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produce just as much lift as the much larger wing on a transport aircraft, though it can do this only when close to the earth's surface. Once sufficient speed has built up, some GEVs may be capable of leaving ground effect and functioning as normal aircraft until they approach their destination. The distinguishing characteristic is that they are unable to land or take off without a significant amount of help from the ground effect cushion, and cannot climb until they have reached a much higher speed.
876:
584:
381:
153:
32:
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called
Flightship. Powered by a V8 Chevrolet automobile engine rated at 337 kW, the prototype made its first flight in February 2001 in the Netherlands. The company no longer exists but the prototype craft was bought by Wigetworks, a company based in Singapore and renamed as AirFish 8. In 2010, that vehicle was registered as a ship in the Singapore Registry of Ships.
548:, which was a translation into English of a summary of French research on the subject. The French author Maurice Le Sueur had added a suggestion based on this phenomenon: "Here the imagination of inventors is offered a vast field. The ground interference reduces the power required for level flight in large proportions, so here is a means of rapid and at the same time
821:
446:
high-speed craft into conflict with ships, buildings and rising land, which may not be sufficiently visible in poor conditions to avoid. GEVs may be unable to climb over or turn sharply enough to avoid collisions, while drastic, low-level maneuvers risk contact with solid or water hazards beneath. Aircraft can climb over most obstacles, but GEVs are more limited.
363:-style type-2 with a mid-size horizontal wing near the nose of the craft directing airflow under the main lift airfoil. This type-2 tandem design is a major improvement during takeoff, as it creates an air cushion to lift the craft above the water at a lower speed, thereby reducing water drag, which is the biggest obstacle to successful seaplane launches.
672:
by U.S. intelligence experts, after a huge, unknown craft was spotted on satellite reconnaissance photos of the
Caspian Sea area in the 1960s. With its short wings, it looked airplane-like in planform, but would probably be incapable of flight. Although it was designed to travel a maximum of 3 m
323:
for his ekranoplan. The wings are significantly shorter than those of comparable aircraft, and this configuration requires a high aft-placed horizontal tail to maintain stability. The pitch and altitude stability comes from the lift slope difference between a front low wing in ground-effect (commonly
445:
Since most GEVs are designed to operate from water, accidents and engine failure typically are less hazardous than in a land-based aircraft, but the lack of altitude control leaves the pilot with fewer options for avoiding collision, and to some extent that negates such benefits. Low altitude brings
461:
The bottom of the vehicle must be formed to avoid excessive pressures on landing and taking off without sacrificing too much lateral stability, and it must not create too much spray, which damages the airframe and the engines. The
Russian ekranoplans show evidence of fixes for these problems in the
897:
The consultancy of Günther Jörg, a specialist and insider of German airplane industry from 1963 and a colleague of
Alexander Lippisch and Hanno Fischer, was founded with a fundamental knowledge of wing in ground effect physics, as well as results of fundamental tests under different conditions and
457:
before they can accelerate to flight speed. Careful design, usually with multiple redesigns of hullforms, is required to get this right, which increases engineering costs. This obstacle is more difficult for GEVs with short production runs to overcome. For the vehicle to work, its hull needs to be
449:
In high winds, take-off must be into the wind, which takes the craft across successive lines of waves, causing heavy pounding, stressing the craft and creating an uncomfortable ride. In light winds, waves may be in any direction, which can make control difficult as each wave causes the vehicle to
855:
Hanno
Fischer took over the works from RFB and created his own company, Fischer Flugmechanik, which eventually completed two models. The Airfisch 3 carried two persons, and the FS-8 carried six persons. The FS-8 was to be developed by Fischer Flugmechanik for a Singapore-Australian joint venture
232:
Placing the same wing near a surface such as the water or the ground has the same effect as increasing the aspect ratio because the ground prevents wingtip vortices from expanding, but without having the complications associated with a long and slender wing, so that the short stubs on a GEV can
889:
German engineer Günther Jörg, who had worked on
Alexeyev's first designs and was familiar with the challenges of GEV design, developed a GEV with two wings in a tandem arrangement, the Jörg-II. It was the third, manned, tandem-airfoil boat, named "Skimmerfoil", which was developed during his
552:
locomotion: Design an airplane which is always within the ground-interference zone. At first glance this apparatus is dangerous because the ground is uneven and the altitude called skimming permits no freedom of maneuver. But on large-sized aircraft, over water, the question may be
1018:
two-seat GEVs in
September 2010. This GEV carries one machine gun and surveillance gear, and incorporates features to reduce its radar signature. In October 2014, satellite images showed the GEV in a shipyard in southern Iran. The GEV has two engines and no armament.
1080:
project, with the goal of creating a low-cost seaplane that would use the ground-effect to extend its range. The program aims to carry 90 tons over 6,500 nautical miles (12,000 km), operate at sea without ground-based maintenance, all using low-cost materials.
512:
At the time of writing, those classes only applied to craft carrying 12 passengers or more, and (as of 2019) there was disagreement between national regulatory agencies about whether these vehicles should be classified, and regulated, as aircraft or as boats.
970:
Besides the development of appropriate design and structural configuration, automatic control and navigation systems have been developed. These include altimeters with high accuracy for low altitude flight and lesser dependence on weather conditions. "Phase
1084:
In May 2024, Ocean Glider announced a deal with UK-based investor MONTE to finance $ 145m of a $ 700m deal to begin operating 25 REGENT seagliders between destinations in New
Zealand. The order includes 15 12-seater Viceroys and 10 100-seater Monarchs.
