Group selection - Knowledge

401:. Any altruistic act has to preserve similar genes. One argument given by Hamilton is that many individuals operate in "viscous" conditions, so that they live in physical proximity to relatives. Under these conditions, they can act altruistically to any other individual, and it is likely that the other individual will be related. This population structure builds a continuum between individual selection, kin selection, kin group selection and group selection without a clear boundary for each level. However, early theoretical models by D.S. Wilson et al. and Taylor showed that pure population viscosity cannot lead to cooperation and altruism. This is because any benefit generated by kin cooperation is exactly cancelled out by kin competition; additional offspring from cooperation are eliminated by local competition. Mitteldorf and D. S. Wilson later showed that if the population is allowed to fluctuate, then local populations can temporarily store the benefit of local cooperation and promote the evolution of cooperation and altruism. By assuming individual differences in adaptations, Yang further showed that the benefit of local altruism can be stored in the form of offspring quality and thus promote the evolution of altruism even if the population does not fluctuate. This is because local competition among more individuals resulting from local altruism increases the average local fitness of the individuals that survive. 467: 754:(also called dual inheritance theory) is a modern hypothesis (applicable mostly to humans) that combines evolutionary biology and modern sociobiology to indicate group selection. It is believed that this approach of combining genetic influence with cultural influence over several generations is not present in the other hypotheses such as reciprocal altruism and kin selection, making gene-culture evolution one of the strongest realistic hypotheses for group selection. Fehr provides evidence of group selection taking place in humans presently with experimentation through logic games such as prisoner's dilemma, the type of thinking that humans have developed many generations ago. 22: 732: 262: 362:. Genetically based reproduction of individuals implies that, in group formation, the altruistic genes would need a way to act for the benefit of members in the group to enhance the fitness of many individuals with the same gene. But it is expected from this model that individuals of the same species would compete against each other for the same resources. This would put cooperating individuals at a disadvantage, making genes for cooperation likely to be eliminated. Group selection on the level of the species is flawed because it is difficult to see how selective pressures would be applied to competing/non-cooperating individuals. 408:, is capable of explaining the vast majority of altruism that is generally accepted as "good" by modern societies. The phenotype of altruism relies on recognition of the altruistic behavior by itself. The trait of kindness will be recognized by sufficiently intelligent and undeceived organisms in other individuals with the same trait. Moreover, the existence of such a trait predicts a tendency for kindness to unrelated organisms that are apparently kind, even if the organisms are of another species. The gene need not be exactly the same, so long as the effect or phenotype is similar. Multiple versions of the gene—or even 388:

that they share the altruistic trait) exceeds the cost to the individual. Inclusive fitness theory is a general treatment of the statistical probabilities of social traits accruing to any other organisms likely to propagate a copy of the same social trait. Kin selection theory treats the narrower but simpler case of the benefits to close genetic relatives (or what biologists call 'kin') who may also carry and propagate the trait. A significant group of biologists support inclusive fitness as the explanation for social behavior in a wide range of species, as supported by experimental data. An article was published in

871:

reproduce to form other organisms, so group selection for altruism would be unlikely to override the tendency of each group to quickly lose its altruists through natural selection favoring cheaters. Further, little evidence exists that selection on groups has promoted the evolution of any trait. Finally, other, more plausible evolutionary forces, like direct selection on individuals for reciprocal support, could have made humans prosocial. These reasons explain why only a few biologists, like Wilson and E. O. Wilson (no relation), advocate group selection as the evolutionary source of cooperation.

690:

because many subpopulations are composed of closely related individuals. An example of this can be found in lions, which are simultaneously cooperative and territorial. Within a pride, males protect the pride from outside males, and females, who are commonly sisters, communally raise cubs and hunt. However, this cooperation seems to be density dependent. When resources are limited, group selection favors prides that work together to hunt. When prey is abundant, cooperation is no longer beneficial enough to outweigh the disadvantages of altruism, and hunting is no longer cooperative.

439:

Additionally, group selection on the level of the species is flawed because it is difficult to see how selective pressures would be applied; selection in social species of groups against other groups, rather than the species entire, seems to be the level at which selective pressures are plausible. On the other hand, kin selection is accepted as an explanation of altruistic behavior. Some biologists argue that kin selection and multilevel selection are both needed to "obtain a complete understanding of the evolution of a social behavior system".

713:, which typically lowers the overall fitness of a population. However, if altruism were to be selected for through an emphasis on benefit to the group as opposed to relatedness and benefit to kin, both the altruistic trait and genetic diversity could be preserved. However, relatedness should still remain a key consideration in studies of multilevel selection. Experimentally imposed multilevel selection on Japanese quail was more effective by an order of magnitude on closely related kin groups than on randomized groups of individuals. 777:

encoded in brains, artifacts, or documents. Language, tools, lethal weapons, fire, cooking, etc., have a long-term effect on genetics. For example, cooking led to a reduction of size of the human gut, since less digestion is needed for cooked food. Language led to a change in the human larynx and an increase in brain size. Projectile weapons led to changes in human hands and shoulders, such that humans are much better at throwing objects than the closest human relative, the chimpanzee.

510:

different groups is larger than variation within groups. Competition and selection can operate at all levels regardless of scale. Wilson wrote, "At all scales, there must be mechanisms that coordinate the right kinds of action and prevent disruptive forms of self-serving behavior at lower levels of social organization." E. O. Wilson summarized, "In a group, selfish individuals beat altruistic individuals. But, groups of altruistic individuals beat groups of selfish individuals."

794: 7020: 5670: 4359: 7046: 7033: 5680: 4383: 7194: 4371: 669:, there is selection between the different strategies, since some are worse than others. For example, a group where altruism was universal would indeed outcompete a group where every creature acted in its own interest, so group selection might seem feasible; but a mixed group of altruists and non-altruists would be vulnerable to cheating by non-altruists within the group, so group selection would collapse. 1011:

added nothing new here. Inclusive fitness theory has explained why eusociality has evolved only in monogamous lineages, and why it is correlated with certain ecological conditions, such as extended parental care and defence of a shared resource. Furthermore, inclusive fitness theory has made very successful predictions about behaviour in eusocial insects, explaining a wide range of phenomena.

765:, two strong proponents of cultural evolution, postulate that the act of social learning, or learning in a group as done in group selection, allows human populations to accrue information over many generations. This leads to cultural evolution of behaviors and technology alongside genetic evolution. Boyd and Richerson believe that the ability to collaborate evolved during the Middle 451:. They do not posit evolution on the level of the species, but selective pressures that winnow out small groups within a species, e.g. groups of social insects or primates. Groups that cooperate better might survive and reproduce more than those that did not. Resurrected in this way, Wilson & Sober's new group selection is called multilevel selection theory. 158:, again revisited the arguments for group selection. They argued that group selection can occur when competition between two or more groups, some containing altruistic individuals who act cooperatively together, is more important for survival than competition between individuals within each group, provoking a strong rebuttal from a large group of 3382:

generated much debate among behavioral biologists (Okasha 2010). Yet despite generating controversy, these attempts have generally failed to persuade the vast majority of behavioral biologists that Darwin's view of individual selection—even on altruistic traits that provide clear benefits to others—is wrong.

434:

argues that human behavior is difficult to explain with only this approach. In particular, he claims it does not seem to explain the rapid rise of human civilization. Wilson has argued that other factors must also be considered in evolution. Wilson and others have continued to develop group selection

387:

in the early 1960s, gives a selection criterion for evolution of social traits when social behavior is costly to an individual organism's survival and reproduction. The criterion is that the reproductive benefit to relatives who carry the social trait, multiplied by their relatedness (the probability

1010:

The same points can be made with regard to the evolution of the eusocial insects, which Nowak et al. suggest cannot be explained by inclusive fitness theory. It was already known that haplodiploidy itself may have only a relatively minor bearing on the origin of eusociality, and so Nowak et al. have

870:

Group selection isn't widely accepted by evolutionists for several reasons. First, it's not an efficient way to select for traits, like altruistic behavior, that are supposed to be detrimental to the individual but good for the group. Groups divide to form other groups much less often than organisms

633:

Spatial populations of predators and prey show restraint of reproduction at equilibrium, both individually and through social communication, as originally proposed by Wynne-Edwards. While these spatial populations do not have well-defined groups for group selection, the local spatial interactions of

199:

that the evolution of groups could affect the survival of individuals. He wrote, "If one man in a tribe... invented a new snare or weapon, the tribe would increase in number, spread, and supplant other tribes. In a tribe thus rendered more numerous there would always be a rather better chance of the

505:

level and finally the groups. The different levels function cohesively to maximize fitness, or reproductive success. The theory asserts that selection for the group level, involving competition between groups, must outweigh the individual level, involving individuals competing within a group, for a

693:

Interactions between different species can also be affected by multilevel selection. Predator-prey relationships can also be affected. Individuals of certain monkey species howl to warn the group of the approach of a predator. The evolution of this trait benefits the group by providing protection,

780:

In 2015, William Yaworsky and colleagues surveyed the opinions of anthropologists on group selection, finding that these varied with the gender and politics of the social scientists concerned. In 2019, Howard Rachlin and colleagues proposed group selection of behavioural patterns, such as learned

