861:
405:, reaching a population approaching 1,000,000 in the 2nd century AD. The wars of the early Republic led directly to the expansion of Roman territory, the acquisition of arable land, and land hunger for Rome's least powerful, impoverished citizens. Landholding was the material basis of male Roman citizenship, and land distribution remained a major issue throughout Rome's history. Most commoner-citizens were also farmers, either as small landowners or as tenants. They could be conscripted to serve in the military, with minimal recompense, on campaigns that could last for years. In peacetime, the same commoner-soldiers relied on whatever crops they could raise on their own land, weather permitting, with very little capacity to produce a surplus for trading.
327:". Sufficient imports of grain to meet the basic requirements of cities relied on dependable surpluses elsewhere, and minimal grain-hoarding by speculators. The logistics of moving the grain by sea to Rome required the state's commission of many hundreds of privately owned merchant ships, some very large, and a system for collecting and distributing the grain at its destination. Most of Rome's grain supply was grown, imported, stored and traded as a profitable commodity, funded by speculators and hoarders, using loans, not state subsidies. Some provinces were almost entirely given over to the production of grain for consumption in Roman cities. The most important sources of bread grain, mostly
646:
936:(270–275 AD) is usually credited with changing or completing the change from doles of grain or flour to bread, and for adding olive oil, salt, and pork to the products regularly distributed; these products had been distributed sporadically before that. Aurelian is also credited with increasing the weight of loaves but not their price, a measure that was undoubtedly popular with the Romans who were not receiving free bread and other products through the dole. In the 4th century AD, Rome had 290 granaries and warehouses and 254 bakeries, regulated and monitored by the state and given privileges to ensure their cooperation.
945:
634:
390:
725:
the cost of land transport, the grain was grown in close proximity to the ports. Road transport was slow and costly, using four-wheeled carts drawn by four oxen. Each cart carried 350 kilograms (770 lb) to 500 kilograms (1,100 lb). Grain from ancient
Cyraenica (Libya) may have been important because an early harvest there could supply Rome before other grain-producing regions had been harvested. In Rome, the arrival of the first fleets of grain ships after harvest was an eagerly awaited annual event.
510:
501:, a form of requisition that might be met through coin or payment in kind, preferably as trade surpluses but otherwise "siphoned off more or less forcefully" from local civilian economies; the needs of the military had always been prioritised over the needs of civilians. The doles of bread, olive oil, wine, and pork apparently continued until near the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, although the decline in the population of the city of Rome reduced the overall quantities required.
766:
249:
35:
893:
474:. In the early Roman Empire, the requirements of the grain dole are thought to account for 15–33% of Rome's imported grain. A large part of the city's supply was obtained through the free market. Prices in the city were invariably higher than elsewhere, and merchants could count on making a profit. Some of the grain collected as tax in kind was distributed to officials and soldiers and some was sold at market rates.
1251:
848:
including the winter, when the risks of shipwreck were highest. In the early Empire, especially under
Claudius, ship owners and the grain trade came increasingly under Imperial control, identified with the emperor in person. He offered a range of privileges, including grants of citizenship and exemption from import and harbour duties, to ship-owners willing to contract vessels of at least 10,000
1066:). In much modern literature this represents the Annona as a "briberous and corrupting attempt of the Roman emperors to cover up the fact that they were selfish and incompetent tyrants." Augustus disapproved even the idea of a grain dole, on moral grounds, but he, and every emperor after him, took the responsibility and credit for ensuring the supply to citizens who qualified for it.
881:
machines, and fuel and fire the ovens; the cost of bread included the cost of harvesting, transporting and preparing the very large quantities of wood-fuel used to bring the oven to temperature and keep it there; huge "beehive" ovens of 3 to 5 meters diameter were used in commercial baking, baking the bread in just a few minutes. Bread production was increasingly mechanised.
873:) had been used to grind grain since Neolithic times. More efficient hand-driven rotary "hopper mills" were developed in 5th century BC Greece, and presumably spread to Rome shortly. Most had a small, usually domestic capacity. Much larger, more efficient rotary mills, powered by slaves, donkeys or horses, were funded and operated as business ventures. Those found at
924:. Its water not only turned the mills but was clean enough for drinking. By the late 2nd or early 3rd centuries, most of the grain consumed in the city of Rome was ground using water-power. A famine caused by corrupt grain distributors, and resultant riots in 190 AD, persuaded the government under Emperor
931:
The recipients of subsidised bread paid the baker a small fee for milling and baking; the grain itself was still free. The change from a grain supply to a flour supply would have carried with it a host of problems, some of which can only be guessed at. Flour is much more perishable than grain, and it
761:
but like most ancient estimations, are likely exaggerations. Grain transport at sea presented special problems. The grain had to be thoroughly dried to retard germination, and reduce spoilage by pests such as grain weevils, beetles, mildew and molds. It was transported in sacks, from start to finish,
548:
The economies of some provinces were almost entirely dependent on grain exports, paying tribute or taxes in kind, rather than coin. Rome had a particular interest in the social and political stability of such provinces, and their protection. By the late 200s BC, grain was being shipped to the city of
434:
in 123 BC, in the face of extreme opposition from politically conservative landowners. Eventually, adult male Roman citizens (over approximately 14 years of age) with an income or property under a certain value were entitled to buy 33 kilograms (73 lb) grain per month at a below-market price of
1039:
are two notorious examples. Cicero gave free grain to the poor during a famine in
Sicilly, and was celebrated for it; he was not opposed to grain subsidies and grain donations to save lives or bring down prices during times of need, but he believed that regular free grain issues could only encourage
880:
By the 170's BC at the very latest, and probably for centuries before, professional bakeries were operating in the city of Rome. By 150 BC, bakers were organising themselves into trading associations and guilds. Both slave and free labour was employed to knead dough, supervise animal-driven kneading
657:
that connected Rome with its centers of grain supply had strategic importance. Whoever controlled the grain supply had a measure of control over the city of Rome, which depended on timely arrivals of imported grain, outsourced to civilian merchants and their fleets. In most years, Rome's state grain
418:
In lean years, subsistence farmers might have no option other than borrowing from their patrons or landlords. Some of them accumulated levels of debt that proved impossible to pay off and were forced to sell their farms or surrender their tenancies and either work for the new owner or move to a city
299:
emergency measures taken to import cheap grain from trading partners and allies at times of scarcity, to help feed growing numbers of indebted and dispossessed citizen-farmers. By the end of the
Republic, grain subsidies and doles had become permanent, uniquely Roman institutions. The grain dole was
690:
Casson estimates that the outward-bound freighters "raced down from Ostia or
Puteoli to Alexandria with the wind on their heels in ten days to two weeks" and the voyage back laden with grain "...took at least a month and on occasion two or more." Given the time needed for loading and unloading, the
620:
monthly allowance was "ample for two people but well below the minimum subsistence allowance for three". Those not qualifying for the dole, or those who had to supplement their dole to feed themselves and their families were forced to buy grain at inflated prices, find patronage, go into debt or go
419:
with their families and seek patronage there. According to Roman historical tradition, the Roman government intervened sporadically to obtain and distribute free or subsidized grain to Rome's more impoverished male citizens during shortages and famines. The terms of these early provisions are lost.