220:
passing through air increases air pressure on the underside, while decreasing pressure across the top. The high and low pressures are maintained until they flow off the ends of the wings, where they form vortices which in turn are the major cause of
840:, a revolutionary design with reversed delta wing and T-tail. This design proved to be stable and efficient in ground effect, and even though it was successfully tested, Collins decided to stop the project and sold the patents to the German company
252:, have used forced blowing under the wing by auxiliary engines to increase the high pressure area under the wing to assist the takeoff; however they differ from hovercraft in still requiring forward motion to generate sufficient lift to fly.
450:
both pitch and roll. The lighter construction of GEVs makes their ability to operate in higher sea states less than that of conventional ships, but greater than the ability of hovercraft or hydrofoils, which are closer to the water surface.
225:—normally a significant portion of the drag affecting an aircraft. The greater the span of a wing, the less induced drag created for each unit of lift and the greater the efficiency of the particular wing. This is the primary reason
441:
On the water the aircraft-like construction of GEVs increases the risk of damage in collisions with surface objects. Furthermore, the limited number of egress points make it more difficult to evacuate the vehicle in an emergency.
492:
and the like. The
Russian Rules for classification and construction of small type A ekranoplans is a document upon which most GEV design is based. However, in 2005, the IMO classified the WISE or GEV under the category of ships.
437:
of a GEV, as compared to an aircraft of similar capacity, will improve its fuel efficiency and, up to a point, its speed. GEVs are also much faster than surface vessels of similar power, because they avoid drag from the water.
130:
that is able to move over the surface by gaining support from the reactions of the air against the surface of the earth or water. Typically, it is designed to glide over a level surface (usually over the sea) by making use of
2134:
1050:, a distance of 87 km taking only half an hour, using a Russian-built ekranoplan. The company ordered 15 ekranoplans with maximum speed of 185 km/h and capacity of 12 passengers, built by Russian RDC Aqualines.
1005:
Universal
Hovercraft developed a flying hovercraft, first flying a prototype in 1996. Since 1999, the company has offered plans, parts, kits and manufactured ground effect hovercraft called the Hoverwing.
2588:(Technical report). RTO technical report. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Research and Technology Organization (RTO), Applied Vehicle Technology (AVT) Panel, Task Group AVT-081. December 2006.
2240:
967:. In these countries and regions, small craft with up to ten seats have been built. Other larger designs such as ferries and heavy transports have been proposed but have not been carried to completion.
803:
for non-military use have been under development. The CHDB had already developed the eight-seat Volga-2 in 1985, and Technologies and Transport is developing a smaller version called the Amphistar.
1026:
for entry into class. On 31 March 2011, AirFish 8-001 became one of the first GEVs to be flagged with the Singapore Registry of Ships, one of the largest ship registries. Wigetworks partnered with
1958:
2858:
575:. Alexeyev worked from his background as a ship designer whereas Lippisch worked as an aeronautical engineer. The influence of Alexeyev and Lippisch remains noticeable in most GEVs seen today.
504:
A craft which is certified to temporarily increase its altitude to a limited height outside the influence of ground effect but not exceeding 150 m (490 ft) above the surface; and
469:
Finally, limited utility has kept production levels low enough that it has been impossible to amortize development costs sufficiently to make GEVs competitive with conventional aircraft.
244:, although this is not correct as a hovercraft is statically supported upon a cushion of pressurized air from an onboard downward-directed fan. Some GEV designs, such as the Russian
274:
The Boston-based (United States) company REGENT proposed an electric-powered high-wing design with a standard hull for water operations, but also incorporated fore- and aft-mounted
2019:
890:
consultancy period in South Africa. It was a simple and low-cost design of a first 4-seater tandem-airfoil flairboat completely constructed of aluminium. The prototype was in the
2144:
2050:
894:
Museum from 4 July 2007 until 2013, and is now in private use. Pictures of the museum show the boat after some years outside the museum and without protection against the sun.
472:
A 2014 study by students at NASA's Ames Research Center claims that use of GEVs for passenger travel could lead to cheaper flights, increased accessibility and less pollution.
2112:
997:
911:
TAF VIII-1: 2-seater tandem-airfoil flairboat built of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) and aluminium. A small serie of 6 Flairboats had been produced by former Botec Company
1424:
2851:
2192:
135:, the aerodynamic interaction between the moving wing and the surface below. Some models can operate over any flat area such as frozen lakes or flat plains similar to a
2650:
2625:
2583:
2316:
673:(10 ft) above the sea, it was found to be most efficient at 20 m (66 ft), reaching a top speed of 300–400 knots (560–740 km/h) in research flights.
1315:
540:
phenomenon was well-known, as pilots found that their airplanes appeared to become more efficient as they neared the runway surface during landing. In 1934 the US
898:
designs having begun in 1960. For over 30 years, Jörg built and tested 15 different tandem-airfoil flairboats in different sizes and made of different materials.
205:
A ground-effect vehicle needs some forward velocity to produce lift dynamically, and the principal benefit of operating a wing in ground effect is to reduce its
2844:
1576:
53:
2615:
1688:
1894:
484:
has studied the application of rules based on the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft (HSC code) which was developed for fast ships such as
1950:
1935:
1871:
1841:
271:, it does not have any contact with the surface of the water when in "flight". The ground-effect vehicle constitutes a unique class of transportation.
1763:
651:
in English). The military potential for such a craft was soon recognized, and Alexeyev received support and financial resources from Soviet leader
1187:
366:
Two stubby wings as in the tandem-airfoil flairboat produced by Günther Jörg in Germany. His particular design is self-stabilizing longitudinally.
2680:
1658:
2721:
1819:
2289:
1286:
1489:
1402:
901:
The following tandem-airfoil flairboat (TAF) types had been built after a previous period of nearly 10 years of research and development:
541:
2011:
40:
2704:
1094:
2761:
2042:
2102:
209:. The basic design principle is that the closer the wing operates to an external surface such as the ground, when it is said to be
3029:
For full-size aircraft with powered rotors the rotor is normally tilted to achieve thrust (e.g. in a helicopter). Some toys (e.g.
