Orogen
2739:
Steck, A.; Spring, L.; Vannay, J.C.; Masson, H.; Stutz, E.; Bucher, H.; Marchant, R.; Tièche, J.C. (1993a).
2210:
Dewey, J.F.; Cande, S.; Pitman III, W.C. (1989). "Tectonic evolution of the Indian/Eurasia Collision Zone".
1846:
3195:
1412:
Localized geology and geomorphology topics for various parts of the Himalaya are discussed on other pages:
3046:
767:
2399:
Heim, A.; Gansser, A. (1939). "Central Himalaya; geological observations of the Swiss expedition 1936".
2226:
Tectonic and metamorphic Evolution of the Central Himalayan Domain in Southeast Zanskar (Kashmir, India)
3175:
3016:
2946:
2338:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences
2304:
1389:
1186:, Yarlung-Zangpo Suture Zone or Yarlung-Tsangpo Suture Zone, defines the zone of collision between the
291:
2252:"Paleocene-Eocene record of ophiolite obduction and initial India-Asia collision, south central Tibet"
93:
3205:
3200:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3051:
2889:
2470:
Molnar, P.; Tapponnier, P. (1975). "Cenozoic tectonics of Asia; effects of a continental collision".
1324:
1183:
671:
238:
2569:
3155:
3145:
3114:
2740:
1888:
1056:
466:
443:
3031:
3026:
3021:
2971:
2961:
2951:
1400:
1393:
1385:
46:
1306:
sediments derived mainly from the Ladakh batholith but also from the suture zone itself and the
3041:
3036:
2981:
2956:
2564:
2234:
1471:
1381:
648:
The first mechanism also calls upon the subduction of the Indian continental crust below Tibet.
516:
287:
585:(160-155 Ma). The Indian plate then broke off from Australia and Antarctica in the Early
253:
3104:
3061:
3056:
3011:
3001:
2991:
2976:
2111:
Brookfield, M.E. (1993). "The Himalaya passive margin from Precambrian to Cretaceous times".
1481:
1311:
1199:
843:
574:
283:
2698:
2425:
1380:
region has experienced many high magnitude earthquakes in the last 100 years, including the
2814:
2769:
2694:
2607:
2556:
2516:
2479:
2450:
2421:
2345:
2308:
2263:
2190:
2178:
2150:
2120:
2083:
2042:
2005:
1968:
1939:
1858:
1767:
1358:
895:
484:
2863:
1167:
705:
continental plates challenges one hypothesis for plate motion which relies on subduction.
8:
3109:
3099:
2295:
1328:, representing the northern limit of the Himalaya. Further to the North is the so-called
988:
775:
771:
539:
504:
480:
427:
403:
2818:
2773:
2611:
2560:
2520:
2483:
2454:
2349:
2312:
2267:
2194:
2154:
2124:
2087:
2046:
2009:
1972:
1943:
1870:
1862:
1771:
3150:
2793:
2659:
2582:
2532:
2361:
2324:
2281:
2166:
2099:
2058:
1984:
1791:
1460:
1030:
966:
850:(Kishtwar or Larji-Kulu-Rampur windows) within the High Himalaya Crystalline Sequence.
817:
656:
496:
439:
360:
328:
2707:
2682:
1754:
Dal Zilio, Luca; HetĂŠnyi, GyĂśrgy; Hubbard, Judith; Bollinger, Laurent (2 March 2021).
2869:
2830:
2797:
2785:
2725:
2663:
2495:
2433:
2365:
2328:
2238:
2132:
2021:
1908:
1795:
1783:
1445:
1177:
1136:
906:(c. 22 Ma) age. Although most of the metasediments forming the HHCS are of late
641:
340:
2826:
2586:
2285:
2103:
2822:
2777:
2702:
2651:
2620:
2615:
2595:
2574:
2544:
2536:
2524:
2487:
2458:
2429:
2353:
2316:
2271:
2198:
2170:
2158:
2128:
2091:
2062:
2050:
2013:
1988:
1976:
1947:
1900:
1866:
1775:
1521:
A more modern paleogeographic reconstruction of the Permian-Triassic boundary, see
1416:
1354:
1240:
891:
454:
450:
356:
2781:
2655:
1501:
A more modern paleogeographic reconstruction of the Early Permian can be found at
853:
842:
are thrust over the Sub-himalayan range along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). The
364:
3071:
2893:
2851:
2491:
1456:
1435:
1425:
881:
847:
637:
617:
431:
380:
368:
344:
175:
1755:
969:. It is now generally accepted that the metasediments of the HHCS represent the
355:. The Himalaya-Tibet region supplies fresh water for more than one-fifth of the
3089:
1779:
1295:
859:
821:
702:
683:
679:
352:
309:
305:
402:
From south to north the Himalaya (Himalaya orogen) is divided into 4 parallel
275:
3134:
2834:
2789:
2242:
2025:
1912:
1787:
1342:
1330:
1195:
1173:
954:
930:
835:
633:
535:
423:
392:
2202:
2017:
1951:
384:
252:
Geological Map of the NW Himalaya; for references, see image description or
3084:
2499:
2357:
1527:
1507:
1475:
1439:
1365:
1350:
1291:
1287:
1187:
1144:
1140:
1128:
1100:
1014:
1006:
1002:
976:
970:
824:
686:
621:
508:
435:
411:
407:
348:
332:
325:
724:
531:
intrusions dated at around 500 Ma are also attributed to this event.