776:

examined cultural evolution statistically, offering evidence that societies that promote pro-social norms have higher survival rates than societies that do not. Gintis wrote that genetic and cultural evolution can work together. Genes transfer information in DNA, and cultures transfer information

376:

in 1932 set out the mathematics of kin selection, with Haldane famously joking that he would willingly die for two brothers or eight cousins. In this model, genetically related individuals cooperate because survival advantages to one individual also benefit kin who share some fraction of the same

689:

interactions. In 1871, Darwin argued that group selection occurs when the benefits of cooperation or altruism between subpopulations are greater than the individual benefits of egotism within a subpopulation. This supports the idea of multilevel selection, but kinship also plays an integral role

520:

MLS theory can be used to evaluate the balance between group selection and individual selection in specific cases. An experiment by William Muir compared egg productivity in hens, showing that a hyper-aggressive strain had been produced through individual selection, leading to many fatal attacks

509:

Multilevel selection theory focuses on the phenotype because it looks at the levels that selection directly acts upon. For humans, social norms can be argued to reduce individual level variation and competition, thus shifting selection to the group level. The assumption is that variation between

3381:

there have been numerous attempts since Wynne-Edwards to develop more convincing forms of group selection theory. Indeed, this 'levels of selection' debate over the level of the biological hierarchy at which natural selection acts (individual, group, gene, species, community, and so forth) has

438:

Early group selection models were flawed because they assumed that genes acted independently; but genetically based interactions among individuals are ubiquitous in group formation because genes must cooperate for the benefit of association in groups to enhance the fitness of group members.

462:

argued for multi-level selection, including group selection, to correct what they saw as deficits in the explanatory power of inclusive fitness. A response from 137 other evolutionary biologists argued "that their arguments are based upon a misunderstanding of evolutionary theory and a

618:, so that altruism needs to be explained in terms of selection at the colony level rather than at the kin level. However, kin selection and group selection are not distinct processes, and the effects of multi-level selection are already accounted for in Hamilton's rule, 535:

Wilson and Sober's work revived interest in multilevel selection. In a 2005 article, E. O. Wilson argued that kin selection could no longer be thought of as underlying the evolution of extreme sociality, for two reasons. First, he suggested, the argument that

641:

evolution is broadly hostile to group selection. Specifically, the parasites do not individually moderate their transmission; rather, more transmissible variants – which have a short-term but unsustainable advantage – arise, increase, and go extinct.

1602:; Goodnight, C.; Taylor, D.; Bar-Yam, Y.; de Aguiar, M. A.; Stacey, B.; Werfel, J.; Hoelzer, G. A.; Brodie, E. D.; Fields, P.; Breden, F.; Linksvayer, T. A.; Fletcher, J. A.; Richerson, P. J.; Bever, J. D.; Van Dyken, J. D.; Zee, P. (Feb 18, 2010). 694:

but could be disadvantageous to the individual if the howling draws the predator's attention to them. By affecting these interspecific interactions, multilevel and kinship selection can change the population dynamics of an ecosystem.

239:

praised Lorenz for his interest in the survival value of behavior, and naturalists enjoyed Lorenz's writings for the same reason. In 1962, group selection was used as a popular explanation for adaptation by the zoologist

446:

argued that the case against group selection had been overstated. They considered whether groups can have functional organization in the same way as individuals, and consequently whether groups can be "vehicles" for

122:

for the sake of a group unless it would ultimately increase the likelihood of an individual passing on their genes. A consensus emerged that group selection did not occur, including in special situations such as the

1382: 521:

after only six generations; by implication, it could be argued that group selection must have been acting to prevent this in real life. Group selection has most often been postulated in humans and, notably,

634:

organisms in transient groups are sufficient to lead to a kind of multi-level selection. There is however as yet no evidence that these processes operate in the situations where Wynne-Edwards posited them.

357:

Experiments from the late 1970s suggested that selection involving groups was possible. Early group selection models assumed that genes acted independently, for example a gene that coded for cooperation or

879:

states that "group selection has no useful role to play in psychology or social science", since in these domains it "is not a precise implementation of the theory of natural selection, as it is, say, in

709:

can be accomplished through kin selection, in which individuals engage in altruistic behavior to promote the fitness of genetically similar individuals such as siblings. However, this can lead to

416:. Green-bearded men are imagined as tending to cooperate with each other simply by seeing a green beard, where the green beard trait is incidentally linked to the reciprocal kindness trait. 3492: 856:

remain unconvinced about group selection. Dawkins suggests that group selection fails to make an appropriate distinction between replicators and vehicles. The evolutionary biologist

2459: 3408:

van Veelen, M.; García, J.; Sabelis, M. W.; Egas, M. (April 2012). "Group selection and inclusive fitness are not equivalent; the Price equation vs. models and statistics".

578:(where b represents the benefit to the recipient of altruism, c the cost to the altruist, and r their degree of relatedness) should be replaced by the more general equation 3589: 224:(1966) that animal behavior patterns were "for the good of the species", without actually studying survival value in the field. Richard Dawkins noted that Lorenz was a 74:

argued that the behavior of animals could affect their survival and reproduction as groups, speaking for instance of actions for the good of the species. In the 1930s,

757:

Gene-culture coevolution allows humans to develop highly distinct adaptations to the local pressures and environments more quickly than with genetic evolution alone.

211:

of the mid-twentieth century, animal behavior was glibly explained with unsubstantiated hypotheses about survival value, which was largely taken for granted. The

5402: 3992: 661:

The problem with group selection is that for a whole group to get a single trait, it must spread through the whole group first by regular evolution. But, as

544:

no longer seems to be confined to the hymenopterans; increasing numbers of highly social taxa have been found in the years since Wilson's foundational text

3791: 610:

is the benefit accruing to the group as a whole. He then argues that, in the present state of the evidence in relation to social insects, it appears that b

2014: 1935: 838:

The vast majority of behavioural biologists have not been convinced by renewed attempts to revisit group selection as a plausible mechanism of evolution.

146:

argued for multi-level selection, including group selection, on the grounds that groups, like individuals, could compete. In 2010 three authors including

90:, arguing that animals should sacrifice for their relatives, and thereby implying that they should not sacrifice for non-relatives. From the mid-1960s, 5891: 5748: 5716: 3088:

Yaworsky, William; Horowitz, Mark; Kickham, Kenneth (9 December 2014). "Gender and Politics Among Anthropologists in the Units of Selection Debate".

135:), where kin selection explains the behaviour of non-reproductives equally well, since the only way for them to reproduce their genes is via kin. 3520: 3394: 2123: 5151: 4451: 2498: 540:

inheritance (as in the Hymenoptera) creates a strong selection pressure towards nonreproductive castes is mathematically flawed. Second,

4082: 1481:

Goodnight, C. J.; Stevens, L. (1997). "Experimental studies of group selection: What do they tell us about group selection in nature".

6592: 397:

One of the questions about kin selection is the requirement that individuals must know if other individuals are related to them, or

7446: 6880: 6482: 5655: 5110: 517:, by acknowledging that culture seems to characterize a group-level mechanism for human groups to adapt to environmental changes. 630:, not requiring Hamilton's original assumption of direct genealogical relatedness, is used, as proposed by E. O. Wilson himself. 4461: 4109: 845:

to support group selection was challenged by van Veelen in 2012, arguing that it is based on invalid mathematical assumptions.

2526:

Rauch, E. M.; Sayama, H.; Bar-Yam, Y. (2003). "Dynamics and genealogy of strains in spatially extended host-pathogen models".

7085: 6452: 6372: 6347: 6226: 6106: 5709: 5418: 5178: 3472: 3366: 2760: 2341: 1830: 1574: 1419: 1392: 1342: 1150: 922: 430:

Kin selection or inclusive fitness is accepted as an explanation for cooperative behavior in many species, but the scientist

6572: 5780: 4775: 3954:

Wilson, David Sloan (1987). "Altruism in Mendelian populations derived from sibling groups: The haystack model revisited".

6352: 6277: 6204: 6180: 6128: 5501: 4421: 4162: 4054: 7012: 6964: 6597: 5983: 5736: 5163: 4823: 4005: 3906: 2670: 1187: 528:

that make cooperation a driving force of their adaptations over time and have a unique system of inheritance involving

4011: 6392: 3538: 3014:

Gintis, H. (2003). "The hitchhiker's guide to altruism: Gene-culture coevolution, and the internalization of norms".

2361: 1241: 114:

acted primarily at the level of the gene. They argued on the basis of mathematical models that individuals would not

5230: 228:'good of the species' man" so accustomed to group selection thinking that he did not realize his views "contravened 7025: 6632: 6417: 6209: 5702: 5235: 4833: 2776:

Wade, M. J.; Breden, Sept (1981). "Effect of Inbreeding on the Evolution of Altruistic Behavior by Kin Selection".

412:—would have virtually the same effect. This explanation was given by Richard Dawkins as an analogy of a man with a 314: 7395: 6627: 6607: 6320: 6065: 5773: 5768: 5741: 5480: 5470: 5394: 4669: 4296: 849: 825: 208: 87: 3842: 6885: 6845: 6800: 6507: 6330: 5900: 5837: 5608: 5475: 5255: 4999: 4797: 4701: 4590: 3799: 2366: 2022: 1947: 1378: 1328: 702: 666: 656: 309: 103: 1862:

Koeslag, J. H. (1997). "Sex, the prisoner's dilemma game, and the evolutionary inevitability of cooperation".