1980:
1529:
2219:
398:
170:
891:
2555:
2527:
2508:
2489:
2470:
2430:
1463:
453:
Like conventional aircraft, greater power is needed for takeoff, and, like seaplanes, ground-effect vehicles must get on the
1057:
announced that they were looking into using REGENT (Regional Electric Ground Effect Naval Transport) ground effect craft "
2359:
481:
595:
507:
A craft which is certified for operation outside ground effect and exceeding 150 m (490 ft) above the surface.
259:
and share many technical characteristics, it is generally not designed to fly out of ground effect. It differs from the
1696:
681:
1367:
698:. These craft were originally developed as high-speed military transports and were usually based on the shores of the
2411:
1560:
420:
192:
1584:
807:
proposed a large craft of the type, the Be-2500, as a "flying ship" cargo carrier, but nothing came of the project.
336:, this wing allows stable flight in ground-effect through self-stabilization. This is the main Class B form of GEV.
3101:
3057:
2137:[Estonian company has a wild vision: Helsinki-Tallinn distance in half an hour with a surface connector?].
1039:
In Korea, Wing Ship Technology Corporation developed and tested a 50-seat passenger GEV named the WSH-500. in 2013
1027:
927:
Bigger concepts are: 25-seater, 32-seater, 60-seater, 80-seater and bigger up to the size of a passenger airplane.
714:, but this figure was later reduced to fewer than 30 vessels, with planned deployment mainly in the Black Sea and
521:
324:
the main wing) and an aft, higher-located second wing nearly out of ground-effect (generally named a stabilizer).
3116:
3021:
aircraft functions as an aeroplane during normal (horizontal) flight and as a helicopter during low-speed flight.
935:
Since the 1980s GEVs have been primarily smaller craft designed for the recreational and civilian ferry markets.
788:
619:) was the center of ground-effect craft development in the USSR. The vehicle came to be known as an ekranoplan (
2565:
Sharan, Sukrit (March 2007). "Complex Algorithms of Parameters Measuring Systems for Motion Close to the Sea".
1902:
1119:
880:
402:
174:
2335:
1925:
1863:
1833:
3096:
2777:
2107:
1104:
860:
132:
914:
TAF VIII-2: 4-seater tandem-airfoil Flairboat built of full aluminium (2 units) and built of GRP (3 units)
905:
TAB VII-3: First manned tandem W.I.G type Jörg, being built at Technical University of Darmstadt, Akaflieg
278:
units designed to lift the craft out of the water during takeoff run, to facilitate lower liftoff speeds.
1752:
1340:
2663:
1636:
3111:
2681:"Sea Eagle Wing In Ground Effect Craft Provide 80 Knots Alternatives To Marine Transportation Industry"
1198:
852:. These craft could be flown out of ground effect so that, for example, peninsulas could be overflown.
761:
263:
in lacking low-speed hover capability in much the same way that a fixed-wing airplane differs from the
2688:
2193:"Southern Airways Express Purchases 20 REGENT Seagliders for their U.S. East Coast Ops in $ 250M Deal"
1666:
2729:
2609:
991:
556:
By the 1960s, the technology started maturing, in large part due to the independent contributions of
458:
stable enough longitudinally to be controllable yet not so stable that it cannot lift off the water.
210:
2263:
3061:
1366:
Byun, Leo; Donohue, Kiley; Mayo, Michael; McCafferty, Julian & Miller, Ruth (August 21, 2014).
1066:
749:, was laid down as a rescue vessel, but was never finished. The two major problems that the Soviet
2836:
2789:
2080:
2574:
Sharan, Sukrit (April 2007). "Quality Measurement Criteria for Flight Close to the Sea Surface".
2444:
1524:
391:
163:
45:
2897:
2801:
2073:"Wing Ship Technology develops and manufactures world's first middle class commercial WIG Craft"
1497:
1042:
Estonian transport company Sea Wolf Express planned to launch passenger service in 2019 between
1069:
also placed firm orders for seagliders with intent to operate them along Florida's east coast.
841:
754:
3049:
2922:
1720:"Comparative Analysis of Design Variants For Low Altitude Flight Parameters Measuring System"
588:
2423:
The Arms Production Dilemma: Contraction and Restraint in the World Combat Aircraft Industry
2135:"Virolaisyrityksellä hurja visio: Helsinki–Tallinna-väli puolessa tunnissa pintaliitäjällä?"
3106:
2166:
1256:
730:
526:
466:
on the forward part of the hull undersides and in the forward location of the jet engines.
360:
2749:
2712:
2635:(Technical report). North Atlantic Treaty Organization. December 29, 2006. RTO-TR-AVT-081.
8:
2769:
1425:"Exclusive: UK at odds with EU and US over classification of wing-in-ground effect craft"
1129:
1124:
1109:
1023:
920:
TAF VIII-4: 12-seater tandem-airfoil Flairboat built of aluminium combined with GRP parts
668:
659:
480:
One obstacle to GEV development is the classification and legislation to be applied. The
463:
1260:
923:
TAF VIII-3B: 6-seater tandem-airfoil flairboat under carbon fibre composite construction
917:
TAF VIII-3: 8-seater tandem-airfoil Flairboat built of aluminium combined with GRP parts
3033:) do have a powered rotor with no means to tilt the rotor to produce horizontal thrust.
3030:
1813:
1792:
1394:
608:
568:
557:
333:
320:
20:
1988:
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1519:
833:
652:
434:
226:
222:
206:
2949:
2589:
1930:
1731:
1341:"Could the Airfish-8 finally get the Wing In Ground Effect Vehicle up and running?"