2320:
2276:
2251:
1904:
1541:
The fourfold division of Himalayan units has been used since the work of
1466:
1396:, all of which were recorded at magnitudes equal or greater than Mw 6.6.
1279:
1264:
1260:
1106:
1093:
1018:
914:
age, much younger metasediments can also be found in several areas, e.g.
907:
832:
810:
797:
and others), which demonstrates that the Himalaya is still a very active
794:
790:
744:
625:
589:(130-125 Ma) with the opening of the "South Indian Ocean" (Fig. 3).
559:
472:
2898:
1687:
1603:
1290:
sequence (with rare interbeds of marine saltwater sediments) comprising
973:
equivalents of the sedimentary series forming the base of the overlying
260:
226:
2932:
2676:. IGCP 369. MĂŠm. Museum Nat. Hist. Nat. Vol. 186. pp. 51â108.
2674:
PeriTethys memoir 6: Peritethyan rift/wrench basins and passive margins
2388:
Schweizerische Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen Bulletin
2375:
Schweizerische Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen Bulletin
1450:
1362:
1303:
1244:
1168:
Indus Suture Zone (ISZ) (or Yarlung-Tsangpo Suture Zone) tectonic plate
1112:
1079:
950:
899:
863:
779:
597:
593:
586:
578:
512:
476:
395:. This last feature earned the Himalaya its name, originating from the
313:
282:
Indus-Yarlung suture zone separates Himalayas from the Transhimalayas.
144:
2578:
1579:
1212:
304:
is a record of the most dramatic and visible creations of the immense
2528:
2162:
2095:
2054:
1980:
1346:
1221:
1209:
1132:
1026:
839:
675:
660:
605:
601:
582:
551:
321:
171:
2071:
1814:
1735:
35:
2929:
2720:. In Cavazza W; Roure F; Spakman W; Stampfli GM; Ziegler P (eds.).
1802:
1711:
1651:
1248:
1097:
1034:
922:
915:
911:
814:
782:
736:
714:
609:
524:
520:
488:
453:, Central Himalaya, and Western Himalaya, which collectively house
396:
388:
1428:, which lies in the eastern half of the Indian union territory of
1041:. The transition between the generally low-grade sediments of the
866:
relief (highest peaks). It is commonly separated into four zones.
809:
The Lesser Himalaya (LH) tectonic plate is mainly formed by Upper
666:
The third proposed mechanism is that a large part (~1000 km (
426:
in Tibet which is outside the Himalayas. The Himalayas border the
2722:
The TRANSMED Atlas: the Mediterranean Region from Crust to Mantle
1421:
1299:
1282:
1038:
942:
938:
934:
903:
828:
751:
747:
740:
731:
The Sub-Himalayan tectonic plate is sometimes referred to as the
718:
543:
528:
492:
415:
376:
336:
317:
2887:
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, India, main page
2876:
Reconstruction of the evolution of the Alpine-Himalayan orogeny.