6957: 6642: 6622: 6559: 6010: 5879: 5820: 5673: 5260: 5004: 4743: 4375: 3749:"Multilevel Selection 2: Estimating the Genetic Parameters Determining Inheritance and Response to Selection" 2116:"For the good of the group? Exploring group-level evolutionary adaptations using multilevel selection theory" 546: 5205: 2151: 7441: 6805: 6577: 6397: 6020: 5988: 5896: 5613: 5115: 3917: 3594: 3066: 2115: 862: 758: 514: 888:

simulations. Instead it is a loose metaphor, more like the struggle among kinds of tires or telephones."

7161: 7051: 6617: 5852: 5683: 5277: 4387: 3854: 2752: 2418: 1898:

Koeslag, J. H. (2003). "Evolution of cooperation: cooperation defeats defection in the cornfield model".

1142: 466: 7313: 7141: 6512: 6382: 6362: 6141: 5886: 5379: 4553: 4304: 4197: 4102: 4063: 550:

was published in 1975. These including a variety of insect species, as well as two rodent species (the

1848:"Viscous populations evolve altruistic programmed aging in ability conflict in a changing environment" 1794:"Viscous populations evolve altruistic programmed aging in ability conflict in a changing environment" 805: 7078: 6932: 6903: 6790: 6704: 6612: 6587: 6412: 6377: 6153: 5173: 4970: 4780: 4548: 4441: 3452: 2689:

Heinsohn, R.; Packer, C. (1995). "Complex cooperative strategies in group-territorialAfrican lions".

1116: 686: 682: 5302: 4034: 3821: 3679: 1761: 1733: 1364: 7108: 6825: 6709: 6582: 6402: 6335: 6197: 6170: 6025: 5800: 5763: 5596: 5460: 5432: 5407: 5364: 5267: 5200: 5075: 4948: 4916: 4889: 4879: 4255: 4219: 3630: 2548: 751: 736: 726: 5080: 3610: 3247:

Baum, William M. (2018-10-09). "Multiscale behavior analysis and molar behaviorism: An overview".

7371: 7166: 6989: 6830: 6696: 6522: 6502: 6492: 6307: 6287: 6158: 6146: 6136: 5993: 5725: 5601: 5531: 5440: 5168: 5050: 4818: 4414: 4182: 4152: 4142: 3609:

Dawkins, Richard (1982). "Replicators and Vehicles". In King's College Sociobiology Group (ed.).

1534: 1179: 722: 293: 91: 1662:; Pollock, G. B.; Dugatkin, L. A. (1992). "Can altruism evolve in purely viscous populations?". 1582: 21: 6947: 6942: 6917: 6865: 6860: 6700: 6692: 6683: 6678: 6647: 6539: 6325: 6262: 6015: 5934: 5640: 5289: 5158: 5120: 5021: 4992: 4965: 4960: 4558: 3816: 3674: 2662: 2543: 1756: 1409: 320: 5146: 3659: 1332: 1136: 908: 318:

cast serious doubt on group selection as a major mechanism of evolution; Williams's 1971 book

6974: 6937: 6835: 6744: 6739: 6714: 6442: 6422: 6272: 6192: 6165: 6096: 5864: 5581: 5455: 5374: 5369: 5354: 5339: 5329: 5245: 5220: 5055: 5011: 4975: 4943: 4884: 4862: 4843: 4706: 4659: 4610: 4605: 4563: 4363: 4157: 4095: 833: 710: 698: 2821:"Multilevel selection with kin and non-kin groups, Experimental results with Japanese quail" 2419:"Social semantics: altruism, cooperation, mutualism, strong reciprocity and group selection" 7071: 6927: 6734: 6719: 6687: 6674: 6535: 6447: 6315: 6282: 6257: 6111: 6075: 5969: 5939: 5758: 5555: 5450: 5384: 5185: 5100: 5016: 4928: 4911: 4838: 4828: 4538: 4446: 4430: 4137: 4132: 3925: 3808: 3417: 3023: 2920: 2698: 2592: 2535: 2375: 2291: 1907: 1871: 1748: 1615: 1290: 977: 5190: 5060: 697:

Multilevel selection attempts to explain the evolution of altruistic behavior in terms of

8: 7411: 7121: 6994: 6759: 6544: 6462: 6003: 5947: 5874: 5618: 5576: 5526: 5445: 5293: 5285: 5215: 5195: 5141: 4985: 4738: 4681: 4543: 4526: 4504: 4187: 2745: 2330: 1203: 678: 555: 478: 448: 405: 241: 184: 67: 4896: 3812: 3706:"Multilevel Selection 1: Quantitative Genetics of Inheritance and Response to Selection" 3421: 3027: 2924: 2702: 2596: 2539: 2379: 2295: 1911: 1875: 1752: 1619: 1294: 981: 7436: 6952: 6795: 6785: 6754: 6549: 6497: 6407: 6357: 6216: 6175: 6091: 5998: 5978: 5832: 5810: 5805: 5591: 5543: 5536: 5133: 5045: 4906: 4867: 4691: 4635: 4625: 4585: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4407: 4275: 4234: 4204: 4022: 3971: 3942: 3890: 3874: 3773: 3748: 3730: 3705: 3692: 3558: 3512: 3388: 3332: 3299: 3280: 3229: 3164: 3113: 3047: 2991: 2966: 2944: 2893: 2845: 2820: 2793: 2722: 2655: 2490: 2399: 2261: 2218: 2193: 1943: 1818: 1714: 1679: 1659: 1636: 1603: 1599: 1549: 1528: 1506: 1452: 1352: 1306: 1276: 1062: 1029: 1001: 959: 951: 947: 829: 762: 731: 559: 470: 431: 413: 301: 195: 139: 95: 45: 7384: 3918:"Can Group-functional Behaviors Evolve by Cultural Group Selection? An Empirical Test" 2615: 2580: 1919: 1697:

Taylor, P. D. (1992). "Altruism in viscous populations – an inclusive fitness model".

404:

Another explanation for the recognition of genes for altruism is that a single trait,

7337: 7045: 7038: 7032: 6815: 6810: 6724: 6526: 6267: 6234: 6101: 5962: 5910: 5869: 5847: 5815: 5679: 5633: 5359: 5307: 5085: 4901: 4802: 4765: 4760: 4716: 4711: 4664: 4630: 4382: 4320: 4001: 3979: 3902: 3895: 3870: 3834: 3778: 3747:

Bijma, P.; Muir, W. M.; Ellen, E. D.; Wolf, Jason B.; Van Arendonk, J. A. M. (2007).

3735: 3562: 3516: 3468: 3462: 3433: 3372: 3362: 3337: 3319: 3272: 3264: 3221: 3213: 3156: 3148: 3105: 3039: 2996: 2936: 2885: 2850: 2801: 2756: 2714: 2666: 2620: 2561: 2482: 2440: 2435: 2391: 2387: 2337: 2307: 2265: 2223: 1995: 1990: 1974:"On multilevel selection and kin selection: Contextual analysis meets direct fitness" 1973: 1923: 1887: 1847: 1826: 1793: 1774: 1641: 1570: 1498: 1460: 1415: 1388: 1338: 1237: 1215: 1183: 1146: 1067: 1049: 1005: 993: 918: 881: 532:

that allows the colony to function as an individual while only the queen reproduces.

425: 390: 380: 352: 297: 261: 189: 171: 119: 111: 60: 3946: 3878: 3284: 3233: 3168: 3117: 2897: 2726: 2494: 1718: 1683: 1510: 6244: 6185: 5974: 5917: 5225: 4792: 4770: 4578: 4341: 4330: 4192: 3963: 3934: 3866: 3826: 3768: 3760: 3725: 3717: 3684: 3550: 3504: 3425: 3327: 3311: 3256: 3203: 3195: 3140: 3097: 3051: 3031: 2986: 2978: 2948: 2928: 2877: 2840: 2832: 2785: 2706: 2610: 2600: 2553: 2474: 2430: 2403: 2383: 2299: 2253: 2213: 2205: 2132: 2091: 2057: 1985: 1915: 1879: 1766: 1706: 1671: 1631: 1623: 1490: 1444: 1310: 1298: 1281: 1173: 1092: 1057: 1041: 985: 968: 955: 254: 63:

acts at the level of the group, instead of at the level of the individual or gene.

26: 6116: 5070: 3696: 3355:

Rubenstein, Dustin R.; Alcock, John (2019). "12. Principles of Social Evolution".

489:

Wilson compared the layers of competition and evolution to nested sets of Russian

368:

between related individuals is accepted as an explanation of altruistic behavior.