1268:
1264:
1054:
796:
636:
620:
612:
433:
Given similar hull size and power, and depending on its specific design, the lower
119:
2825:
1455:
75:
2317:"Kiwi startup Ocean Flyer signs $ 145m deal to operate seagliders in New Zealand"
1099:
1062:
980:
976:
972:
684:
3073:
2440:
1392:
1077:
1058:
600:
454:
2601:
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658:
Some manned and unmanned prototypes were built, ranging up to eight tonnes in
3090:
2378:
1718:
Nebylov, Alexander; Rumyantseva, Elizaveta & Sukrit, Sharan (June 2007).
1663:
Technical development of ground-effect vehicles, University of Duisburg-Essen
1316:"DARPA's revolutionary seaplane wants to change how the Pentagon hauls cargo"
944:
837:
829:
692:
572:
80:
2593:
2264:"DARPA Liberty Lifter aims to bring back heavy-lift ground effect seaplanes"
352:-style type-1 utilising a shoulder-mounted main lift wing and belly-mounted
2936:
2876:
2458:
2290:"DARPA Awards Contracts for Long-Range 'Liberty Lifter' Flying Boat Design"
561:
2813:
2406:. Thorpe Bay, Southend-on-Sea, Essex, UK: Amateur Yacht Research Society.
875:
2981:
726:
699:
1787:
1247:
Rozhdestvensky, Kirill V. (May 2006). "Wing-in-ground effect vehicles".
908:
TAF VII-5: Second manned tandem-airfoil Flairboat, 2 seater made of wood
760:
Minister Ustinov died in 1984, and the new Minister of Defence, Marshal
583:
496:
The International Maritime Organization recognizes three types of GEVs:
3045:
2996:
2959:
2932:
2103:"Estonian company hopes to launch Tallinn-Helsinki GEV service in 2019"
1114:
1033:
715:
405: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
264:
260:
237:
177: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
136:
2167:"Cross-Channel 'flying ferries' concept revealed for Portsmouth route"
1951:"Speech at the christening of the Wing-In-Ground craft, AirFish 8-001"
1368:"Ground Effect Vehicle Transoceanic Civil and Cargo Transport Network"
3053:
3018:
2397:. Toulouse, France: EAGES 2001 International Ground Effect Symposium.
2294:
1287:"Here's a Closer Look at the Soviet Navy's 1987 Lun-Class Ekranoplan"
948:
849:
845:
703:
489:
485:
275:
268:
380:
152:
3014:
2992:
2987:
2977:
2892:
2868:
2866:
2480:
Hirschel, Ernst Heinrich; Prem, Horst & Madelung, Gero (2003).
1043:
781:
745:
256:
241:
2578:. St. Petersburg, Russia: University of Aerospace Instrumentation.
844:(RFB), which further developed the inverse delta concept into the
2972:
1393:
Sub-Committee on Ship Design and Equipment (DE) (November 2001).
1047:
1015:
936:
565:
353:
349:
217:
127:
31:
3069:
2872:
1981:"Engineering students to help in developing future WIG vessels"
964:
940:
804:
501:
A craft which is certified for operation only in ground effect;
2241:"Cargo Hauling Ekranoplan X-Plane is being Developed by DARPA"
1606:
1226:
1153:
Cl/da, with Cl = lift coefficient, and a = angle of incidence.
306:
2482:
Aeronautical Research in Germany: From Lilienthal Until Today
1788:
1628:
1073:
987:
960:
956:
952:
870:
828:
In Germany, Lippisch was asked to build a very fast boat for
947:
have provided most of the activity with some development in
764:, cancelled funding for the program. Only three operational
739:
was built as an anti-ship missile launch platform. A second
666:
of 92 m (302 ft) length. The craft was dubbed the
286:
2954:
2550:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K.
2484:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K.
2139:
2072:
1030:'s Engineering Department to develop higher capacity GEVs.
236:
A GEV is sometimes characterized as a transition between a
1800:. Wingship Investigation. Vol. 3. Arlington, Virginia
2737:
2548:
Aerodynamics of a Lifting System in Extreme Ground Effect
1435:
1365:
863:
is supporting an ongoing research project to develop the
2520:
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms
2360:"Numerical Investigation of Airfoil in Ground Proximity"
1985:
Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore
1717:
820:
1186:
Hirdaris, Spyros & Guerrier, Mark (November 2009).
975:" have become the choice for such applications beating
879:
A tandem flarecraft Skimmerfoil Jörg IV located at the
2043:"MAKS: Can Russia's 'Caspian Sea Monster' rise again?"
1470:
662:. This led to the development of a 550-tonne military
19:"Ekranoplan" redirects here. For the music album, see
16:
Special vehicle to fly in air just above sea or ground
2012:"DUBAI: Burt Rutan reveals secret ekranoplan project"
1022:
In Singapore, Wigetworks obtained certification from
546:
Ground Effect on the Takeoff and Landing of Airplanes
356:
similar to those on combat and transport helicopters.
2479:
2627:
An Overview of WIG Vehicles for Military Operations
2585:
An overview of WIG vehicles for military operations
2624:
815:
2614:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
1074:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
1036:in 2011 and Korolev in 2015 showed GEV projects.
3088:
2539:Ekranoplanes: Controlled Flight Close to the Sea
2498:
2392:
1555:. London, UK: Jane's Yearbooks. pp. 70–71.
1188:"Technology Developments in Ground Effect Craft"
1185:
370:
2816:[SVP with AR project A18 ("Tungus")].
2705:"Project 903 Lun Missile Launcher Ekranoplane"
2545:
1246:
611:, the Soviet Central Hydrofoil Design Bureau (
2852:
2569:. St. Petersburg, Russia: CSRI-ELEKTROPRIBOR.