2224:
1753:
1663:
1013:, have also been described within this unit. An almost complete
717:
units that can be followed for more than 2400 km along the
600:
continuing until the final closure of the oceanic basin and the
245:
214:
1429:
1336:
1256:
1252:
1217:
1148:
1124:
1085:
1072:
1022:
960:
854:
Central Himalayan Domain, (CHD) or High Himalaya tectonic plate
798:
786:
757:
570:
170:
The Earth at the Permian-Triassic boundary. The opening of the
1065:, which has indicators of both extension and compression. See
708:
2139:
1609:
1267:
982:
926:
919:
869:
563:
500:
419:
198:
Indian Ocean opens. Paleogeographic reconstructions based by
190:
163:
136:
1958:
1723:
1693:
449:
From east to west the Himalayas are divided into 3 regions,
2670:
2628:
2463:
10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0395:AEIACP>2.3.CO;2
1699:
1585:
1399:
A recent study (Parija et al, 2021) sought to quantify the
1234:
555:
547:
2886:
1756:"Building the Himalaya from tectonic to earthquake scales"
1675:
750:
sediments derived from the erosion of the Himalaya. These
335:
syntaxis at the western end, are the result of an ongoing
613:
2878:
Special Edition of "The Journal of the Virtual Explorer"
2872:
Special Edition of "The Journal of the Virtual Explorer"
2758:
2738:
2543:
1820:
1741:
1615:
1591:
233:
Geologic - Tectonic map of the Himalaya, modified after
2440:
2411:
2372:
1886:
1826:
1808:
1717:
1657:
858:
The Central Himalayan Domain forms the backbone of the
725:
Sub-Himalayan (Churia Hills or Sivaliks) tectonic plate
651:
Second is the extrusion or escape tectonics mechanism (
1847:"Himalayan Metamorphism and Its Tectonic Implications"
1639:
804:
739:
of the Himalayan Range and is essentially composed of
1929:
1669:
1001:
The Tethys Himalaya is an approximately 100-km-wide
608:
onto India and the beginning of continent-continent
383:
rates at 2â12 mm/yr, the source of some of the
2250:Ding, Lin; Kapp, Paul; Wan, Xiaoqiao (6 May 2005).
1567:
1404:well as their potential for rupture in the future.
1045:and the underlying low- to high-grade rocks of the
985:which is thrust over the Lesser Himalaya along the
689:
together with the deformation of the Tibetan crust.
670:) or ~800 to ~1200 km) of the 2500 km of
499:(Fig. 1). During that period, the northern part of
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2644:Geological Society of London, Special Publications
1357:at the base of the Tibetan bloc, triggered by the
1154:
1118:
785:deposited by the rivers coming from the Himalaya (
542:and the Cimmerian Superterranes. During the Early
538:, an early stage of rifting developed between the
2069:
1542:
1442:is causing rapid uplifting of lower crustal rocks
1092:passes gradually to the north in a large dome of
1005:formed by strongly folded and imbricated, weakly
898:which are intruded in many places by granites of
331:at the eastern end of the mountain range and the
3132:
2762:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
2681:Stampfli, G.M.; Borel, G.D. (28 February 2002).
2469:
2209:
2032:
1729:
1627:
1135:environment, on the northern part of the Indian
667:
652:
620:. The change of the relative speed between the
1995:
1705:
1202:) to the north. This suture zone is formed by:
1009:sedimentary series. Several nappes, termed the
735:in the older literature. It forms the southern
701:The ongoing active collision of the Indian and
629:North Central Nepal relative to Asia (Fig. 4).
2506:
1681:
371:(nearly 10 mm/year at Nanga Parbat), the
324:, which stretch over 2400 km between the
207:
183:
156:
2914:
2870:Granitoids of the Himalayan Collisional Belt.
2715:
2680:
2335:
2292:
1851:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
1621:
1597:
1484:- the root thrust that underlies the Himalaya
890:. It is a 30-km-thick, medium- to high-grade
234:
203:
179:
152:
1123:The Lamayuru and Markha Units are formed by
1073:Nyimaling-Tso Morari Metamorphic Dome (NTMD)
1037:evolution to its continental collision with
2398:
2385:
2249:
2181:(1988). "Extensional collapse of orogens".
1832:
1645:
1546:
862:and encompasses the areas with the highest
709:Major tectonic subdivisions of the Himalaya
359:, and accounts for a quarter of the global
27:Origins and structure of the mountain range
2921:
2907:
2110:
1453:- similar small scale erosion to the Indus
870:High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence (HHCS)
460:
2928:
2706:
2619:
2568:
2275:
1143:. The age of these sediments ranges from
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
2641:
2070:Blanford, W.T.; Medlicott, H.B. (1879).
1573:
1526:. UniversitĂŠ de Lausanne. Archived from
1506:. UniversitĂŠ de Lausanne. Archived from
274:
259:
244:
225:
213:
189:
162:
135:
2859:. PhD Thesis. University of California.
996:
14:
3133:
2849:
1760:Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
1742:Le Pichon, Fournier & Jolivet 1992
1341:, which corresponds essentially to an
612:interaction starting at about 65
566:are partly made up of these terranes.
2902:
2850:Catlos, Elizabeth Jacqueline (2000).