972:, the acquisition of grain in emergencies was a task of the consuls on behalf of the Senate, and was fulfilled on several occasions in time to avert grain famine. In an apocryphal episode of Livy's history of Rome, cheap corn was distributed in 439 BC by an ordinary but wealthy corn merchant named
868:
In the later centuries of the Roman
Republic, the majority of those receiving a grain dole had it ground and baked at one of Rome's many small flour mills-cum-bakeries or cookhouses. These were found in every district of the city; most Romans lived in apartment blocks where the fire-risk was high,
724:
Twenty-nine
Mediterranean ports, excluding those in Egypt, have been identified as possible grain exporters from North Africa to Rome. The largest was probably Carthage. Given the lack of navigable rivers in the region, grain had to be transported to these ports by road, suggesting that because of
408:
Roman staples were grains, especially wheat; olives and olive oil, grapes and wine; and cheese. In a good year, and with favourable weather, a grain harvest could yield around ten times what had been sown. Farms within Rome's vicinity were used to raise equally essential but more perishable crops.
1043:
The system was vulnerable at any point in the chain of supply, whether through mere gossip, or accurate, dishonest or ill-informed reports by competitors, merchants or agents. News of slave revolts in Sicily pushed the price of grain to unaffordable levels in Rome. Lowering grain prices became an
847:
The ships involved in the grain trade were privately owned. The Roman
Imperial government provided subsidies and tax exclusions to encourage shipbuilding for the grain trade and took the risk of shipping on itself by providing a form of insurance to ship owners who delivered grain all year round,
666:
The provision of grain to Rome was a major shipping and administrative task. It was "cheaper to ship grain from one end of the
Mediterranean to the other" than "to cart it by land some 75 miles ." Kesler and Temin calculate that Rome's grain supply in the early Empire required a total of 2,000 to
794:
was 55 metres (180 ft) in length and had a beam of more than a quarter of that. From the deck to the bottom of the cargo hold was 13 metres (43 ft). Casson accepts Lucan's measurements and calculates the ship's cargo capacity at 1200 to 1300 tonnes of grain. Rickman describes Lucian's
366:
Some form of Cura
Annonae may have persisted as late as the 6th century for Rome, but far less grain was shipped compared to earlier periods; in Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, it lasted as late as the 7th century, in reduced form. The population of the city of Rome declined
795:
figures as a possible exaggeration; Hopkins points out the financial losses represented by the foundering of such a ship in bad weather, heavy-laden with grain and too large to find safe mooring in most ports. The reported dimensions for grain ships are not verified by archaeological findings.
596:
was claiming that Africa fed Rome for eight months of the year and Egypt only four. Although that statement may ignore grain from Sicily, and overestimate the importance of Africa, there is little doubt among historians that Africa and Egypt were the most important sources of grain for Rome.
1040:
dependence and idleness at state expense. His "gift" actually reduced the number entitled to free grain. Clodius' grain law increased the number of beneficiaries to include every male citizen, approximately 320,000, regardless of status or wealth. This proved an unsustainable extravagance.
682:
in Egypt might be as brief as 14 days, with the wind behind. Like almost all non-military ships, large grain transports were propelled by sail, not oars. Returning to Rome would take much longer as the winds were adverse and ships had to tack a course, hugging coastlines when possible. "The
545:, senator and consul, seems to have been typical in using his most capable freedmen as agents, factors and merchants. In a fleet of 50 grain transports, he underwrote the purchase and cost of a single ship and its grain complement. Any profit, or loss, was shared by all fifty investors.
1006:, which proved an important source of influence and power in his dealings with Mediterranean pirates and his subsequent career; some modern scholarship suggests that Cicero's speeches to the Senate on Pompey's behalf considerably exaggerated the threat of piracy to Rome's grain supply.
1135:
The population of the city of Rome peaked at possibly more than 1,000,000 people from the late 1st century to the 3rd century AD. It declined to 700,000–800,000 by 400: and to 400,000-500,000 by 452. O'Donnell estimates the population at 100,000 in 500, declining still further in the
2078:, 12(1), pp.148-159. Most wood-fuel would have come from managed forest plantations; domestic uses for heating and cooking would have had to compete for fuel with the baths, which used huge quantities of wood for heated water and under-floor heating. Donations of wood-fuel were
735:, the grain was off-loaded from its transport ship and loaded onto barges which were hauled up the river by animal or man power to the city of Rome, approximately 30 kilometres (19 mi) upriver. On arrival in Rome, the grain was stored in large warehouses, called
841:(which is usually in early October) and the winds were adverse. Following the usual route along the south shore of Crete, Paul's ship was blown off course and wrecked on the island of Malta. He spent the winter on Malta, then proceeded onward to Puteoli and Rome.