2143:(in Finnish). January 4, 2018. Archived from
986:With Russian consultation, the United States
2522:. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. 2002.
2393:Aubin, S.Y.; de Monchaux, John (June 2001).
795:have been produced by the Volga Shipyard in
344:Tandem wings can have three configurations:
2664:"The Pelican: A Big Bird for the Long Haul"
2463:The Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft
1689:"TAF Skimmerfoil arrives in Port Elizabeth"
885:(It has since been removed from the museum)
542:National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
2859:
2845:
2499:Komissarov, Sergey; Gordon, Yefim (2010).
2357:
1818:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
871:Günther Jörg-type tandem-airfoil flairboat
729:from 1979 to 1992. In 1987, the 400-tonne
3052:with novel thrust / lift solutions (e.g.
2336:"Entrepreneur's vision for future travel"
2243:. Thomas Newdick, The Drive, May 19, 2022
2217:
2159:
1735:
1095:Aerodynamically alleviated marine vehicle
988:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
421:Learn how and when to remove this message
255:Although the GEV may look similar to the
193:Learn how and when to remove this message
2439:
2420:
2401:
1895:"Iran unveils squadrons of flying boats"
1789:Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
1476:
1466:from the original on September 30, 2008.
1441:
1284:
1221:
1219:
1181:
1179:
996:
874:
819:
594:
582:
520:
305:
285:
74:
56:of all important aspects of the article.
3048:are not included in the table, nor are
2750:"Ekranoplanes: Soaring above the waves"
2536:
2457:
2287:
2009:
1961:from the original on September 23, 2016
1923:
1769:from the original on September 29, 2013
1553:Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1978–79
1285:McFadden, Christopher (April 4, 2017).
1162:Not a stabilizer because destabilizing.
3089:
2573:
2564:
2010:Trimble, Stephen (November 14, 2011).
1955:Harbor and Port Authority of Singapore
1926:"Iran is developing a new flying boat"
1892:
1550:
1388:
1386:
1384:
824:The Rhein-Flugzeugbau X-114 in flight.
680:program continued with the support of
310:A Russian light ekranoplan Aquaglide-2
281:
52:Please consider expanding the lead to
2840:
2722:"Between Wind and Waves: Ekranoplans"
2719:
2633:Science & Technology Organization
2503:. Hersham, UK: Ian Allan Publishing.
2261:
2115:from the original on January 20, 2018
1948:
1762:. No. 11 March 1992. p. 5.
1659:"The Ground Effect Craft 'Hoverwing'"
1639:from the original on February 3, 2011
1532:from the original on December 3, 2007
1405:from the original on January 16, 2014
1216:
1176:
327:
2661:
2040:
1868:Universal Hovercraft of America, Inc
1838:Universal Hovercraft of America, Inc
1313:
1309:
1307:
1280:
1278:
757:and a need for reliable navigation.
403:adding citations to reliable sources
374:
175:adding citations to reliable sources
146:
25:
2678:
2333:
1893:Lendon, Brad (September 28, 2010).
1844:from the original on April 15, 2011
1607:"WigetWorks/AirFish/Wing-in-Ground"
1453:
1399:International Maritime Organization
1381:
772:(with revised hull design) and one
482:International Maritime Organization
13:
2576:Seminar on Aeronautics & Space
2567:IX Conference for Young Scientists
2546:Rozhdestvensky, Kirill V. (2002).
2083:from the original on July 19, 2013
2053:from the original on April 7, 2018
2022:from the original on April 7, 2018
1938:from the original on July 7, 2015.
1750:
1494:Joint Stock Company Volga Shipyard
687:. It produced the most successful
14:
3128:
2814:"СВП с АР проекта А18 («Тунгус»)"
2643:
2395:Easy Ways to Study Ground Effects
2367:Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
2288:Lagrone, Sam (February 1, 2023).
1874:from the original on June 2, 2011
1454:May, James (September 27, 2008).
1304:
1275:
1014:Iran deployed three squadrons of
836:. In 1963 Lippisch developed the
544:issued Technical Memorandum 771,
475:
3068:) or balloon-wing hybrids (e.g.
2802:"Ground Effect and WIG Vehicles"
2778:"Wing in the Ground Effect Ship"
2742:Airfoil Tandem W.I.G. Consulting
2662:Cole, William (September 2002).
2077:Wing Ship Technology Corporation
1949:Young, Lam Yi (April 25, 2010).
1737:10.3182/20070625-5-FR-2916.00113
1456:"Riding the Caspian Sea Monster"
1227:"Coastal Travel - 100% Electric"
1028:National University of Singapore
883:, Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
379:
314:
213:, the less drag it experiences.
151:
30:
2826:"Flying hovercraft project Wig"
2720:Edgar, Julian (March 5, 2002).
2596:(inactive September 26, 2024).
2350:
2327:
2309:
2281:
2255:
2233:
2218:Sissi Cao (December 16, 2021).
2211:
2185:
2127:
2095:
2065:
2041:Drew, James (August 28, 2015).
2034:
2003:
1973:
1942:
1924:Biggers, Chris (July 6, 2015).
1917:
1886:
1856:
1826:
1781:
1744:
1711:
1681:
1665:. March 1, 2000. Archived from
1651:
1621:
1599:
1569:
1544:
1512:
1482:
1447:
1417:
816:Lippisch Type and Hanno Fischer
789:dissolution of the Soviet Union
578:
390:needs additional citations for
339:
162:needs additional citations for
44:may be too short to adequately
2679:Teo, Francis (July 18, 2006).
2501:Soviet and Russian Ekranoplans
2323:– via www.newshub.co.nz.