7358: 7181: 7146: 7126: 6984: 6875: 6749: 6637: 6531: 6487: 6467: 6340: 6056: 6035: 5790: 5210: 5037: 5026: 4980: 4923: 4872: 4652: 4456: 4265: 4172: 3488: 3458: 3199: 3144: 1384:

Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought

1258: 1211: 1169: 1138:

Patterns of Behavior: Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen, and the Founding of Ethology

885: 490: 482: 398: 265: 245: 107: 3764: 3721: 681:

and group relationships can impact many aspects of population dynamics, such as

513:

Wilson ties the multilevel selection theory regarding humans to another theory,

7255: 6477: 6457: 6367: 6060: 5952: 5827: 5426: 5298: 5240: 4600: 4595: 4533: 4511: 4270: 3534: 3429: 3315: 2357: 2279: 1088: 853: 842: 773: 551: 498: 384: 373: 285: 236: 180: 151: 99: 79: 3554: 3508: 3376: 3101: 2881: 2136: 2061: 963: 7430: 7151: 7136: 6979: 6922: 6912: 6472: 6292: 6252: 6248: 6239: 6082: 6051: 6040: 6030: 5957: 5859: 5753: 5628: 5506: 5465: 5311: 5065: 4733: 4728: 4285: 4280: 4177: 3886: 3626: 3323: 3268: 3217: 3152: 3109: 2045: 1324: 1219: 1053: 876: 529: 474: 443: 365: 348: 336: 305: 273: 229: 220: 215: 175: 143: 83: 71: 2710: 2605: 2303: 7389: 7281: 7113: 6769: 6070: 6047: 5623: 5571: 5516: 5349: 5344: 4938: 4696: 4290: 4260: 4226: 4118: 3983: 3838: 3830: 3782: 3739: 3437: 3356: 3341: 3276: 3225: 3160: 3043: 3035: 3000: 2982: 2940: 2889: 2854: 2805: 2624: 2565: 2557: 2486: 2444: 2325: 2241: 2227: 2209: 2079: 1999: 1927: 1883: 1778: 1770: 1645: 1502: 1464: 1108: 1071: 997: 914: 662: 537: 459: 455: 281: 277: 248:

wrote a well-known book on the importance of evolution at the level of the

147: 124: 5694: 3688: 3566: 2718: 2395: 2311: 2257: 2048:(1994). "Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences". 1891: 7287: 7223: 7208: 7176: 7094: 6908: 6820: 6764: 6602: 6387: 6086: 5905: 5650: 5521: 5250: 4785: 4615: 4521: 4479: 4335: 4214: 3991:

Wilson, David Sloan (2006). P. Carruthers; S. Laurence; S. Stich (eds.).

3585: 3131:

Rachlin, Howard (April 2019). "Group selection in behavioral evolution".

1524: 857: 766: 541: 525: 369: 328: 132: 75: 41: 5090: 2932: 1627: 1045: 989: 793: 781:

altruism, during ontogeny parallel to group selection during phylogeny.

7342: 7307: 7273: 7267: 7228: 7156: 6855: 6850: 6567: 6302: 5842: 5511: 5412: 5334: 5321: 4955: 4755: 4642: 4620: 4573: 4568: 4516: 4484: 4399: 4325: 4239: 3975: 3493:"Burying the Vehicle Commentary on Wilson & Sober: Group Selection" 2797: 1710: 1675: 1456: 1028:

Nowak, Martin A.; Tarnita, Corina E.; Wilson, Edward O. (August 2010).

665:

suggested, when there are many different groups, each with a different

212: 3208: 2971:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2836: 2581:"The evolution of reproductive restraint through social communication" 2095: 1302: 7300: 7295: 7233: 7171: 6517: 5645: 5496: 5105: 4723: 4471: 4209: 3260: 2911:

Fehr, E.; Fischbacher, Urs (2003). "The nature of human altruism. ".

327:

It was at that time generally agreed that this was the case even for

204: 128: 56: 34: 3967: 3539:"E Pluribus Unum? Commentary on Wilson & Sober: Group Selection" 3183: 2868:

Mesoudi, A.; Danielson, P. (2008). "Ethics, evolution and culture".

2789: 1448: 1263:

The Selfish Gene: 40th Anniversary Edition (Oxford Landmark Science)

7403: 7245: 7238: 6969: 6729: 6434: 5548: 4750: 4147: 3938: 2478: 2244:(2005). "Kin Selection as the Key to Altruism: its Rise and Fall". 1494: 638: 522: 502: 359: 332: 269: 233: 159: 115: 7193: 4049: 3792:"Group Beneficial Norms Spread Rapidly in a Structured Population" 769:, a million years ago, in response to a rapidly changing climate. 7321: 7260: 7250: 6870: 4933: 4647: 3885: 1597: 744: 740: 30: 3300:"Dugnad: A Fact and a Narrative of Norwegian Prosocial Behavior" 2282:(1976). "Haploidploidy and the evolution of the social insect". 1435:

Wade, M. J. (1977). "An experimental study of group selection".

7218: 4087: 4072: 3897:

Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior

1823:

Does Altruism Exist?: Culture, Genes, and the Welfare of Others

706: 7063: 3660:"Evolution of Social Behavior: Individual and Group Selection" 1564: 193:. Darwin also made the first suggestion of group selection in 4854: 3361:(Eleventh ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts. p. 449. 2747:

How monkeys see the world: Inside the mind of another species

650: 342: 3994:

Human groups as adaptive units: toward a permanent consensus

946: 4076: 3407: 1565:

Kevin Connolly; Margaret Martlew, eds. (1999). "Altruism".

735:

Humanity has developed extremely rapidly, arguably through

494: 409: 249: 2114:

O'Gorman, R.; Wilson, David Sloan; Sheldon, K. M. (2008).

377:

genes, giving a mechanism for favoring genetic selection.

7213: 2113: 1476: 1474: 300:

acted primarily at the level of the individual. In 1964,

155: 3855:"Social semantics: how useful has group selection been?" 3615:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 45–64. 2109: 2107: 2105: 606:

is the benefit to kin (b in the original equation) and b

324:

assembled writings from many authors on the same theme.

3704:

Bijma, P.; Muir, W. M.; Van Arendonk, J. A. M. (2007).

3087: 2460:"Rethinking the Theoretical Foundation of Sociobiology" 2173:

Muir, W. M. (2009). "Genetic selection and behaviour".