826:, or after port improvements about 113 AD, at Ostia near Rome. From Puteoli the cargo of the large ships would be off-loaded onto smaller ships and taken to Ostia. Smaller ships coming from North Africa or Egypt could proceed directly to Ostia for unloading.
534:. The trading mechanisms employed were already in place during the Republican era, when agents, merchants and wealthy freedmen negotiated with members of Rome's senatorial and equestrian classes to fund grain imports, and find favour with the Roman masses.
1325:"Ninety per cent of all inscriptions that record this word actually refer to grain that was locally purchased and consumed in the cities of the Empire, and does not have anything to do with the grain dole of the capital." Vandevoorde, 2015, paragraph 59.
1140:. Twine (1992) estimates it at 30,000 in the 5th-6th century. A reduced population and smaller army could be supported, more or less, by local farms. The many watermills, storehouses, bakeries, and port and transportation facilities associated with the
836:
in 62 AD illustrates the dangers of the voyage from Egypt to Rome. Paul boarded a Rome-bound grain ship in Asia Minor. The ship was large, with 276 people aboard, counting both crew and passengers. The voyage was late in the sailing season, after the
1148:
wrote that the "vast numbers of the Roman people in old time are evidenced by the extensive Provinces from which their food supply was drawn...and the enormous multitude of mills, which could only have been made for use, not for ornament."
1024:. The senate and their supporters resisted reform with extreme violence, which included the murder of the Gracchi brothers and their supporters. At some point soon after, the Sempronian law was cancelled or replaced by a more conservative
662:
claims that Severus left "7 years worth of grain tribute" to the Roman people. The same strategy was used to very different effect by civilian corn-factors who hoarded grain to simulate shortages and raise grain prices on the open market.
976:. The Senate interpreted this as a bid for kingship, and put him to death for it. Livy describes the "extraordinary appointment of a grain commissioner" in 440 BC, whose duties were to secure grain from abroad, and whom he describes as a
517:
A regular grain supply for Rome depended on good harvests elsewhere, an efficient system of transport, storage and distribution, and honest investors willing to underwrite the risks in return for a share. The Prefect of the Imperial
1126:
remained a central feature of its unity and power: "the cessation of this state function in the fifth century was a major factor leading to economic fragmentation, as was the end of the grain requisition for the city of Rome".
701:
began in June and thus harvest had to be finished before the river's waters covered the land. The grain in Egypt was apparently acquired by Rome as a tax on farmers. The grain was moved mostly by barge on the various
1013:
politics of the late Republic. The consolidation of Roman agricultural lands in the hands of a wealthy few had pushed landless Romans into the city, where they found poverty rather than employment. The aristocratic
608:
by a total population estimated at 750,000 to 1,000,000. Mattingly and Aldrete estimate the imported grain at 237,000 tonnes for 1,000,000 inhabitants, providing 2,326 calories daily per person from grain alone.
470:, who disapproved of a permanent grain dole but took personal responsibility for the free supply, as did all emperors after him. The number of beneficiaries remained more or less stable until near the end of the
762:
not carried loose in the holds of ships. It had to be well secured, and dry; unstable cargoes could lead to capsizing in rough weather; wet grain rapidly germinated, expanded, and could split a ship open.
367:
precipitously during the last years of the Western Roman Empire. Thereafter, no city in Europe would assemble the transportation network required to feed 1,000,000 inhabitants until the 19th century.
541:
were free to openly carry on whatever respectable business they chose; senators, as major landowners, were supposely indifferent to personal profit or loss, but were the main source of investment.
1156:
took control of Rome's north African provinces for around a century, starting c. 439, thus sequestering the greater source of the Western Empire's grain supply. They were reconquered in 533–34 by
928:
to convert the distribution of grain to a distribution of flour. The Janiculum's watermills "were intended to centralize, regularize, and perhaps even deprivatize the city's milling operations."
1031:
In the last years of the Republic, political conservatives and demagogues alike sought popular support against their political opponents by negotiating well-publicised state donations of grain.
1018:
brothers opposed the dominance of the senatorial landed aristocracy in a series of confrontations, culminating in the temporarily successful passage of a radical program of land reform, the
658:
stores were severely depleted by the end of winter. There were obvious advantages in stockpiling several years worth of harvest to create very large grain surpluses and keep prices low; the
604:(272,000 tonnes) of grain per year to feed its population. Erdkamp estimates a minimum annual requirement of 150,000 tonnes, assuming an annual consumption of 200 kilograms (440 lb)
235:
753:
Hundreds or even thousands of ships were required to transport grain to Rome. Some had a capacity of 50,000 modii (350 tonnes) or more. Ships of much larger capacity are suggested in
691:
larger grain ships traversing the Egypt to Rome route likely only completed one round trip per year. Several round trips per year could be accomplished from North Africa or Sicily.
295:, a government program which gave out subsidized grain, then free grain, and later bread, to about 200,000 of Rome's adult male citizens. Rome's grain subsidies were originally
980:, but the title, function and office were only formalised much later, under Augustus. From the early 300's BC, executive responsibility for these duties passed to the
860:
1500:
Edwards, I.E.S., Crook, J.A., Gadd, C.J., Boardman, J., Hammond, N.G.L., Lewis, D.M., Walbank, F.W., Astin, A.E., Lintott, A., Crook, J.A. and Rawson, E. eds., 1970.
1459:
Byrnes IV, William H., "Ancient Roman Munificence: The Development of the Practice and Law of Charity", 57 Rutgers L. Rev. 1043 (2004) pp. 1061, 1062. Available at:
798:
Casson imaginatively reconstructed a typical grain-ship's voyage from Alexandria, Egypt to Rome. A grain ship leaving Alexandria, would first steer north east to
228:
810:, stopping as needed at one of several ports en route. From Crete the grain ship would strike out across the Mediterranean Sea westwards toward the island of
2025:, "...text of a lecture held for the Classical Association at Durham, UK, on Friday 5th May 2000...reworked for Descoeudres 2001, and published in French"
415:(publicly owned farmland), most was swallowed up by the wealthy and powerful, who found that grapes and wine were more profitable commodities than grain.