2593:
2222:
2177:
1882:
1880:
1809:Frank, Gansser & Trommsdorff 1977
1718:Klootwijk, Conaghan & Powell 1985
1633:
1051:"Central Himalayan Detachment System"
1047:"High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence"
1033:of the Indian sub-continent from its
363:. Topographically, the belt has many
268:
199:
148:
1844:
655:) which sees the Indian plate as an
503:was affected by a late phase of the
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
2804:
2687:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2414:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1871:10.1146/annurev-earth-060313-055005
1374:
1251:volcanic island arc and consist of
805:Lesser Himalaya (LH) tectonic plate
24:
2072:"A manual of the geology of India"
1877:
1670:Achache, Courtillot & Xiu 1984
1216:, composed of an intercalation of
25:
3217:
2843:
1353:was caused by the melting of the
1224:from the Neotethys oceanic crust.
1111:is also here intruded by several
636:was "simply" subducted below the
387:and the highest concentration of
2716:Stampfli, GM; Borel, GD (2004).
2401:Schweizer. Naturf. Ges., Denksch
1459:to the North (also discussed in
379:Chomolangma), among the highest
34:
2827:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.05.004
1998:Journal of Geophysical Research
1932:Journal of Geophysical Research
1838:
1747:
1543:Blanford & Medlicott (1879)
1535:
1314:and thus Eocene to post-Eocene.
1155:Exhumation of Metamorphic Rocks
1119:Lamayuru and Markha Units (LMU)
1057:South Tibetan Detachment System
45:needs additional citations for
2882:"Engineering Geology of Nepal"
2621:10.1080/09853111.1994.11105266
1515:
1495:
1090:"Tethys Himalaya synclinorium"
1063:"North Himalayan Normal Fault"
668:Dewey, Cande & Pitman 1989
483:, bounded to the north by the
13:
1:
2866:MS Thesis by Gyanendra Gurung
2782:10.1144/GSL.SP.1993.074.01.19
2708:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00588-X
2656:10.1144/GSL.SP.2000.173.01.01
1556:
399:for "the abode of the snow".
3120:North Himalayan Normal Fault
2748:Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae
2492:10.1126/science.189.4201.419
2434:10.1016/0012-821X(85)90099-8
2233:(PhD thesis). Vol. 32.
2212:Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae
2133:10.1016/0037-0738(93)90042-4
1730:Bingham & Klootwijk 1980
1561:
888:"High Himalayan Crystalline"
876:"Greater Himalayan Sequence"
766:, are internally folded and
733:Cis-Himalayan tectonic plate
653:Molnar & Tapponnier 1975
208:Patriat & Achache (1984)
184:Patriat & Achache (1984)
157:Patriat & Achache (1984)
7:
1706:Besse & Courtillot 1988
1407:
1345:of Andean type. Widespread
1115:(c. 480 Ma) granites.
902:(c. 500 Ma) and early
235:Le Fort & Cronin (1988)
204:Stampfli & Borel (2002)
180:Stampfli & Borel (2002)
153:Stampfli & Borel (2002)
10:
3222:
2305:American Geophysical Union
1922:
1780:10.1038/s43017-021-00143-1
1682:Patriat & Achache 1984
1478:system within the Himalaya
1390:1991 Uttarkashi Earthquake
1171:
838:(1840 Âą70 Ma). These
464:
455:several nations and states
404:tectonostratigraphic zones
69:"Geology of the Himalayas"
3070:
2939:
1646:Ding, Kapp & Wan 2005
1622:DiPietro & Pogue 2004
1598:Stampfli & Borel 2002
1547:Heim & Gansser (1939)
1184:Indus-Yarlung suture zone
981:. The HHCS forms a major
239:Indus-Yarlung suture zone
3115:South Tibetan Detachment
3080:Geology of the Himalayas
2940:Notable Himalayan quakes
1488:
1424:is a subdistrict of the
1067:ongoing geologic studies
1025:is preserved within the
1017:record ranging from the
1011:"North Himalayan Nappes"
682:of the sediments of the
467:Pre-collisional Himalaya
302:geology of the Himalayas
178:from Gondwana. Based on
176:Cimmeridian Superterrane
3171:Natural history of Asia
3166:Landforms of South Asia
3161:Geography of South Asia
3141:Geology of the Himalaya
2892:30 October 2014 at the
2699:2002E&PSL.196...17S
2426:1985E&PSL..75..167K
2203:10.1029/TC007i006p01123
2018:10.1029/JB093iB10p11791
1952:10.1029/JB089iB12p10311
1833:Girard & Bussy 1998
1401:Coulomb Stress Transfer
1394:1999 Chamoli Earthquake
1386:1975 Kinnaur Earthquake
754:deposits, known as the
491:and was separated from
485:Cimmerian Superterranes
461:Making of the Himalayas
339:â the collision of the
312:forces and sculpted by
18:Geology of the Himalaya
2358:10.1098/rsta.1988.0088
2235:University of Lausanne
2223:Dèzes, Pierre (1999).