1753:"USA joins Russia on Wingship"
1695:. July 5, 2007. Archived from
1693:South African Air Force Museum
1359:
1333:
1269:10.1016/j.paerosci.2006.10.001
1249:Progress in Aerospace Sciences
1240:
1156:
1147:
1120:List of ground-effect vehicles
780:remained at a naval base near
706:. The Soviet Navy ordered 120
54:provide an accessible overview
1:
2790:"The Lun, sitting in drydock"
2541:. Southampton, UK: WIT Press.
2425:. Boston, MA: The MIT Press.
2340:Otago Daily Times Online News
1520:"Be-2500 amphibious aircraft"
1314:Katz, Justin (May 27, 2022).
290:WIG-wings configurations: (A)
1395:"Wing-in-Ground (WIG) craft"
1169:
1135:
1105:Ground effect (aerodynamics)
930:
861:University of Duisburg-Essen
591:, developed during the 1970s
371:Advantages and disadvantages
124:экранопла́н – "screenglider"
7:
2946:Tethered (static or towed)
2358:Abramowski, Tomasz (2007).
2334:Rae, Sally (May 26, 2024).
2262:Blain, Loz (May 24, 2022).
1629:"Introducing the AirFish 8"
1551:Taylor, John W. R. (1978).
1088:
10:
3133:
2904:Lift: Lighter than air gas
2421:Forsberg, Randall (1995).
1633:Wigetworks Private Limited
1291:interestingengineering.com
810:
516:
18:
3007:
2896:
2888:
2883:
2229:– via The Observer.
992:Aerocon Dash 1.6 wingship
640:
624:
616:
142:
123:
2402:Fishwick, Simon (2001).
1140:
1072:Around mid-2022, the US
1067:Southern Airways Express
1009:
3102:Aircraft configurations
2738:"Das Albatross-Prinzip"
2594:10.14339/RTO-TR-AVT-081
1525:Beriev Aircraft Company
1375:NASA Aeronautic Academy
298:Reverse-delta wing; (C)
3117:Ground effect vehicles
3042:Ground-effect vehicles
2918:Unpowered free flight
2537:Nebylov, A.V. (2002).
2465:. Oxford, UK: Osprey.
2443:(September 16, 2011).
2388:on September 22, 2010.
2373:(2). Warsaw: 425–436.
2220:"Is It a Flying Boat?"
1987:. 2009. Archived from
1791:(September 30, 1994).
1583:. 2008. Archived from
1496:. 2011. Archived from
1002:
886:
825:
755:longitudinal stability
691:so far, the 125-tonne
604:
592:
533:
525:Artist's concept of a
311:
303:
83:
3050:experimental aircraft
2910:Lift: Unpowered rotor
2772:on November 25, 2009.
2732:on November 10, 2005.
2197:Aerospace Tech Review
1699:on September 29, 2013
1000:
981:ultrasonic altimeters
878:
823:
598:
589:Bartini Beriev VVA-14
586:
524:
309:
289:
96:wing-in-ground-effect
88:ground-effect vehicle
78:
2964:(None – see note 2)
2941:(None – see note 2)
2913:Lift: Powered rotor
2715:on December 7, 2015.
2445:"Faster than a Boat"
1760:Flight International
1195:2nd Annual Ship Tech
990:(DARPA) studied the
553:attempted ..."
399:improve this article
319:Used by the Russian
171:improve this article
3097:Amphibious vehicles
2782:Sungwoo Engineering
2691:on January 10, 2009
2199:. December 31, 2021
2147:on February 5, 2018
2111:. January 5, 2018.
1500:on February 6, 2012
1347:. September 4, 2018
1261:2006PrAeS..42..211R
1130:Caspian Sea Monster
1125:Surface effect ship
1110:Ground-effect train
892:SAAF Port Elizabeth
682:Minister of Defence
669:Caspian Sea Monster
282:Wing configurations
207:lift-dependent drag
104:ground-effect craft
3031:balloon helicopter
1905:on October 1, 2010
1794:Technology Roadmap
1669:on October 9, 2007
1431:. August 29, 2019.
1003:
887:
826:
605:
593:
569:Alexander Lippisch
558:Rostislav Alexeyev
536:By the 1920s, the
534:
334:Alexander Lippisch
328:Reverse-delta wing
321:Rostislav Alexeyev
312:
304:
84:
21:Ekranoplan (album)
3112:Soviet inventions
3084:
3083:
3066:flettner airplane
3002:
3001:
2796:. March 10, 2010.
2557:978-3-540-66277-8
2529:978-0-07-042313-8
2510:978-1-85780-332-7
2491:978-3-540-40645-7
2472:978-1-84176-096-4
2432:978-0-262-56085-6
1864:"19XRW Hoverwing"
1834:"18SPW Hoverwing"
1444:, pp. 80–83.
848:and the six-seat
842:Rhein Flugzeugbau
834:Arthur A. Collins
653:Nikita Khrushchev
571:, working in the
530:-class ekranoplan
462:form of multiple
435:lift-induced drag
431:
430:
423:
229:have long wings.