1471: 3703: 2102: 2073: 2071: 1785: 1658: 716: 672: 4075:– a review from the "Science Creative Quarterly" (a 3184:"Selection as a domain-general evolutionary process" 1734:"Population viscosity and the evolution of altruism" 3915: 1604:"Multilevel and kin selection in a connected world" 1407: 942: 940: 938: 936: 934: 3894: 3852: 3746: 2744: 2654: 2525: 2416: 2329: 2068: 1334:Survival of Young Swifts in Relation to Brood-Size 1027: 485:. Wilson himself compared his model to such a set. 3853:West, S. A.; Griffin, A. S.; Gardner, A. (2008). 3619: 3444: 2417:West, S. A.; Griffin, A. S.; Gardner, A. (2007). 2082:(2008). "Evolution 'for the good of the group'". 1967: 1965: 1208:Animal Dispersion in Relation to Social Behaviour 7428: 3354: 3249:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 2967:"Culture and the evolution of human cooperation" 2960: 2958: 2867: 2194:"Culture and the evolution of human cooperation" 1732:Mitteldorf, Joshua; Wilson, David Sloan (2000). 1731: 1480: 931: 463:misrepresentation of the empirical literature". 200:birth of other superior and inventive members." 3916:Soltis, J.; Boyd, R.; Richerson, P. J. (1995). 3348: 2910: 1593: 1591: 1253: 1251: 1249: 1130: 1128: 1126: 2742: 2688: 2124:Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice 1962: 1567:Psychologically Speaking: A Book of Quotations 1101: 481:Model, illustrated by a nested set of Russian 419: 7079: 5710: 4415: 4103: 4073:The Controversy of the Group Selection Theory 3789: 3081: 2964: 2955: 2578: 2191: 2143: 1279:(1964). "Group selection and kin selection". 1275: 1202: 1164: 1162: 4069:, (Fall 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) 3182:Simon, Carsta; Hessen, Dag O. (April 2019). 2077: 1813: 1811: 1588: 1337:. Transaction Publishers. pp. 116–118. 1246: 1123: 5724: 3298:Simon, Carsta; Mobekk, Hilde (2019-11-13). 3297: 3181: 3058: 2684: 2682: 2043: 902: 900: 7086: 7072: 5717: 5703: 4422: 4408: 4110: 4096: 3401: 3393:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2775: 2642:. Oxford University Press. pp. 74–94. 1159: 651:Differing evolutionarily stable strategies 626:, provided that an expanded definition of 343:Kin selection and inclusive fitness theory 3820: 3772: 3729: 3678: 3657: 3331: 3207: 2990: 2844: 2738: 2736: 2614: 2604: 2547: 2434: 2217: 2152:"The Central Question of Group Selection" 1989: 1971: 1808: 1760: 1635: 1530:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 1134: 1061: 6881:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 5656:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 4429: 3580: 3578: 3576: 2679: 2521: 2519: 2356: 2318: 1377: 1317: 1265:(4th ed.). Oxford University Press. 897: 730: 465: 260: 20: 4067:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3608: 3533: 3487: 3457: 3130: 2743:Cheney, D. L.; Seyfarth, R. M. (1990). 2652: 2637: 2278: 1897: 1861: 1547: 1323: 1257: 1168: 747:of the Sri Mariammam temple, Singapore. 7429: 3990: 3953: 3625: 3013: 2819:Muir, W. M.; et al. (June 2013). 2733: 2457: 2324: 2240: 2012: 1933: 1817: 1696: 1523: 1107: 1087: 37:, spoke of "the good of the species". 7067: 6373:Psychological effects of Internet use 5698: 5419:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 4403: 4091: 3631:"The False Allure of Group Selection" 3584: 3573: 2516: 1558: 1083: 1081: 906: 339:, since workers are closely related. 165: 4370: 3246: 3067:"On the Evolution of Human Morality" 2818: 2172: 1845: 1791: 1434: 1023: 1021: 1019: 788: 558:). Wilson suggests the equation for 6353:Digital media use and mental health 4163:Evolutionary models of food sharing 4055:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3790:Boyd, R.; Richerson, P. J. (2002). 3590:"Can Darwinism Improve Binghamton?" 2965:Boyd, R.; Richerson, P. J. (2009). 2362:"The evolution of social behaviour" 2192:Boyd, R.; Richerson, P. J. (2009). 1554:. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1533:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1408:Williams, George C., ed. (2008) ]. 866:in non-technical terms as follows: 13: 5984:Automatic and controlled processes 4824:Evolutionary developmental biology 3651: 3064: 2175:Canadian Journal of Animal Science 2149: 1078: 772:In 2003, the behavioral scientist 717:Gene-culture coevolution in humans 673:Implications in population biology 506:group-benefiting trait to spread. 14: 7458: 6393:Smartphones and pedestrian safety 4042: 1234:Evolution Through Group Selection 1016: 218:had argued loosely in books like 7192: 7044: 7031: 7019: 7018: 6418:Mobile phones and driving safety 5678: 5669: 5668: 4381: 4369: 4358: 4357: 4117: 4064:"Units and Levels of Selection." 3871:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01458.x 3667:Journal of Economic Perspectives 3612:Current Problems in Sociobiology 3304:Perspectives on Behavior Science 2579:Werfel, J.; Bar-Yam, Y. (2004). 2436:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2006.01258.x 2021:. Self-published. Archived from 2015:"open letter to Richard Dawkins" 1991:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01821.x 1972:Goodnight, Charles (June 2013). 1936:"open letter to Richard Dawkins" 1614:(7283): E8–9, discussion E9–10. 792: 637:Rauch et al.'s analysis of host- 315:Adaptation and Natural Selection 7447:Extended evolutionary synthesis 7396:Sociobiology: The New Synthesis 7093: 6321:Computer-mediated communication 5481:Extended evolutionary synthesis 4670:Gene-centered view of evolution 4297:Sociobiology: The New Synthesis 3859:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 3602: 3527: 3481: 3291: 3240: 3175: 3124: 3007: 2904: 2861: 2812: 2769: 2646: 2631: 2572: 2467:The Quarterly Review of Biology 2451: 2423:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 2410: 2350: 2332:Sociobiology: The New Synthesis 2272: 2234: 2185: 2166: 2037: 2006: 1839: 1725: 1690: 1652: 1541: 1517: 1428: 1401: 1371: 1269: 964:"Kin selection and eusociality" 850:gene-centered view of evolution 826:Gene-centered view of evolution 645: 442:In 1994 David Sloan Wilson and 394:with over a hundred coauthors. 88:gene-centered view of evolution 16:Proposed mechanism of evolution 6598:Empathising–systemising theory 5901:female intrasexual competition 5838:Evolutionarily stable strategy 5609:Hologenome theory of evolution 5476:History of molecular evolution 4702:Evolutionarily stable strategy 4591:Last universal common ancestor 4050:"Altruism and Group Selection" 3800:Journal of Theoretical Biology 3410:Journal of Theoretical Biology 3016:Journal of Theoretical Biology 2528:Journal of Theoretical Biology 2367:Journal of Theoretical Biology 1900:Journal of Theoretical Biology 1864:Journal of Theoretical Biology 1741:Journal of Theoretical Biology 1387:. Princeton University Press. 1226: 1196: 1135:Burkhardt, Richard W. (2005). 1030:"The evolution of eusociality" 907:Tudge, Colin (31 March 2011). 667:evolutionarily stable strategy 657:Evolutionarily stable strategy 284:very closely related to their 86:, a form of altruism from the 1: 6958:Standard social science model 6011:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis 5403:Renaissance and Enlightenment 3543:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3497:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2050:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1920:10.1016/s0022-5193(03)00188-7 1852:Evolutionary Ecology Research 1798:Evolutionary Ecology Research 891: 547:Sociobiology: A New Synthesis 6806:Missing heritability problem 6398:Social aspects of television 6021:Evolution of nervous systems 5989:Computational theory of mind 5614:Missing heritability problem 5241:Gamete differentiation/sexes 3901:. Harvard University Press. 3595:The New York Review of Books 3200:10.1016/j.beproc.2017.12.020 3145:10.1016/j.beproc.2017.09.005 2657:The Evolution of Cooperation 2458:Wilson, David Sloan (2007). 2388:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4 2013:Wilson, David Sloan (2010). 1934:Wilson, David Sloan (2010). 1232:Wynne-Edwards, V. C. (1986) 1113:The Social Conquest of Earth 863:The New York Review of Books 860:summarizes the arguments in 784: 7: 7162:Sexual selection in insects 7052:Evolutionary biology portal 4388:Evolutionary biology portal 4000:. Oxford University Press. 3765:10.1534/genetics.106.062729 3722:10.1534/genetics.106.062711 2753:University of Chicago Press 1143:University of Chicago Press 420:Multilevel selection theory 55:is a proposed mechanism of 10: 7463: 7314:Austroplatypus incompertus 7142:Identity in social insects 7013:Evolutionary psychologists 6886:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 6801:Human–animal communication 6513:Ovulatory shift hypothesis 6363:Imprinted brain hypothesis 6331:Human–computer interaction 5246:Life cycles/nuclear phases 4798:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 3430:10.1016/j.jtbi.2011.07.025 3316:10.1007/s40614-019-00227-w 1414:. Transaction Publishers. 1117:W. W. Norton & Company 823: 720: 654: 493:. The lowest level is the 423: 383:theory, first proposed by 346: 169: 7351: 7330: 7201: 7190: 7101: 7007: 6933:Environmental determinism 6904:Cultural selection theory 6896: 6791:Evolutionary epistemology 6778: 6705:evolutionary neuroscience 6667: 6660: 6558: 6433: 6378:Rank theory of depression 6301: 6225: 6127: 5933: 5926: 5880:Parent–offspring conflict 5789: 5732: 5664: 5564: 5489: 5393: 5320: 5276: 5131: 5035: 4852: 4811: 4744:Parent–offspring conflict 4680: 4549:Earliest known life forms 4470: 4437: 4353: 4313: 4248: 4125: 3658:Bergstrom, T. C. (2002). 3555:10.1017/S0140525X00036219 3509:10.1017/S0140525X00036207 3102:10.1007/s13752-014-0196-5 2882:10.1007/s12064-008-0027-y 2638:Dawkins, Richard (1976). 2137:10.1037/1089-2699.12.1.17 2062:10.1017/s0140525x00036104 1825:. Yale University Press. 1583:Haldane's Wikiquote entry 1569:. BPS Books. p. 10. 701:. Increased frequency or 683:intraspecific competition 677:Social behaviors such as 406:group reciprocal kindness 280:inheritance system makes 230:orthodox Darwinian theory 207:had been accepted in the 7109:Evolution of eusociality 6826:Cultural group selection 6710:Biocultural anthropology 6403:Societal impacts of cars 6336:Media naturalness theory 6026:Fight-or-flight response 5597:Cultural group selection 5461:The eclipse of Darwinism 5433:On the Origin of Species 5408:Transmutation of species 2653:Axelrod, Robert (1984). 1846:Yang, Jiang-Nan (2013). 1792:Yang, Jiang-Nan (2013). 1548:Haldane, J.B.S. (1932). 