2082:(504). Calcutta: 191.
1845:Kohn, Matthew (2014).
1472:Karakoram fault system
1382:1905 Kangra Earthquake
507:which is marked by an
367:: the highest rate of
295:
272:
257:
242:
223:
211:
187:
160:
3105:Main Himalayan Thrust
2807:Earth-Science Reviews
1658:Klootwijk et al. 1992
1482:Main Himalayan Thrust
1310:. These molasses are
1200:Karakoram-Lhasa Block
1139:and in the adjoining
896:metasedimentary rocks
822:passive Indian margin
721:(Fig. 5 and Fig. 7).
663:block out of its way.
278:
263:
248:
229:
217:
193:
166:
139:
2967:1833 KathmanduâBihar
2594:Ricou, L.M. (1994).
2321:10.1029/2003TC001554
2277:10.1029/2004TC001729
2231:MĂŠmoires de GĂŠologie
2004:(B10): 11791â11808.
1938:(B12): 10311â10340.
1905:10.1029/2020TC006204
1586:Stampfli et al. 2001
1366:Indian oceanic crust
1259:, volcanoclastites,
1053:, also known as the
997:Tethys Himalaya (TH)
892:metamorphic sequence
774:is thrust along the
674:was accommodated by
444:ChinaâMyanmar border
375:(8848 m at Mt.
54:improve this article
3196:Geology of Pakistan
3110:Main Central Thrust
3100:Main Frontal Thrust
2819:2006ESRv...76....1Y
2774:1993GSLSP..74..265S
2724:. Springer Verlag.
2612:1994GeoAc...7..169R
2561:1992Tecto..11.1085L
2521:1984Natur.311..615P
2484:1975Sci...189..419M
2455:1992Geo....20..395K
2350:1988RSPTA.326..281F
2313:2004Tecto..23.5001D
2268:2005Tecto..24.3001D
2195:1988Tecto...7.1123D
2155:1996Natur.379..505B
2125:1993SedG...84....1B
2113:Sedimentary Geology
2088:1879Natur..20..191H
2047:1980Natur.284..336B
2010:1988JGR....9311791B
1973:1984Natur.311..621B
1944:1984JGR....8910311A
1863:2014AREPS..42..381K
1772:2021NRvEE...2..251D
1610:Burbank et al. 1996
1530:on 19 January 2011.
989:Main Central Thrust
820:sediments from the
776:Main Frontal Thrust
772:Sub-Himalayan Range
550:developed into the
540:Indian subcontinent
519:and the underlying
505:Pan-African orogeny
481:Indian subcontinent
442:to the east on the
428:Indo-Gangetic Plain
351:thrusting into the
292:Lhasa Block/Terrane
3007:1988 Myanmar-India
1821:Steck et al. 1993a
1461:Geography of Tibet
1334:, or more locally
1031:continental margin
967:Leh-Manali Highway
672:crustal shortening
659:that squeezed the
632:While most of the
497:Paleo-Tethys Ocean
440:Hengduan Mountains
361:sedimentary budget
296:
273:
258:
243:
224:
212:
188:
161:
3176:Geology of Bhutan
3128:
3127:
2731:978-3-540-22181-4
2579:10.1029/92TC01566
2545:Le Pichon, Xavier
2515:(5987): 615â621.
2478:(4201): 419â426.
2344:(1589): 281â299.
2149:(6565): 505â510.
2041:(5754): 336â338.
1967:(5987): 621â626.
1694:Besse et al. 1984
1438:- the erosion at
1325:Indus Suture Zone
1182:ISZ, also called
1178:Qiangtang terrane
1137:continental slope
1082:Metamorphic Dome"
1043:"Tethys Himalaya"
1019:Upper Proterozoic
846:often appears in
642:continental crust
341:continental crust
143:The Earth in the
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
3213:
3206:Regional geology
3201:Geology of Tibet
3191:Geology of Nepal
3186:Geology of India
3181:Geology of China
3047:April 2015 Nepal
2997:1950 AssamâTibet
2923:
2916:
2909:
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2755:
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2735:
2712:
2710:
2677:
2667:
2638:
2625:
2623:
2600:Geodinamica Acta
2590:
2572:
2555:(6): 1085â1098.