223:lift-induced drag
203:
202:
195:
94:), also called a
71:
70:
3124:
3077:
3034:
3022:
2950:Tethered balloon
2907:Lift: Fixed wing
2886:
2885:
2861:
2854:
2847:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2821:
2809:
2806:Aerospaceweb.org
2797:
2785:
2773:
2768:. Archived from
2757:
2745:
2733:
2728:. Archived from
2716:
2711:. Archived from
2700:
2698:
2696:
2687:. Archived from
2685:SeaDiscovery.com
2675:
2668:Boeing Frontiers
2658:
2651:"Alekseyev A-90"
2636:
2630:
2622:Lay summary in:
2619:
2613:
2610:cite tech report
2605:
2579:
2570:
2561:
2542:
2533:
2514:
2495:
2476:
2454:
2436:
2417:
2404:Low Flying Boats
2398:
2389:
2387:
2381:. Archived from
2364:
2344:
2343:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1991:on July 16, 2011
1977:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1931:Business Insider
1921:
1915:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1901:. Archived from
1890:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1817:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1799:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1768:
1757:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1724:IFAC Proceedings
1715:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1587:on July 18, 2011
1573:
1567:
1566:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1490:"Volga Shipyard"
1486:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1451:
1445:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1390:
1379:
1378:
1372:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1337:
1331:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1320:Breaking Defense
1311:
1302:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1282:
1273:
1272:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1223:
1214:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1204:on March 7, 2010
1203:
1197:. Archived from
1192:
1183:
1163:
1160:
1154:
1151:
1055:Brittany Ferries
1024:Lloyd's Register
973:radio altimeters
797:Nizhniy Novgorod
753:faced were poor
725:served with the
642:
626:
618:
603:concept aircraft
426:
419:
415:
412:
406:
383:
375:
301:
297:
293:
211:in ground effect
198:
191:
187:
184:
178:
155:
147:
125:
66:
63:
57:
34:
26:
3132:
3131:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3087:
3086:
3085:
3080:
3058:Flying Bedstead
3040:
3028:
3012:
3003:
2879:
2865:
2824:
2812:
2800:
2788:
2776:
2766:Moscow Top News
2760:
2748:
2736:
2703:
2694:
2692:
2649:
2646:
2641:
2623:
2607:
2606:
2582:
2558:
2530:
2518:
2511:
2492:
2473:
2441:Garrison, Peter
2433:
2414:
2385:
2362:
2353:
2348:
2347:
2332:
2328:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2300:
2298:
2286:
2282:
2272:
2270:
2260:
2256:
2246:
2244:
2239:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2222:
2216:
2212:
2202:
2200:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2176:
2174:
2173:. June 15, 2021
2165:
2164:
2160:
2150:
2148:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2118:
2116:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2086:
2084:
2071:
2070:
2066:
2056:
2054:
2039:
2035:
2025:
2023:
2008:
2004:
1994:
1992:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1964:
1962:
1947:
1943:
1922:
1918:
1908:
1906:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1875:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1845:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1811:
1810:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1786:
1782:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1755:
1749:
1745:
1716:
1712:
1702:
1700:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1672:
1670:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1640:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1612:
1610:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1590:
1588:
1575:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1549:
1545:
1535:
1533:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1503:
1501:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1477:Garrison (2011)
1475:
1471:
1452:
1448:
1442:Garrison (2011)
1440:
1436:
1429:Revolution.aero
1423:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1406:
1391:
1382:
1370:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1348:
1339:
1338:
1334:
1324:
1322:
1312:
1305:
1295:
1293:
1283:
1276:
1245:
1241:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1217:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1190:
1184:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1100:Flying Platform
1091:
1063:English Channel
1012:
979:, isotropic or
977:laser altimeter
933:
884:
873:
818:
813:
685:Dmitriy Ustinov
581:
519:
510:
478:
427:
416:
410:
407:
396:
384:
373:
342:
330:
317:
299:
295:
294:Ekranoplan; (B)
291:
284:
199:
188:
182:
179:
168:
156:
145:
67:
61:
58:
51:
39:This article's
35:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3130:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3078:
3074:hybrid airship
3036:
3035:
3024:
3023:
3008:
3005:
3004:
3000:
2999:
2990:
2985:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2965:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2943:
2942:
2939:
2930:
2925:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2911:
2908:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2884:
2881:
2880:
2871:by methods of
2864:
2863:
2856:
2849:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2830:MAD Hovercraft
2822:
2810:
2798:
2786:
2774:
2758:
2746:
2734:
2717:
2701:
2676:
2659:
2645:
2644:External links
2642:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2580:
2571:
2562:
2556:
2543:
2534:
2528:
2516:
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2064:
2033:
2002:
1972:
1941:
1916:
1885:
1855:
1825:
1780:
1751:Gaines, Mike.
1743:
1730:(7): 663–668.
1710:
1680:
1650:
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1543:
1511:
1481:
1469:
1446:
1434:
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1358:
1332:
1303:
1274:
1255:(3): 211–283.
1239:
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1097:
1090:
1087:
1078:Liberty Lifter
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1008:
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924:
921:
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872:
869:
817:
814:
812:
809:
601:Beriev Be-2500
580:
577:
518:
515:
509:
508:
505:
502:
498:
488:, hovercraft,
477:
476:Classification
474:
429:
428:
387:
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378:
372:
369:
368:
367:
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357:
341:
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329:
326:
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313:
283:
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201:
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159:
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144:
141:
69:
68:
48:the key points
38:
36:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3129:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
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2842:
2839:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2820:(in Russian).
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
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2690:
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2682:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2656:
2655:Airliners.net
2652:
2648:
2647:
2634:
2629:
2628:
2621:
2620:
2617:
2611:
2604:. TR-AVT-081.
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2553:
2549:
2544:
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2531:
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2521:
2517:
2512:
2506:
2502:
2497:
2493:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2474:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2459:Gunston, Bill
2456:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2413:0-85133-126-2
2409:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2391:
2384:
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2376:
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2368:
2361:
2356:
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2337:
2330:
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2194:
2188:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2146:
2142:
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2781:
2770:the original
2765:
2762:"Ekranoplan"
2753:
2744:(in German).