752:Gene-culture coevolution 737:gene-culture coevolution 727:cultural group selection 515:gene–culture coevolution 150:, known for his work on 82:proposed the concept of 7372:Charles Duncan Michener 7026:Evolutionary psychology 6990:Sociocultural evolution 6831:Dual inheritance theory 6288:Personality development 5749:Theoretical foundations 5726:Evolutionary psychology 5602:Dual inheritance theory 5441:History of paleontology 4183:Male warrior hypothesis 4153:Evolutionary psychology 4143:Dual inheritance theory 4083:Binghamton: D.S. Wilson 2711:10.1126/science.7652573 2661:. Basic Books. p. 2606:10.1073/pnas.0305059101 2304:10.1126/science.1108197 1551:The Causes of Evolution 1180:Oxford University Press 723:Dual inheritance theory 294:evolutionary biologists 92:evolutionary biologists 6948:Social constructionism 6943:Psychological nativism 6918:Biological determinism 6866:Recent human evolution 6861:Punctuated equilibrium 6684:Behavioral epigenetics 6679:evolutionary economics 6648:Variability hypothesis 6593:Emotional intelligence 6326:Engineering psychology 6016:Evolution of the brain 5290:Punctuated equilibrium 4611:Non-adaptive radiation 4559:Evolutionary arms race 3831:10.1006/jtbi.2001.2515 3453:God's utility function 3036:10.1006/jtbi.2003.3104 2983:10.1098/rstb.2009.0134 2558:10.1006/jtbi.2003.3127 2210:10.1098/rstb.2009.0134 2198:Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 1884:10.1006/jtbi.1997.0496 1771:10.1006/jtbi.2000.2007 910:Engineer In The Garden 873: 748: 486: 289: 66:Early authors such as 49: 25:Early explanations of 7377:The Bees of the World 6975:Multilineal evolution 6938:Nature versus nurture 6897:Theoretical positions 6745:Functional psychology 6740:Evolutionary medicine 6715:Biological psychiatry 6423:Texting while driving 6413:Lead–crime hypothesis 6273:Cognitive development 6258:Caregiver deprivation 5769:Gene selection theory 5582:Evolutionary medicine 5456:Mendelian inheritance 5164:Biological complexity 5152:Programmed cell death 4844:Phenotypic plasticity 4564:Evolutionary pressure 4554:Evidence of evolution 4452:Timeline of evolution 4158:Evolution of morality 3689:10.1257/0895330027265 3188:Behavioural Processes 3133:Behavioural Processes 2870:Theory in Biosciences 2258:10.1353/sor.2005.0012 2150:Wilson, David Sloan. 2078:Wilson, David Sloan; 2044:Wilson, David Sloan; 1097:. D. Appleton and Co. 868: 739:, leading to complex 734: 711:inbreeding depression 699:quantitative genetics 655:Further information: 469: 424:Further information: 347:Further information: 264: 170:Further information: 39:Blackcocks at the Lek 24: 6928:Cultural determinism 6735:Evolutionary biology 6720:Cognitive psychology 6668:Academic disciplines 6316:Cognitive ergonomics 6283:Language acquisition 6263:Childhood attachment 6076:Wason selection task 5970:Behavioral modernity 5759:Cognitive revolution 5742:Evolutionary thought 5556:Teleology in biology 5451:Blending inheritance 4829:Genetic assimilation 4692:Artificial selection 4431:Evolutionary biology 4138:Challenge hypothesis 4133:Behavioural genetics 4017:on 26 February 2009. 3926:Current Anthropology 3848:on January 27, 2005. 3588:(9 September 2011). 3569:on 27 December 2007. 1699:Evolutionary Ecology 1664:Evolutionary Ecology 1204:Wynne-Edwards, V. C. 852:such as Dawkins and 458:, C. E. Tarnita and 292:From the mid-1960s, 127:social insects like 7442:Population genetics 7412:Journey to the Ants 6995:Unilineal evolution 6760:Population genetics 6545:Sexy son hypothesis 6483:Hormonal motivation 6463:Concealed ovulation 6004:Dual process theory 5875:Parental investment 5619:Molecular evolution 5577:Ecological genetics 5446:Transitional fossil 5236:Sexual reproduction 5076:endomembrane system 5005:pollinator-mediated 4961:dolphins and whales 4739:Parental investment 4188:Reciprocal altruism 3891:Wilson, David Sloan 3813:2002JThBi.215..287B 3422:2012JThBi.299...64V 3028:2003JThBi.220..407G 2977:(1533): 3281–3288. 2933:10.1038/nature02043 2925:2003Natur.425..785F 2703:1995Sci...269.1260H 2697:(5228): 1260–1262. 2597:2004PNAS..10111019W 2591:(30): 11019–11020. 2540:2003JThBi.221..655R 2380:1964JThBi...7....1H 2296:1976Sci...191..249T 2204:(1533): 3281–3288. 1912:2003JThBi.224..399K 1876:1997JThBi.189...53K 1819:Wilson, David Sloan 1753:2000JThBi.204..481M 1660:Wilson, David Sloan 1628:10.1038/nature08809 1620:2010Natur.463....8W 1483:American Naturalist 1379:Williams, George C. 1329:Williams, George C. 1295:1964Natur.201.1145S 1289:(4924): 1145–1147. 1046:10.1038/nature09205 1040:(7310): 1057–1062. 990:10.1038/nature09833 982:2011Natur.471E...5S 948:Strassmann, Joan E. 743:artefacts like the 556:Damaraland mole rat 477:'s 1994 Multilevel 335:, which encourages 252:or the individual, 242:V. C. Wynne-Edwards 185:theory of evolution 68:V. C. Wynne-Edwards 6953:Social determinism 6836:Fisher's principle 6796:Great ape language 6786:Cultural evolution 6755:Philosophy of mind 6588:Division of labour 6550:Westermarck effect 6498:Mating preferences 6408:Distracted driving 6142:Literary criticism 5999:Domain specificity 5979:modularity of mind 5592:Cultural evolution 4707:Fisher's principle 4636:Handicap principle 4626:Parallel evolution 4490:Adaptive radiation 4276:Sarah Blaffer Hrdy 4205:Sex and psychology 4062:Lloyd, Elisabeth, 2504:on 8 December 2013 2084:American Scientist 1944:David Sloan Wilson 1711:10.1007/bf02270971 1676:10.1007/bf02270969 1182:. pp. 9, 72. 1094:The Descent of Man 882:genetic algorithms 834:Fisher's principle 830:Free-rider problem 804:. You can help by 763:Peter J. Richerson 749: 487: 471:David Sloan Wilson 432:David Sloan Wilson 310:George C. Williams 302:John Maynard Smith 290: 196:The Descent of Man 166:Early developments 140:David Sloan Wilson 104:George C. Williams 96:John Maynard Smith 50: 46:Archibald Thorburn 44:and bodycolour by 7424: 7423: 7338:Bees in mythology 7061: 7060: 7039:Psychology portal 7003: 7002: 6846:Hologenome theory 6816:Unit of selection 6811:Primate cognition 6725:Cognitive science 6656: 6655: 6527:Sexual attraction 6503:Mating strategies 6268:Cinderella effect 6198:Moral foundations 6102:Visual perception 5994:Domain generality 5963:Facial expression 5911:Sexual dimorphism 5870:Natural selection 5816:Hamiltonian spite 5692: 5691: 5308:Uniformitarianism 5261:Sex-determination 4766:Sexual dimorphism 4761:Natural selection 4665:Unit of selection 4631:Signalling theory 4397: 4396: 4321:Stephen Jay Gould 3474:978-0-465-06990-3 3464:River Out of Eden 3368:978-1-60535-548-1 3090:Biological Theory 3065:Gintis, Herbert. 2919:(6960): 785–791. 2837:10.1111/evo.12062 2762:978-0-226-10246-7 2343:978-0-674-81621-3 2336:. Belknap Press. 2290:(4224): 250–263. 2096:10.1511/2008.74.1 1832:978-0-300-18949-0 1576:978-1-85433-302-5 1421:978-0-202-36222-9 1394:978-0-691-02357-1 1344:978-0-202-36635-7 1303:10.1038/2011145a0 1277:Maynard Smith, J. 1152:978-0-226-08090-1 960:Seeley, Thomas D. 956:Robinson, Gene E. 924:978-1-4464-6698-8 875:The psychologist 848:Advocates of the 822: 821: 426:Unit of selection 381:Inclusive fitness 353:Inclusive fitness 312:in his 1966 book 298:natural selection 190:Origin of Species 172:natural selection 112:natural selection 61:natural selection 7454: 7364:The Dancing Bees 7196: 7088: 7081: 7074: 7065: 7064: 7048: 7035: 7022: 7021: 6665: 6664: 6661:Related subjects 6448:Adult attachment 5975:Cognitive module 5931: 5930: 5918:Social selection 5892:Costly signaling 5887:Sexual selection 5774:Modern synthesis 5719: 5712: 5705: 5696: 5695: 5682: 5672: 5671: 5471:Modern synthesis 5231:Multicellularity 5226:Mosaic evolution 5111:auditory ossicle 4793:Social selection 4776:Flowering plants 4771:Sexual selection 4424: 4417: 4410: 4401: 4400: 4385: 4373: 4372: 4361: 4360: 4342:Not in Our Genes 4331:Richard Lewontin 4193:Sexual selection 4112: 4105: 4098: 4089: 4088: 4059: 4038: 4032: 4028: 4026: 4018: 4016: 4010:. Archived from 3999: 3987: 3962:(5): 1059–1070. 3950: 3922: 3912: 3900: 3882: 3849: 3847: 3841:. Archived from 3824: 3796: 3786: 3776: 3743: 3733: 3700: 3682: 3664: 3646: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3606: 3600: 3599: 3582: 3571: 3570: 3565:. Archived from 3531: 3525: 3524: 3519:. Archived from 3485: 3479: 3478: 3459:Dawkins, Richard 3450:See the chapter 3448: 3442: 3441: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3392: 3384: 3352: 3346: 3345: 3335: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3261:10.1002/jeab.476 3244: 3238: 3237: 3211: 3179: 3173: 3172: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3085: 3079: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3062: 3056: 3055: 3011: 3005: 3004: 2994: 2962: 2953: 2952: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2865: 2859: 2858: 2848: 2831:(6): 1598–1606. 2816: 2810: 2809: 2773: 2767: 2766: 2750: 2740: 2731: 2730: 2686: 2677: 2676: 2660: 2650: 2644: 2643: 2640:The Selfish Gene 2635: 2629: 2628: 2618: 2608: 2576: 2570: 2569: 2551: 2523: 2514: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2503: 2497:. Archived from 2464: 2455: 2449: 2448: 2438: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2335: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2276: 2270: 2269: 2238: 2232: 2231: 2221: 2189: 2183: 2182: 2170: 2164: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2147: 2141: 2140: 2120: 2111: 2100: 2099: 2075: 2066: 2065: 2041: 2035: 2034: 2032: 2030: 2025:on 16 March 2016 2019:scienceblogs.com 2010: 2004: 2003: 1993: 1984:(6): 1539–1548. 1969: 1960: 1959: 1957: 1955: 1950:on 16 March 2016 1946:. Archived from 1940:scienceblogs.com 1931: 1895: 1859: 1843: 1837: 1836: 1815: 1806: 1805: 1789: 1783: 1782: 1764: 1738: 1729: 1723: 1722: 1694: 1688: 1687: 1656: 1650: 1649: 1639: 1595: 1586: 1580: 1562: 1556: 1555: 1545: 1539: 1538: 1521: 1515: 1514: 1478: 1469: 1468: 1432: 1426: 1425: 1405: 1399: 1398: 1375: 1369: 1368: 1362: 1358: 1356: 1348: 1321: 1315: 1314: 1273: 1267: 1266: 1259:Dawkins, Richard 1255: 1244: 1230: 1224: 1223: 1200: 1194: 1193: 1178:(1st ed.). 