287:. The city of Rome imported all the grain consumed by its population, estimated to number 1,000,000 by the 2nd century AD. This included recipients of the
869:
and cooking fires were forbidden by their landlords. Only the better off could grind their grain and bake their bread at home. Small hand-operated mills (
2084:, gifts, duties or donations by wealthy Romans to poor citizens or the state. Distributions of bread at games, and the games themselves, were a form of
1180:
and his army withstood a siege of Rome by the Ostrogoths, who blocked the aqueduct that drove the city's watermills. Belisarius replaced the loss with
221:
1625:
Casson, Lionel. “The Grain Trade of the Hellenistic World.” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 85 (1954): p. 183
2203:. Roman public opinion and Pompey's supporters may have exaggerated the problem, public reaction to it, and the effectiveness of the solution.
1901:
1164:. The Western Cura Annonae may have lasted into the 6th century; there is no evidence for its official termination, or its continuation. The
431:
1433:
Erdkamp, Paul. "Feeding Rome? Or Feeding Mars? A Long-Term Approach To C. Gracchus’ 'Lex Frumentaria.'" Ancient Society 30 (2000): 53–70.
714:
bordering the southern part of the city of Alexandria. There it was inspected for quality and, when accepted, transported by canal to the
1404:
Casson, Lionel. “The Role of the State in Rome’s Grain Trade.” Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, vol. 36, 1980, pp. 21–33. JSTOR,
2232:
J. G. Schovánek. “The Provisions of the ‘Lex Octavia Frumentaria.’” Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte 26, no. 3 (1977): 378–81.
308:
publicly acknowledged the Cura Annonae as a personal and imperial duty, which if neglected would cause "the utter ruin of the state".
1637:
Casson, Lionel. “The Role of the State in Rome’s Grain Trade.” Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, vol. 36, 1980, p. 21. JSTOR,
1200:
437:
1226:) was forced to end subsidies of imported Egyptian grain after the capture of Alexandria, Egypt's major port, by "King of kings" (
311:
During the Imperial Era, a regular and predictable supply of subsidised grain, the grain dole, and sumptuous public games such as
2403:
1369:
1334:
Claudius had personal experience of mob reactions to grain shortages, having been subjected to personal abuse during a bread riot
497:. From the late second century, under the rule of the Severan dynasty, food provision for Rome's military came under the rubric
2564:
2463:
2200:
2063:
1838:
1731:
1476:
530:, purpose-built by Claudius and enlarged by Trajan, and almost certainly the same facilities in the ports of supply, such as
1058:(60-140 AD) refers to Rome's Imperial provision of subsidised entertainments and subsidised or free bread to the masses as
885:
were first utilized in the 1st century BC. Their development required a large investment in infrastructure, especially of
2524:
1312:(known in the UK as "Indian corn" or sweetcorn) was not known in Europe at the time; the grain dole chiefly consisted of
621:
without. Augustus doubled the allowance for some of those already entitled, but this seems to have been an exceptional,
441:. The qualifying income threshold is not known, but according to Caesar's municipal legislation of 44 BC, landlords of
117:
1927:
600:
Bread was by far the most important single commodity in the Roman diet. Rickman estimates that Rome needed 40 million
2534:
2323:
2275:
1884:
Stone, David L. (Oct 2014), "Africa in the Roman Empire: Connectivity, the Economy, and Artificial Port Structures,"
2593:
1491:, 1989. "Rome in the fifth century I: the social and economic framework". Volume 7, part 2, pp. 118–122, 135, 136.
994:, and the grain dole for the city of Rome was distributed from the aedile's headquarters at or near the Temple of
2588:
1104:
537:
The risks were high but so were the rewards. As a slightly lesser but highly capable form of Roman nobility, the
2327:
376:
304:
and later emperors as a free monthly issue to those who qualified to receive it. In 22 AD, Augustus' successor
152:
2450:, New Approaches to Byzantine History and Culture, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 181–201,
1726:, In: The Feeding of Imperial Rome, Editors John Coulston and Hazel Dodge, 2000, reprinted 2011, pp. 142-165,
667:
3,000 merchant voyages annually, with each vessel carrying an average of 70,000 kg, sometimes much more.
2583:
1539:
Kessler, David and Temin, Peter (May 2007), "The Organization of the Grain Trade in the Early Roman Empire,"
1527:
1212:
961:
2112:
Taylor, Rabun (2010), "Bread and Water; Septimus Severus and the Rise of the curator Aquarum et Miniciae,"
51:
565:, giving each about 25 hectares (62 acres) to grow grain. Carthage thus became a major contributor to the
1275:
1081:
were respected professionals, involved in grain production, transportation and distribution. The Emperor
1045:
384:
1997:
2608:
2303:, Anthropologie et Histoire des Mondes Antiques - UMR 8210, 7 | 2015, Marchands romains au long cours
2299:
Vandevoorde, Lindsey, "Of Mice and Men. Financial and Occupational Differentiation among *Augustales",
1009:
Issues of land ownership, land distribution, debt, and the grain supply were essential elements in the
17:
1115:, possibly in order to increase its scope - he is known to have been a zealous, benevolent reformist.
1280:
645:
2263:
1208:
550:
352:
132:
1898:
1609:
Kessler, David, and Peter Temin. “The Organization of the Grain Trade in the Early Roman Empire.”