2540:
2529:10.1038/311615a0
2503:
2466:
2437:
2420:(2â3): 167â183.
2408:
2395:
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2369:
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2289:
2279:
2246:
2219:
2206:
2189:(6): 1123â1139.
2174:
2163:10.1038/379505a0
2136:
2107:
2096:10.1038/020191a0
2066:
2055:10.1038/284336a0
2029:
1992:
1981:10.1038/311621a0
1955:
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1550:
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1531:
1519:
1513:
1511:
1499:
1417:Geology of Nepal
1375:Seismic activity
1312:post-collisional
1286:, a continental
1192:Ladakh Batholith
947:"Tschuldo slice"
860:Himalayan orogen
848:tectonic windows
618:Central Himalaya
451:Eastern Himalaya
357:world population
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
3221:
3220:
3216:
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3214:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3156:Plate tectonics
3146:Geology of Asia
3131:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3072:Plate tectonics
3066:
3017:1991 Uttarkashi
2947:1505 Lo Mustang
2935:
2927:
2894:Wayback Machine
2856:
2846:
2841:
2743:
2732:
2570:10.1.1.635.2173
2237:. p. 149.
1925:
1920:
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1878:
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1819:
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1572:
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1564:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1540:
1536:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1510:on 8 June 2011.
1502:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1457:Tibetan Plateau
1426:Kargil district
1410:
1377:
1308:Tethys Himalaya
1245:Late Cretaceous
1180:
1170:
1157:
1141:Neotethys basin
1131:deposited in a
1121:
1075:
1069:section below.
999:
977:Tethys Himalaya
872:
856:
844:Lesser Himalaya
807:
727:
711:
469:
463:
434:to the west in
432:Pamir Mountains
391:outside of the
385:greatest rivers
345:tectonic plates
298:
297:
237:. Green is the
126:
115:
109:
106:
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3097:
3092:
3090:Eurasian Plate
3087:
3082:
3076:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3052:May 2015 Nepal
3049:
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2844:External links
2842:
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2802:
2768:(1): 265â276.
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2438:
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2307:Publications.
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487:, was part of
465:Main article:
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430:to the south,
373:highest relief
353:Eurasian Plate
347:, namely, the
310:plate tectonic
306:mountain range
174:separates the
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2754:(1): 219â263.
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2262:(3): TC3001.
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1587:
1582:
1575:
1574:Stampfli 2000
1570:
1566:
1548:
1544:
1538:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1509:
1505:
1504:"Paleotethys"
1498:
1494:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1446:Mount Everest
1444:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1405:
1402:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1367:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1343:active margin
1340:
1338:
1333:
1332:
1331:Transhimalaya
1327:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1284:
1281:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1269:
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1236:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1229:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1214:
1211:
1207:
1206:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1196:Transhimalaya
1193:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1174:Lhasa terrane
1165:
1161:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1108:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1081:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1058:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1015:stratigraphic
1012:
1008:
1007:metamorphosed
1004:
994:
992:
990:
984:
980:
978:
972:
968:
964:
962:
956:
955:Carboniferous
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
931:Warwan Valley
928:
924:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
883:
877:
867:
865:
861:
851:
849:
845:
841:
837:
834:
830:
826:
823:
819:
816:
812:
802:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
763:
759:
753:
749:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
722:
720:
716:
706:
704:
699:
695:
688:
687:Indian margin
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
662:
658:
654:
650:
647:
646:
645:
643:
639:
638:Tibetan block
635:
634:oceanic crust
630:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
590:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
567:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
536:Carboniferous
534:In the Early
532:
530:
526:
522:
518:
517:conglomerates
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
468:
458:
456:
452:
447:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
424:Transhimalaya
421:
417:
413:
409:
408:thrust faults
405:
400:
398:
394:
393:polar regions
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
293:
289:
286:(also called
285:
284:Lhasa Terrane
281:
277:
270:
266:
262:
255:
251:
247:
240:
236:
232:
228:
220:
216:
209:
205:
201:
196:
192:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
158:
154:
150:
146:
145:Early Permian
142:
138:
132:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: â
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3095:Oldham Fault
3085:Indian Plate
3079:
3032:2008 Damxung
3027:2005 Kashmir
3022:1999 Chamoli
2972:1885 Kashmir
2962:1803 Garhwal
2952:1555 Kashmir
2852:
2810:
2806:
2765:
2761:
2751:
2747:
2721:
2693:(1): 17â33.