2741:
2730:the original
2725:
2713:the original
2708:
2695:December 12,
2693:. Retrieved
2689:the original
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2299:. Retrieved
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1995:December 30,
1993:. Retrieved
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1965:December 30,
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1591:December 30,
1589:. Retrieved
1585:the original
1581:The WIG page
1580:
1571:
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1536:November 20,
1534:. Retrieved
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1504:December 30,
1502:. Retrieved
1498:the original
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1208:December 30,
1206:. Retrieved
1199:the original
1194:
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660:displacement
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643:, literally
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628:
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579:Soviet Union
562:Soviet Union
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460:
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444:
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417:
411:January 2024
408:
397:Please help
392:verification
389:
343:
340:Tandem wings
331:
318:
302:Tandem wing.
273:
254:
249:
245:
235:
231:
215:
204:
189:
180:
169:Please help
164:verification
161:
115:
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91:
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59:
43:
41:lead section
3107:Ekranoplans
2982:ornithopter
2754:Airforce.ru
2301:January 25,
2225:January 13,
1909:October 11,
1613:January 13,
1409:January 16,
1351:January 26,
1325:January 26,
1296:January 26,
1232:January 13,
1001:A Hoverwing
881:SAAF Museum
801:ekranoplans
793:ekranoplans
770:ekranoplans
751:ekranoplans
727:Soviet Navy
712:ekranoplans
700:Caspian Sea
676:The Soviet
625:экранопла́н
79:Ekranoplan
62:August 2021
3091:Categories
3046:hovercraft
2997:helicopter
2960:Rotor kite
2935:, etc. in
2933:Helicopter
2602:1085143242
1804:August 31,
1773:August 31,
1673:October 1,
1643:August 22,
1115:Hovercraft
1065:services.
1059:seagliders
1034:Burt Rutan
799:. Smaller
787:Since the
778:ekranoplan
743:, renamed
736:ekranoplan
716:Baltic Sea
689:ekranoplan
678:ekranoplan
664:ekranoplan
490:catamarans
486:hydrofoils
265:helicopter
261:hovercraft
238:hovercraft
183:March 2018
137:hovercraft
116:ekranoplan
112:flarecraft
3054:coleopter
3019:tiltrotor
2867:Types of
2726:AutoSpeed
2379:1429-2955
2295:USNI News
2268:New Atlas
1878:March 14,
1848:March 14,
1814:cite book
1345:New Atlas
1170:Citations
1136:Footnotes
949:Australia
931:1980–1999
865:Hoverwing
723:Orlyonoks
704:Black Sea
532:in flight
276:hydrofoil
269:hydrofoil
46:summarize
3039:Note 3:
3027:Note 2:
3015:tiltwing
3011:Note 1:
2993:Gyrodyne
2988:Autogyro
2978:Airplane
2969:Powered
2898:Aerodyne
2893:Aerostat
2869:aircraft
2794:Jalopnik
2461:(2000).
2177:June 15,
2171:BBC News
2151:April 6,
2119:April 6,
2113:Archived
2087:July 19,
2081:Archived
2057:April 6,
2051:Archived
2026:April 6,
2020:Archived
1959:Archived
1936:Archived
1872:Archived
1842:Archived
1764:Archived
1637:Archived
1530:Archived
1464:Archived
1460:BBC News
1403:Archived
1089:See also
1053:In 2021
1044:Helsinki
943:and the
830:American
782:Kaspiysk
766:Orlyonok
746:Spasatel
718:fleets.
708:Orlyonok
695:Orlyonok
627:, экран
609:Alexeyev
550:economic
354:sponsons
257:seaplane
242:aircraft
126:), is a
108:wingship
3062:Avrocar
2973:Airship
2923:balloon
2921:(Free)
2889:
2818:Aerohod
2709:FAS.org
2321:Newshub
2273:May 24,
2247:May 19,
1257:Bibcode
1048:Tallinn
1016:Bavar 2
937:Germany
811:Germany
776:-class
768:-class
762:Sokolov
734:-class
710:-class
637:Russian
635:, from
631:+ план
621:Russian
617:ЦКБ СПК
613:Russian
607:Led by
560:in the
517:History
350:biplane
240:and an
227:gliders
218:airfoil
128:vehicle
120:Russian
3070:kytoon
2984:, etc.
2928:Glider
2873:thrust
2600:
2554:
2526:
2507:
2488:
2469:
2450:Flying
2429:
2410:
2377:
1609:. 2020
1577:"FS-8"
1559:
965:Taiwan
941:Russia
805:Beriev
721:A few
629:screen
566:German
464:chines
361:canard
300:
296:
292:
143:Design
2386:(PDF)
2363:(PDF)
1798:(PDF)
1767:(PDF)
1756:(PDF)
1371:(PDF)
1202:(PDF)
1191:(PDF)
1141:Notes
1010:2000-
961:Korea
957:Japan
953:China
850:X-114
846:X-113
838:X-112
693:A-90
647:, or
633:plane
250:Dingo
3072:and
3064:and
3044:and
2955:Kite
2877:lift
2875:and
2697:2007
2674:(5).
2616:link
2598:OCLC
2552:ISBN
2524:ISBN
2505:ISBN
2486:ISBN
2467:ISBN
2427:ISBN
2408:ISBN
2375:ISSN
2303:2024
2275:2022
2249:2022
2227:2022
2205:2021
2179:2021
2153:2018
2140:MTV3
2121:2018
2089:2013
2059:2018
2028:2018
1997:2011
1967:2011
1911:2010
1880:2011
1850:2011
1820:link
1806:2018
1775:2018
1705:2013
1675:2007
1645:2011
1615:2022
1593:2011
1557:ISBN
1538:2013
1506:2011
1411:2014
1353:2024
1327:2024
1298:2024
1234:2022
1210:2011
1046:and
963:and
859:The
702:and
587:The
564:and
455:step
248:and
3017:or
2590:doi
2108:ERR
1899:CNN
1732:doi
1265:doi
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401:by
246:Lun
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