953:
573:
380:
184:
2387:
2286:
Hayne, Léonie. “THE FIRST CERIALIA.” L’Antiquité Cģlassique, vol. 60, 1991, pp. 131-140. JSTOR,
612:
The recipients of the grain dole were a small, low status but privileged group of citizens, the
319:
earned the obedience of potentially restive lower-class urban citizens, providing what the poet
2598:
2304:
2026:
1561:
Erdkamp, Paul, "The Corn Supply of the Roman Armies during the Principate (27 BC-235 AD)". In:
1270:
944:
822:. After passing through the Straits, large grain ships would dock at the port of Puteoli, near
584:
was about four days. From Carthage sailing time was about nine days. With the incorporation of
87:
633:
275:("care of Annona") was the import and distribution of grain to the residents of the cities of
2080:
1020:
490:
477:
In the 3rd century AD, the dole of grain was replaced by bread, probably during the reign of
147:
1831:
The ancient mariners : seafarers and sea fighters of the Mediterranean in ancient times
2603:
1161:
758:
698:
572:
In the first century BC, the three major sources of Roman wheat were Sardinia, Sicily, and
471:
360:
2096:
2043:
1786:
8:
1256:
1169:
47:
2505:
2469:
2074:
Graham, B. and Van Dam, R., 2016. "Modelling the Supply of Wood Fuel in Ancient Rome".
1386:
1204:
1063:
819:
715:
697:
The harvest season for grain in ancient Egypt was from April to early June. The annual
462:
gave an estimated 320,000 citizens free issue of grain. This was reduced to 150,000 by
324:
162:
157:
625:
solution. The precise details of how grain was marketed in Rome are a "major puzzle".
2560:
2530:
2473:
2459:
2319:
2271:
2196:
2059:
1998:"The Roman Empire and the Grain Fleets: Contracting out Public Services in Antiquity"
1834:
1727:
1472:
925:
592:(27 BC – AD 14), Egypt became Rome's main source of grain. By the 70s, the historian
478:
452:
442:
209:
142:
1099:
to administer it, a post much sought by members of the senatorial elite prior their
389:
2451:
1378:
1301:
988:
838:
833:
815:
284:
256:
92:
1471:
Cornell, Tim (1995). The beginnings of Rome. Oxford: Routledge. pp. 265-268, 283.
1460:
248:
2554:
1905:
1196:
1192:
1160:'s forces, but their grain exports were probably diverted for the benefit of the
995:
973:
901:
886:
467:
260:
107:
2455:
969:
921:
917:
638:
558:
542:
509:
427:
398:
316:
280:
259:, personification of the grain supply, standing before enthroned grain goddess
199:
168:
55:
2556:
Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis
2526:
Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis
2443:
2577:
1983:
Hirschfeld, Nicolle (1990), "The Ship of Saint Paul: Historical Background,"
904:
mill complex. Their capacity was sufficient to feed the whole nearby city of
780:, c. 150 AD, describes a very large grain ship taking shelter in the port of
765:
711:
684:
683:
voyage...from Alexandria to Rome was a continuous fight against foul winds."
654:
463:
411:
268:
174:
127:
1591:
Rickman, Geoffrey, "Rome, Ostia and Portus : the problem of storage",
1566:
455:, patron goddess of the plebs, were made responsible for its distribution.
2212:
1305:
1100:
916:, inaugurated in 109, brought water some 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the
913:
874:
703:
671:
581:
523:
402:
1418:
1313:
1145:
1137:
1122:
became more complex over time. The role of the state in distributing the
870:
790:
585:
332:
328:
194:
67:
1957:
Rickman, Geoffrey (2008), "Ports, Ships, and Power in the Roman World,"
561:
settled 6,000 colonists to exploit the fertile lands of newly conquered
445:
helped compile lists of persons who might qualify to receive grain; two
2509:
2287:
1704:
Rickman (1980), p. 264. A modii of grain weighs six to seven kilograms.
1614:
1434:
1390:
1233:
1228:
1177:
803:
707:
679:
531:
2493:
2233:
1817:
Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association,
1172:
visited Rome in 500 and promised food to its inhabitants. In 537, the
932:
would therefore have required more frequent distribution. The Emperor
806:(21st century Turkey) westwards, and proceed along the south shore of
1760:
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1216:
1181:
1173:
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102:
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Trade and Taboo: Disreputable Professions in the Roman Mediterranean
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72:
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1264:
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Constantinople's grain supply was greatly reduced by the loss of
1153:
1055:
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1015:
781:
737:
731:
On arrival in the port of Ostia, Rome's port at the mouth of the
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region, centered on the ancient city of Carthage, in present-day
538:
459:
447:
356:
348:
344:
340:
320:
112:
1367:
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1052:
an unusual three times, before his murder by political enemies.
687:
estimated that average time for the voyage was nearly 70 days.
1959:
Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Supplementary Volumes,
1092:
1032:
999:
981:
823:
799:
785:
777:
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122:
97:
82:
77:
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1671:
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1185:
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1077:
to serve the cult of the deceased and deified Augustus; many
905:
811:
807:
732:
718:, the Great Harbor, where it was loaded onto ships for Rome.
458:
Initially, about 40,000 adult males were eligible. In 58 BC,
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The Avar Siege of Constantinople in 626: History and Legend
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877:
and Rome are assumed to be typical of the Empire at large.
494:
409:
Although farmland taken from conquered enemies was legally
276:
252:
27:
Import and distribution of grain in Rome and Constantinople
2045:
Published online: 22 November 2016, accessed 25 March 2023
637:
A model of a small Roman grain ship. Large ones had three
2003:
1788:
Published online: 07 March 2016, accessed 9 February 2023
1763:
1672:"The Stanford Geospatial Network Mode of the Roman world"
1419:"Urbanism and the division of labour in the Roman Empire"
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into the Roman Empire and the direct rule of the Emperor
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2129:, Duckworth Archaeology, 2002, pp. 255 – 6, and note 43.