2690:
2686:
2673:
2647:
2643:
2634:
2630:
2603:
2599:
2552:
2548:
2512:
2508:
2475:
2471:
2446:
2442:
2417:
2413:
2404:
2400:
2391:
2387:
2381:(1): 89â113.
2378:
2374:
2341:
2337:
2300:
2294:
2259:
2255:
2230:
2225:
2215:
2211:
2186:
2182:
2146:
2142:
2116:
2112:
2079:
2075:
2038:
2034:
2001:
1997:
1964:
1960:
1935:
1931:
1896:
1892:
1854:
1850:
1840:
1828:
1816:
1804:
1763:
1759:
1749:
1737:
1725:
1713:
1701:
1689:
1677:
1665:
1653:
1641:
1629:
1617:
1605:
1593:
1581:
1569:
1537:
1528:the original
1517:
1508:the original
1497:
1476:active fault
1451:Sutlej River
1440:Nanga Parbat
1411:
1398:
1378:
1351:volcanic arc
1335:
1329:
1323:
1307:
1292:alluvial fan
1288:clastic rock
1278:
1261:pillow lavas
1233:
1208:
1188:Indian Plate
1181:
1162:
1158:
1145:Late Permian
1129:olistholiths
1122:
1104:
1089:
1088:region, the
1077:
1076:
1066:
1062:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1010:
1003:synclinorium
1000:
986:
974:
958:
946:
887:
882:Tibetan Slab
879:
875:
873:
857:
825:intercalated
808:
755:
732:
730:
728:
712:
700:
696:
692:
631:
626:Asian plates
592:In the Late
591:
568:
533:
515:continental
509:unconformity
471:During Late
470:
448:
436:Central Asia
412:stratigraphy
401:
365:superlatives
349:Indian Plate
333:Nanga Parbat
326:Namcha Barwa
301:
299:
279:
269:Dèzes (1999)
264:
254:bibliography
249:
230:
218:
200:Dèzes (1999)
194:
167:
149:Dèzes (1999)
140:
131:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
3042:2011 Sikkim
3037:2009 Bhutan
2982:1905 Kangra
2957:1714 Bhutan
2933:earthquakes
2179:Dewey, J.F.
1524:"Neotethys"
1467:Paleotethys
1436:Indus River
1359:dehydration
1265:radiolarian
1107:Precambrian
1101:metamorphic
1094:greenschist
1078:"Nyimaling-
971:metamorphic
908:Proterozoic
864:topographic
811:Proterozoic
795:Brahmaputra
764:Formations"
745:Pleistocene
604:of oceanic
560:Afghanistan
527:. Numerous
473:Precambrian
151:, based on
3135:Categories
3062:2023 Nepal
3057:2021 Assam
3012:1988 Nepal
3002:1980 Nepal
2992:1947 Assam
2987:1934 Bihar
2977:1897 Assam
2631:PeriThetys
2394:: 399â418.
1634:Dèzes 1999
1557:References
1392:, and the
1363:subducting
1304:lacustrine
1263:and minor
1222:ophiolites
1172:See also:
1133:turbiditic
1113:Ordovician
1080:Tso Morari
1035:Gondwanian
951:Ordovician
900:Ordovician
827:with some
780:Quaternary
768:imbricated
598:subduction
594:Cretaceous
587:Cretaceous
579:Antarctica
513:Ordovician
477:Palaeozoic
438:, and the
314:weathering
308:formed by
222:(modified)
110:March 2024
80:newspapers
3151:Himalayas
2930:Himalayan
2835:0012-8252
2798:128420922
2790:0305-8719
2664:219202298
2565:CiteSeerX
2549:Tectonics
2407:(1): 245.
2366:202574726
2329:129138752
2296:Tectonics
2256:Tectonics
2243:1015-3578
2183:Tectonics
2026:0148-0227
1913:0278-7407
1893:Tectonics
1796:232084060
1788:2662-138X
1562:Citations
1347:volcanism
1339:Batholith
1237:Volcanics
1210:Ophiolite
1098:eclogitic
1027:sediments
910:to early
840:sediments
836:volcanics
813:to lower
778:over the
737:foothills
676:thrusting
661:Indochina
606:ophiolite
602:obduction
583:Callovian
575:Australia
552:Neotethys
525:sediments
322:Himalayas
288:Karakoram
172:Neotethys
2890:Archived
2650:: 1â23.