1175:The Selfish Gene 1170:Dawkins, Richard 1166: 1157: 1156: 1132: 1121: 1120: 1105: 1099: 1098: 1085: 1076: 1075: 1065: 1025: 1014: 1013: 944: 929: 928: 904: 817: 814: 796: 789: 497:, next come the 491:matryoshka dolls 483:matryoshka dolls 331:insects such as 272:is explained by 255:The Selfish Gene 227: 209:modern synthesis 27:social behaviour 7462: 7461: 7457: 7456: 7455: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7427: 7426: 7425: 7420: 7385:Bert Hölldobler 7359:Karl von Frisch 7352:Pioneers, works 7347: 7326: 7197: 7188: 7182:Worker policing 7167:Social conflict 7147:Kin recognition 7132:Group selection 7118:Social insects 7097: 7092: 7062: 7057: 6999: 6985:Neoevolutionism 6892: 6876:Species complex 6841:Group selection 6779:Research topics 6774: 6750:Neuropsychology 6652: 6638:Substance abuse 6560:Sex differences 6554: 6468:Coolidge effect 6429: 6341:Neuroergonomics 6306: 6297: 6221: 6123: 6057:Folk psychology 5938: 5922: 5792: 5785: 5728: 5723: 5693: 5688: 5660: 5587:Group selection 5560: 5485: 5389: 5316: 5278:Tempo and modes 5272: 5127: 5031: 4848: 4807: 4683: 4676: 4653:Species complex 4466: 4457:History of life 4433: 4428: 4398: 4393: 4349: 4309: 4266:Richard Dawkins 4244: 4235:Dunbar's number 4173:Kin recognition 4168:Group selection 4121: 4116: 4048: 4045: 4030: 4029: 4020: 4019: 4014: 4008: 3997: 3968:10.2307/2409191 3920: 3909: 3845: 3822:10.1.1.405.1548 3794: 3680:10.1.1.377.5059 3662: 3654: 3652:Further reading 3649: 3639: 3637: 3624: 3620: 3607: 3603: 3583: 3574: 3532: 3528: 3486: 3482: 3475: 3467:. Basic Books. 3449: 3445: 3406: 3402: 3386: 3385: 3369: 3358:Animal behavior 3353: 3349: 3296: 3292: 3245: 3241: 3180: 3176: 3129: 3125: 3086: 3082: 3072: 3070: 3063: 3059: 3012: 3008: 2963: 2956: 2909: 2905: 2866: 2862: 2817: 2813: 2790:10.2307/2407855 2774: 2770: 2763: 2741: 2734: 2687: 2680: 2673: 2651: 2647: 2636: 2632: 2577: 2573: 2524: 2517: 2507: 2505: 2501: 2462: 2456: 2452: 2415: 2411: 2358:Hamilton, W. D. 2355: 2351: 2344: 2323: 2319: 2280:Trivers, Robert 2277: 2273: 2246:Social Research 2239: 2235: 2190: 2186: 2171: 2167: 2157: 2155: 2148: 2144: 2118: 2112: 2103: 2076: 2069: 2042: 2038: 2028: 2026: 2011: 2007: 1970: 1963: 1953: 1951: 1932: 1896: 1860: 1844: 1840: 1833: 1816: 1809: 1790: 1786: 1762:10.1.1.144.8232 1736: 1730: 1726: 1695: 1691: 1657: 1653: 1596: 1589: 1577: 1563: 1559: 1546: 1542: 1522: 1518: 1479: 1472: 1449:10.2307/2407552 1433: 1429: 1422: 1411:Group Selection 1406: 1402: 1395: 1376: 1372: 1360: 1359: 1350: 1349: 1345: 1322: 1318: 1274: 1270: 1256: 1247: 1231: 1227: 1212:Oliver and Boyd 1201: 1197: 1190: 1167: 1160: 1153: 1145:. p. 432. 1133: 1124: 1106: 1102: 1089:Darwin, Charles 1086: 1079: 1026: 1017: 976:(7339): E5–E6. 952:Page, Robert E. 945: 932: 925: 917:. p. 115. 905: 898: 894: 886:artificial life 841:The use of the 836: 818: 812: 809: 802:needs expansion 787: 729: 721:Main articles: 719: 675: 659: 653: 648: 617: 613: 609: 605: 593: 589: 560:Hamilton's rule 428: 422: 399:kin recognition 355: 345: 321:Group Selection 266:Social behavior 246:Richard Dawkins 225: 178: 168: 108:Richard Dawkins 53:Group selection 17: 12: 11: 5: 7460: 7450: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7422: 7421: 7419: 7418: 7417: 7416: 7408: 7400: 7387: 7382: 7381: 7380: 7369: 7368: 7367: 7355: 7353: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7345: 7340: 7334: 7332: 7328: 7327: 7325: 7324: 7319: 7318: 7317: 7305: 7304: 7303: 7293: 7292: 7291: 7279: 7278: 7277: 7265: 7264: 7263: 7258: 7256:Dwarf mongoose 7253: 7243: 7242: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7205: 7203: 7199: 7198: 7191: 7189: 7187: 7186: 7185: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7116: 7111: 7105: 7103: 7099: 7098: 7091: 7090: 7083: 7076: 7068: 7059: 7058: 7056: 7055: 7042: 7029: 7016: 7008: 7005: 7004: 7001: 7000: 6998: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6961: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6906: 6900: 6898: 6894: 6893: 6891: 6890: 6889: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6782: 6780: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6690: 6681: 6671: 6669: 6662: 6658: 6657: 6654: 6653: 6651: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6564: 6562: 6556: 6555: 6553: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6529: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6439: 6437: 6431: 6430: 6428: 6427: 6426: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6368:Mind-blindness 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6344: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6312: 6310: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6242: 6237: 6231: 6229: 6223: 6222: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6202: 6201: 6200: 6190: 6189: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6168: 6163: 6162: 6161: 6151: 6150: 6149: 6144: 6133: 6131: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6121: 6120: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6080: 6079: 6078: 6073: 6063: 6061:theory of mind 6054: 6045: 6044: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6007: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5972: 5967: 5966: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5944: 5942: 5928: 5924: 5923: 5921: 5920: 5915: 5914: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5894: 5884: 5883: 5882: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5856: 5855: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5828:Baldwin effect 5825: 5824: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5803: 5797: 5795: 5787: 5786: 5784: 5783: 5778: 5777: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5746: 5745: 5744: 5733: 5730: 5729: 5722: 5721: 5714: 5707: 5699: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5686: 5676: 5665: 5662: 5661: 5659: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5637: 5636: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5568: 5566: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5558: 5553: 5552: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5540: 5539: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5499: 5493: 5491: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5437: 5436: 5427:Charles Darwin 5424: 5423: 5422: 5410: 5405: 5399: 5397: 5391: 5390: 5388: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5365:Non-ecological 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5326: 5324: 5318: 5317: 5315: 5314: 5305: 5296: 5282: 5280: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5270: 5265: 5264: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5182: 5181: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5155: 5154: 5149: 5138: 5136: 5129: 5128: 5126: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5116:nervous system 5113: 5108: 5103: 5095: 5094: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5042: 5040: 5033: 5032: 5030: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5008: 5007: 4997: 4996: 4995: 4990: 4989: 4988: 4983: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4952: 4951: 4946: 4936: 4926: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4893: 4892: 4882: 4877: 4876: 4875: 4865: 4859: 4857: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4815: 4813: 4809: 4808: 4806: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4789: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4741: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4720: 4719: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4688: 4686: 4678: 4677: 4675: 4674: 4673: 4672: 4662: 4657: 4656: 4655: 4650: 4640: 4639: 4638: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4616:Origin of life 4613: 4608: 4603: 4601:Microevolution 4598: 4596:Macroevolution 4593: 4588: 4583: 4582: 4581: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4534:Common descent 4531: 4530: 4529: 4519: 4514: 4512:Baldwin effect 4509: 4508: 4507: 4502: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4476: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4465: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4438: 4435: 4434: 4427: 4426: 4419: 4412: 4404: 4395: 4394: 4392: 4391: 4379: 4367: 4354: 4351: 4350: 4348: 4347: 4346: 4345: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4317: 4315: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4307: 4302: 4301: 4300: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4271:Daniel Dennett 4268: 4263: 4258: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4231: 4230: 4224: 4223: 4222: 4207: 4202: 4201: 4200: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4129: 4127: 4123: 4122: 4115: 4114: 4107: 4100: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4080: 4070: 4060: 4044: 4043:External links 4041: 4040: 4039: 4007:978-0195310146 4006: 3988: 3951: 3939:10.1086/204381 3933:(3): 473–494. 3913: 3908:978-0674930476 3907: 3887:Sober, Elliott 3883: 3850: 3807:(3): 287–296. 3787: 3759:(1): 289–299. 3744: 3716:(1): 277–288. 3701: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3647: 3627:Pinker, Steven 3618: 3601: 3572: 3549:(4): 617–618. 3535:Dennett, D. C. 3526: 3523:on 2006-09-15. 3503:(4): 616–617. 3480: 3473: 3443: 3400: 3367: 3347: 3310:(4): 815–834. 3290: 3255:(3): 302–322. 3239: 3174: 3123: 3096:(2): 145–155. 3080: 3057: 3022:(4): 407–418. 3006: 2954: 2903: 2876:(3): 229–240. 2860: 2811: 2784:(5): 844–858. 2768: 2761: 2732: 2678: 2672:978-0465005642 2671: 2645: 2630: 2571: 2549:10.1.1.12.5712 2534:(4): 655–664. 2515: 2479:10.1086/522809 2450: 2429:(2): 415–432. 2409: 2349: 2342: 2317: 2271: 2252:(1): 159–166. 2233: 2184: 2165: 2142: 2101: 2090:(5): 380–389. 2067: 2056:(4): 585–654. 2046:Sober, Elliott 2036: 2005: 1961: 1906:(3): 399–410. 1838: 1831: 1807: 1784: 1747:(4): 481–496. 1724: 1705:(4): 352–356. 1689: 1670:(4): 331–341. 1651: 1587: 1575: 1557: 1540: 1516: 1495:10.1086/286050 1470: 1443:(1): 134–153. 1427: 1420: 1400: 1393: 1370: 1343: 1325:Perrins, Chris 1316: 1268: 1245: 1225: 1195: 1189:978-0198575191 1188: 1158: 1151: 1122: 1100: 1077: 1015: 962:(March 2011). 