1517:
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013, pp. 262-264
255:
coin; the reverse shows the earliest known depiction of
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The city of Rome grew rapidly in the centuries of the
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1598:
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1815:Casson, Lionel (1950), "The Isis and her Voyage,"
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2442:Hurbanič, Martin (2019), Hurbanič, Martin (ed.),
1724:Ancient Rome, The Archaeology of the Ancient City
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2575:
2195:, Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp.149-179.
1722:Mattingly, David, and Gregory Aldrete, Gregory,
1582:, Vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 298-299, and note 3, p. 298
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2058:, University of Michigan Press, 2016, p. 154,
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2388:"The City in Decline: Rome in Late Antiquity"
393:A bread stall, from a Pompeiian wall painting
283:. The term was used in honour of the goddess
263:, whose temple was the site of the grain-dole
229:
2340:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2316:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
2301:Histoire et anthropologie des mondes anciens
1528:"Grain Distribution in Late Republican Rome"
1044:important agenda for the radical popularist
485:to residents of Rome, and later the Emperor
370:
2116:Vol 55, pp. 199-200. Downloaded from JSTOR.
1504:(Vol. 9) p.546, Cambridge University Press.
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481:(193–211 AD). Severus also began providing
363:lost the greater part of its grain supply.
1819:Vol. 81, pp. 50-51. downloaded from JSTOR.
1530:, pp. 146-151, accessed 17 September 2018.
1130:
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1417:Hanson J.W., Ortman S.G., Lobo J. (2017)
939:
2441:
2114:Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome,
1996:Charles, Michael and Ryan, Neal (2009),
1515:The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome,
1424:
1085:introduced a food-and-upkeep allowance (
943:
891:
859:
764:
644:
632:
508:
388:
247:
2552:
2522:
1657:
1655:
1370:Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome
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381:Roman Republic § Trade and economy
14:
2576:
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1347:as Postumius Varus, possibly in error.
489:(270–275) ordered the distribution of
1664:
1593:Mélanges de l'école française de Rome
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855:
649:Alexandria, Egypt and its port, 30 BC
2288:http://www.jstor.org/stable/41655332
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2410:, 11.39.1. Accessed 5 February 2023
2234:http://www.jstor.org/stable/4435569
1963:The Maritime World of Ancient Rome,
1300:The term "corn" is used in its non-
1294:
1111:may have been ended by the Emperor
898:sixteen overshot wheels at Barbegal
24:
2430:History of the Later Roman Empire,
522:had an office and grain stores in
25:
2620:
2254:Garnsey, 1989, pp. 198, 2010-2012
1864:The Archaeology of the Colonized,
1201:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628
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802:, then follow the south coast of
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2394:Vol. 25, accessed 2 October 2018
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2193:Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World
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2127:Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply
1781:Erdkamp, Paul, "annona (grain)"
1267: – Concept in civil systems
1249:
1095:may have introduced the post of
670:Sailing times from the ports of
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2015:
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1920:
1911:
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1886:American Journal of Archaeology
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1406:https://doi.org/10.2307/4238693
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1328:
1221:
1107:, was city prefect in 271. The
1105:Titus Flavius Postumius Quietus
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2149:Aurelian and the Third Century
1888:, Vol. 118, No. 4, pp. 565-593
1595:Année 2002 114-1 pp. 353-362
1563:The Roman Army and the Economy
1465:
1453:
1440:
1411:
1398:
1360:
1343:Southern names the last known
1319:
1203:, and then permanently to the
952:are now part of the church of
377:Demography of the Roman Empire
153:Assassination of Julius Caesar
13:
1:
2494:"In Defense of the Corn-Dole"
2162:The Ruin of the Roman Empire,
1751:Rickman, pp. 262-263, 268-270
1502:The Cambridge ancient history
1354:
1304:, referring to wheat, or any
1283: – Social-welfare system
335:, North Africa (21st century
2217:Remembering the Roman People
2160:O'Donnell, James J. (2009),
1930:, accessed 22 September 2018
1928:"Trade in the Ancient World"
1908:, accessed 28 September 2018
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557:. In the second century BC,
466:and increased to 200,000 by
323:sarcastically summed up as "
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2428:Bury, John Bagnell (1923).
2023:The mills-bakeries of Ostia
1948:Casson, (1950), pp. 43, 51.
1939:Rickman (1980), pp. 261-263
1866:New York: Routledge, p. 101
1783:Oxford Classical Dictionary
1772:Rickman (1980), pp. 262-264
1613:60, no. 2 (2007): 313–315
1611:The Economic History Review
1541:The Economic History Review
1276:Agriculture in ancient Rome
1242:
1195:, first temporarily to the
900:are considered the biggest
628:
549:Rome from the provinces of
385:Agriculture in ancient Rome
279:and, after its foundation,
10:
2625:
2546:
2492:Marsh, Frank Burr (1926).
2377:Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 320-321
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2245:Garnsey, 1989, pp. 209-211
1985:The Biblical Archaeologist
1917:Erdkamp, 2013, pp. 274-275
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1580:Journal of Late Antiquity
1489:Cambridge Ancient History
1281:Guaranteed minimum income
1002:was granted an emergency
788:. Lucian writes that the
504:
371:History of the grain dole
2444:"The Avars at the Gates"
2290:. Accessed 26 Jun. 2022.
2264:Spaeth, Barbette Stanley
2076:Late Antique Archaeology
2029:downloaded 25 March 2023
1615:Accessed 6 February 2023
1437:. Accessed 10 March 2023
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1209:Muslim conquest of Egypt
998:. In the late republic,
748:
722:Grain from North Africa.
422:A version of an earlier
2594:Economy of ancient Rome
2268:The Roman goddess Ceres
2147:Watson, Alaric (2004),
1862:Given, Michael (2004),
1829:Casson, Lionel (1991).