2587:36349751
2500:17781869
2286:39124270
2104:45807101
1474:- major
1408:See also
1349:in this
1249:Jurassic
1247:to Late
1213:MĂŠlanges
1190:and the
923:syncline
916:Mesozoic
912:Cambrian
829:granites
818:detrital
815:Cambrian
783:alluvium
762:Sivaliks
748:molassic
715:tectonic
703:Eurasian
657:indenter
610:tectonic
529:granitic
521:Cambrian
511:between
489:Gondwana
475:and the
397:Sanskrit
389:glaciers
329:syntaxis
2815:Bibcode
2770:Bibcode
2695:Bibcode
2608:Bibcode
2557:Bibcode
2537:4315858
2517:Bibcode
2480:Bibcode
2472:Science
2451:Bibcode
2443:Geology
2422:Bibcode
2346:Bibcode
2309:Bibcode
2264:Bibcode
2191:Bibcode
2171:4362558
2151:Bibcode
2121:Bibcode
2084:Bibcode
2063:4279478
2043:Bibcode
2006:Bibcode
1989:4333485
1969:Bibcode
1940:Bibcode
1923:Sources
1859:Bibcode
1768:Bibcode
1422:Zanskar
1361:of the
1283:Molasse
1257:dacites
1253:basalts
1241:relicts
1125:flyschs
1084:in the
1039:Eurasia
1021:to the
993:(MCT).
957:in the
945:in the
943:Permian
939:Kashmir
935:Kistwar
918:in the
904:Miocene
752:molasse
741:Miocene
684:passive
680:folding
616:in the
569:In the
546:, this
544:Permian
523:marine
495:by the
493:Eurasia
416:Sivalik
381:erosion
377:Everest
343:of two
337:orogeny
318:erosion
94:scholar
2833:
2796:
2788:
2728:
2662:
2585:
2567:
2535:
2509:Nature
2498:
2364:
2327:
2284:
2241:
2169:
2143:Nature
2102:
2076:Nature
2061:
2035:Nature
2024:
1987:
1961:Nature
1911:
1794:
1786:
1430:Ladakh
1355:mantle
1337:Ladakh
1300:fluvio
1268:cherts
1218:flysch
1194:(also
1149:Eocene
1086:Ladakh
1023:Eocene
961:Sarchu
799:orogen
787:Ganges
770:. The
758:Murree
622:Indian
571:Norian
479:, the
420:Nappes
406:and 5
369:uplift
320:. The
280:Fig 8:
265:Fig 7:
250:Fig 6:
231:Fig 5:
219:Fig 4:
195:Fig 3:
168:Fig 2:
141:Fig 1:
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
2857:(PDF)
2794:S2CID
2744:(PDF)
2660:S2CID
2583:S2CID
2533:S2CID
2362:S2CID
2325:S2CID
2303:(5).
2282:S2CID
2167:S2CID
2100:S2CID
2059:S2CID
1985:S2CID
1899:(9).
1792:S2CID
1489:Notes
1280:Indus
1243:of a
983:nappe
963:area"
927:Nepal
920:Tandi
791:Indus
564:Tibet
501:India
202:, on
101:JSTOR
87:books
2831:ISSN
2786:ISSN
2726:ISBN
2496:PMID
2239:ISSN
2022:ISSN
1909:ISSN
1784:ISSN
1545:and
1298:and
1235:Dras
1220:and
1176:and
1127:and
929:and
886:and
833:acid
831:and
760:and
719:belt
678:and
624:and
577:and
562:and
556:Iran
548:rift
316:and
300:The
206:and
182:and
155:and
73:news
2823:doi
2778:doi
2703:doi
2691:196
2652:doi
2648:173
2616:doi
2575:doi
2525:doi
2513:311
2488:doi
2476:189
2459:doi
2430:doi
2354:doi
2342:326
2317:doi
2272:doi
2199:doi
2159:doi
2147:379
2129:doi
2092:doi
2051:doi
2039:284
2014:doi
1977:doi
1965:311
1948:doi
1901:doi
1867:doi
1776:doi
1198:or
1147:to
1096:to
1061:or
965:on
953:to
937:in
933:of
925:of
894:of
743:to
644:".
186:.()
56:by
3137::
2829:.
2821:.
2811:76
2809:.
2792:.
2784:.
2776:.
2766:74
2764:.
2752:86
2750:.
2746:.
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2689:.
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2646:.
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2602:.
2598:.
2581:.
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2078:.
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2049:.
2037:.
2020:.
2012:.
2002:93
2000:.
1983:.
1975:.
1963:.
1946:.
1936:89
1934:.
1907:.
1897:40
1895:.
1891:.
1879:^
1865:.
1855:42
1853:.
1849:.
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614:Ma
558:,
457:.
446:.
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2800:.
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1979::
1971::
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1950::
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1915:.
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