1742:Garnsey, pp. 5, 213-214
1526:Cristofori, Alessandro
1131:End of the Cura Annonae
954:Santa Maria in Cosmedin
513:Roman trade routes, 180
300:reluctantly adopted by
2589:Agricultural economics
2406:, citing Cassiodorus,
1987:, Vol 53, No. 1, p. 25
1875:Rickman (1980), p. 264
1806:Rickman (1980), p. 266
1797:Rickman (1980), p. 262
1271:History of agriculture
1184:, set up on the River
965:
940:Politics and officials
909:
865:
852:into the grain trade.
814:, the objective being
774:
650:
642:
514:
432:Roman popular assembly
430:, and approved by the
394:
264:
2498:The Classical Journal
2386:Twine, Kevin (1992),
2173:Erdkamp, 2013, p. 276
2164:New York: Ecco, p. 49
1853:Erdkamp, 2013, p. 271
1713:Erdkamp, 2013, p. 263
1661:Erdkamp, 2013, p. 270
1118:The operation of the
1021:Lex Agraria Sempronia
947:
895:
863:
769:An idealized plan of
768:
741:, until needed. Most
648:
636:
512:
392:
251:
2584:Ancient city of Rome
2553:Garnsey, P. (1989).
2419:O'Donnell, pp. 56-57
2138:Taylor, pp. 204, 209
2101:Ancient Encyclopedia
1162:Eastern Roman Empire
832:. The experience of
759:Acts of the Apostles
472:Western Roman Empire
361:Western Roman Empire
1649:Cristofori, p. 143.
1345:curator alimentorum
1257:Ancient Rome portal
1170:Theodoric the Great
1097:curator alimentorum
960:was found near the
948:The columns of the
729:From Ostia to Rome.
42:Part of a series on
2512:– via JSTOR.
2125:Hodge, A. Trevor,
2038:Benton, Jared T.,
2021:Bakker, Jan Theo,
1904:2021-03-05 at the
1205:Rashidun Caliphate
1064:bread and circuses
1060:panem et circenses
978:praefectus annonae
966:
920:from springs near
910:
883:Water-driven mills
866:
856:Milling and baking
830:The voyage of Paul
820:Straits of Messina
775:
716:port of Alexandria
651:
643:
515:
395:
325:bread and circuses
265:
163:Battle of Philippi
158:Second Triumvirate
148:Caesar's Civil War
2609:Roman agriculture
2566:978-0-521-37585-6
2465:978-3-030-16684-7
2364:O'Donnell, p. 48.
2201:978-0-521-01240-9
2064:978-0-472-12225-7
1974:Casson, pp. 47-50
1840:978-0-691-01477-7
1732:978-0-947816-55-1
1477:978-0-415-01596-7
926:Septimius Severus
695:Grain from Egypt.
678:(near Naples) to
660:Historia Augusta,
614:plebs frumentaria
574:the north African
499:Annonae militaris
479:Septimius Severus
246:
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210:Theatre of Pompey
143:First Triumvirate
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372:
369:
317:chariot racing
281:Constantinople
244:
243:
241:
240:
233:
226:
218:
215:
214:
213:
212:
207:
202:
200:Curia Hostilia
197:
192:
187:
178:
177:
172:
169:Bellum Siculum
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
136:
135:
133:Marcus Agrippa
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
59:
58:
44:
43:
39:
38:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2621:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2599:Food politics
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2568:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2538:
2536:9780521375856
2532:
2528:
2527:
2519:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2461:
2457:
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2438:
2431:
2425:
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2409:
2405:
2400:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2376:
2370:
2361:
2354:
2348:
2341:
2335:
2329:
2325:
2324:9781134553808
2321:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2302:
2296:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2276:0-292-77693-4
2273:
2269:
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2235:
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2222:
2218:
2214:
2209:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2179:
2170:
2163:
2157:
2150:
2144:
2135:
2128:
2122:
2115:
2109:
2102:
2098:
2097:"Roman Mills"
2093:
2087:
2083:
2082:
2077:
2071:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2054:Bond, Sarah,
2051:
2044:
2041:
2040:baking, Roman
2035:
2028:
2024:
2018:
2009:
2007:
1999:
1993:
1986:
1980:
1971:
1964:
1960:
1954:
1945:
1936:
1929:
1923:
1914:
1907:
1903:
1900:
1894:
1887:
1881:
1872:
1865:
1859:
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1263:
1262:
1258:
1247:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1230:
1218:
1214:
1213:of the Levant
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
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1076:
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1034:
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1023:
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1017:
1012:
1007:
1005:
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997:
993:
991:
985:
983:
979:
975:
971:
968:In the early
963:
959:
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951:
946:
937:
935:
929:
927:
923:
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903:
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767:
763:
760:
756:
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739:
734:
730:
726:
723:
719:
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713:
712:Lake Mareotis
709:
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685:Lionel Casson
681:
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464:Julius Caesar
461:
456:
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412:ager publicus
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318:
315:contests and
314:
309:
307:
303:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
269:Imperial Rome
262:
258:
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250:
239:
234:
232:
227:
225:
220:
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208:
206:
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183:
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176:
175:War of Actium
173:
171:
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166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
140:
139:
134:
131:
129:
128:Sextus Pompey
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
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71:
69:
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65:
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61:
60:
57:
53:
49:
46:
45:
41:
40:
32:
31:
19:
2555:
2525:
2518:
2504:(1): 10–25.
2501:
2497:
2487:
2477:, retrieved
2447:
2437:
2429:
2424:
2415:
2407:
2399:
2391:
2382:
2374:
2369:
2360:
2352:
2347:
2339:
2334:
2315:
2310:
2300:
2295:
2282:
2267:
2259:
2250:
2241:
2228:
2220:
2216:
2213:T.P. Wiseman
2208:
2192:
2187:
2178:
2169:
2161:
2156:
2148:
2143:
2134:
2126:
2121:
2113:
2108:
2100:
2092:
2085:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2055:
2050:
2039:
2034:
2027:30 July 2020
2022:
2017:
1992:
1984:
1979:
1970:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1944:
1935:
1922:
1913:
1893:
1885:
1880:
1871:
1863:
1858:
1849:
1830:
1824:
1816:
1811:
1802:
1793:
1782:
1777:
1756:
1747:
1738:
1723:
1718:
1709:
1700:
1691:
1679:. Retrieved
1675:
1666:
1645:
1633:
1621:
1610:
1592:
1587:
1579:
1574:
1562:
1557:
1548:
1540:
1535:
1522:
1514:
1509:
1501:
1496:
1488:
1483:
1467:
1455:
1447:
1442:
1413:
1400:
1374:
1368:
1362:
1344:
1339:
1330:
1321:
1308:in general.
1306:cereal grain
1296:
1238:
1227:
1190:
1151:
1141:
1134:
1123:
1119:
1117:
1108:
1096:
1086:
1078:
1074:
1069:The Emperor
1068:
1059:
1054:
1042:
1030:
1025:
1019:
1008:
1004:Cura Annonae
1003:
989:
986:
977:
967:
962:Crypta Balbi
957:
949:
930:
914:Aqua Traiana
911:
879:
875:Ostia Antica
867:
849:
845:Ship owners.
844:
843:
829:
828:
797:
789:
776:
752:
742:
736:
728:
727:
721:
720:
694:
693:
689:
669:
665:
659:
652:
622:
617:
613:
611:
605:
601:
599:
582:Ostia Antica
571:
566:
547:
536:
519:
516:
498:
476:
457:
446:
436:
423:
421:
417:
410:
407:
396:
365:
310:
296:
292:
288:
273:Cura Annonae
272:
266:
179:
167:
137:
62:
48:Ancient Rome
2604:Grain trade
1314:durum wheat
1199:during the
1166:Ostrogothic
1146:Cassiodorus
1138:Middle Ages
1026:Lex Octavia
424:Lex Licinia
355:. When the
333:Roman Egypt
329:durum wheat
195:Curia Julia
2578:Categories
2479:2020-10-20
2355:, 1993:84.
2328:1134553803
1965:, pp. 8, 9
1355:References
1302:U.S. sense
1234:Khosrow II
1229:shahanshah
1182:ship mills
1178:Belisarius
1101:consulship
1079:Augustales
1075:Augustalis
1046:Saturninus
1011:popularist
804:Asia Minor
708:Nile River
699:Nile flood
680:Alexandria
616:. Their 5
606:per capita
532:Alexandria
375:See also:
289:grain dole
18:Grain dole
2474:199934427
2351:Cameron,
1785:, online
1217:Heraclius
1211:and much
1174:Byzantine
1158:Justinian
887:aqueducts
483:olive oil
313:gladiator
293:corn dole
185:Caesareum
103:Cleopatra
1902:Archived
1243:See also
1236:in 621.
1176:General
1113:Aurelian
1109:alimenta
1088:Alimenta
1071:Tiberius
934:Aurelian
818:and the
757:and the
629:Shipping
594:Josephus
590:Augustus
563:Carthage
555:Sardinia
487:Aurelian
306:Tiberius
302:Augustus
253:Neronian
190:Comitium
73:Augustus
56:Republic
50:and the
2547:Sources
2510:3289030
1961:Vol. 6
1681:28 June
1391:4238709
1377:: 263.
1265:Aliment
1207:in the
1154:Vandals
1056:Juvenal
1037:Clodius
1016:Gracchi
982:aediles
902:ancient
782:Piraeus
706:of the
676:Puteoli
578:Tunisia
460:Clodius
357:Vandals
351:), and
349:Morocco
345:Algeria
341:Tunisia
331:, were
321:Juvenal
180:Places
138:Events
118:Lepidus
113:Crassus
88:Cassius
63:People
54:of the
2563:
2533:
2508:
2472:
2462:
2408:Variae
2322:
2274:
2221:passim
2199:
2086:munera
2081:munera
2062:
1837:
1730:
1475:
1389:
1142:annona
1124:annona
1093:Trajan
1033:Cicero
1000:Pompey
990:annona
958:statio
871:querns
824:Naples
800:Cyprus
786:Greece
778:Lucian
771:Portus
755:Lucian
743:horrea
738:horrea
623:ad hoc
567:annona
551:Sicily
528:Portus
520:annona
505:Supply
403:Empire
383:, and
353:Sicily
347:, and
297:ad hoc
285:Annona
257:Annona
205:Rostra
123:Pompey
98:Cicero
83:Caesar
78:Brutus
68:Antony
2506:JSTOR
2470:S2CID
1676:Orbis
1387:JSTOR
1310:Maize
1288:Notes
1193:Egypt
1186:Tiber
1168:king
1083:Nerva
996:Ceres
906:Arles
812:Malta
808:Crete
749:Ships
733:Tiber
672:Ostia
639:masts
618:modii
602:modii
586:Egypt
524:Ostia
453:Ceres
438:modii
435:five
337:Libya
261:Ceres
2561:ISBN
2531:ISBN
2460:ISBN
2320:ISBN
2272:ISBN
2197:ISBN
2060:ISBN
1835:ISBN
1728:ISBN
1683:2022
1473:ISBN
1152:The
1035:and
987:The
912:The
896:The
850:modi
791:Isis
653:The
553:and
495:pork
493:and
491:wine
401:and
277:Rome
93:Cato
52:fall
2452:doi
1379:doi
984:.
710:to
569:.
291:or
267:In
2580::
2502:22
2500:.
2496:.
2468:,
2458:,
2446:,
2390:,
2326:,
2266:,
2215:,
2099:,
2005:^
1765:^
1674:.
1654:^
1600:^
1426:^
1385:.
1375:36
1373:.
1232:)
1222:r.
1188:.
1028:.
889:.
784:,
526:,
379:,
343:,
339:,
271:,
2569:.
2454::
2236:.
2223:.
1843:.
1685:.
1393:.
1381::
1316:.
1219:(
1062:(
964:.
908:.
641:.
237:e
230:t
223:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.