930: 923: 895: 893: 890: 854:Daniel Dennett 843:Price equation 820: 819: 813:September 2023 799: 797: 786: 783: 774:Herbert Gintis 718: 715: 705:of altruistic 674: 671: 652: 649: 647: 644: 615: 611: 607: 603: 600: 599: 598: 597: 596: 595: 591: 587: 576: 575: 574: 573: 572: 571: 552:naked mole-rat 421: 418: 385:W. D. Hamilton 374:J.B.S. Haldane 344: 341: 237:Niko Tinbergen 183:developed the 181:Charles Darwin 167: 164: 152:social insects 116:altruistically 100:W. D. Hamilton 80:J.B.S. Haldane 29:, such as the 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7459: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7414: 7413: 7409: 7406: 7405: 7401: 7398: 7397: 7393: 7392: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7378: 7375: 7374: 7373: 7370: 7365: 7362: 7361: 7360: 7357: 7356: 7354: 7350: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7335: 7333: 7329: 7323: 7320: 7316: 7315: 7311: 7310: 7309: 7306: 7302: 7299: 7298: 7297: 7294: 7290: 7289: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7280: 7276: 7275: 7271: 7270: 7269: 7266: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7248: 7247: 7244: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7211: 7210: 7207: 7206: 7204: 7200: 7195: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7152:Kin selection 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7137:Haplodiploidy 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7119: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7106: 7104: 7100: 7096: 7089: 7084: 7082: 7077: 7075: 7070: 7069: 7066: 7054: 7053: 7047: 7043: 7041: 7040: 7034: 7030: 7028: 7027: 7017: 7015: 7014: 7010: 7009: 7006: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6980:Neo-Darwinism 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6965:Functionalism 6963: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6923:Connectionism 6921: 6919: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6913:indeterminism 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6901: 6899: 6895: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6783: 6781: 6777: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6676: 6673: 6672: 6670: 6666: 6663: 6659: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6633:Schizophrenia 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6618:Mental health 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6565: 6563: 6561: 6557: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6493:Mate guarding 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6453:Age disparity 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6440: 6438: 6436: 6432: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6405: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6383:Schizophrenia 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6317: 6314: 6313: 6311: 6309: 6308:Mental health 6304: 6303:Human factors 6300: 6294: 6293:Socialization 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6253:paternal bond 6250: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6228: 6224: 6218: 6215: 6211: 6208: 6207: 6206: 6203: 6199: 6196: 6195: 6194: 6191: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6173: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6160: 6157: 6156: 6155: 6152: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6139: 6138: 6135: 6134: 6132: 6130: 6126: 6118: 6117:Naïve physics 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6104: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6084: 6083:Motor control 6081: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6068: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6049: 6046: 6042: 6041:Ophidiophobia 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6031:Arachnophobia 6029: 6028: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5981: 5980: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5958:Display rules 5956: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5949: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5941: 5936: 5932: 5929: 5925: 5919: 5916: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5889: 5888: 5885: 5881: 5878: 5877: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5860:Kin selection 5858: 5854: 5851: 5850: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5808: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5798: 5796: 5794: 5788: 5782: 5779: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5754:Adaptationism 5752: 5751: 5750: 5747: 5743: 5740: 5739: 5738: 5735: 5734: 5731: 5727: 5720: 5715: 5713: 5708: 5706: 5701: 5700: 5697: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5675: 5667: 5666: 5663: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5635: 5632: 5631: 5630: 5629:Phylogenetics 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5589: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5563: 5557: 5554: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5538: 5535: 5534: 5533: 5532:Structuralism 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5507:Catastrophism 5505: 5504: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5494: 5492: 5488: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5466:Neo-Darwinism 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5435: 5434: 5430: 5429: 5428: 5425: 5421: 5420: 5416: 5415: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5396: 5392: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5380:Reinforcement 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5327: 5325: 5323: 5319: 5313: 5312:Catastrophism 5309: 5306: 5304: 5303:Macromutation 5300: 5299:Micromutation 5297: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5284: 5283: 5281: 5279: 5275: 5269: 5266: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5238: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5206:Immune system 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5180: 5177: 5176: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5144: 5143: 5140: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5130: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5098: 5096: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5066:symbiogenesis 5064: 5063: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5043: 5041: 5039: 5034: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5006: 5003: 5002: 5001: 4998: 4994: 4991: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4978: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4931: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4851: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4816: 4814: 4810: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4773: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4735: 4734:Kin selection 4732: 4730: 4729:Genetic drift 4727: 4725: 4722: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4689: 4687: 4685: 4679: 4671: 4668: 4667: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4645: 4644: 4641: 4637: 4634: 4633: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4580: 4577: 4576: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4528: 4525: 4524: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4497: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4469: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4439: 4436: 4432: 4425: 4420: 4418: 4413: 4411: 4406: 4405: 4402: 4390: 4389: 4384: 4380: 4378: 4377: 4368: 4366: 4365: 4356: 4355: 4352: 4344: 4343: 4339: 4338: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4312: 4306: 4305:Robert Wright 4303: 4299: 4298: 4294: 4293: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4286:Frans de Waal 4284: 4282: 4281:Steven Pinker 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4256:Anne Campbell 4254: 4253: 4251: 4247: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4228: 4225: 4221: 4218: 4217: 4216: 4213: 4212: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4199: 4196: 4195: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4178:Kin selection 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4130: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4113: 4108: 4106: 4101: 4099: 4094: 4093: 4090: 4084: 4081: 4078: 4074: 4071: 4068: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4046: 4036: 4024: 4013: 4009: 4003: 3996: 3995: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3927: 3919: 3914: 3910: 3904: 3899: 3898: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3851: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3801: 3793: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3661: 3656: 3655: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3622: 3614: 3613: 3605: 3597: 3596: 3591: 3587: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3530: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3484: 3476: 3470: 3466: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3454: 3447: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3404: 3396: 3390: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3364: 3360: 3359: 3351: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3294: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3243: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3178: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3084: 3068: 3061: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3010: 3002: 2998: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2961: 2959: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2907: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2856: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2815: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2772: 2764: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2748: 2739: 2737: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2685: 2683: 2674: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2658: 2649: 2641: 2634: 2626: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2575: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2522: 2520: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2473:(4): 327–48. 2472: 2468: 2461: 2454: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2413: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2368: 2363: 2359: 2353: 2345: 2339: 2334: 2333: 2327: 2326:Wilson, E. O. 2321: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2275: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2242:Wilson, E. O. 2237: 2229: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2188: 2180: 2176: 2169: 2153: 2146: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2125: 2117: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2080:Wilson, E. O. 2074: 2072: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2040: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2009: 2001: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1968: 1966: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1842: 1834: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1814: 1812: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1788: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1735: 1728: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1693: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1655: 1647: 1643: 1638: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1600:Wilson, D. S. 1598:Wade, M. J.; 1594: 1592: 1584: 1578: 1572: 1568: 1561: 1553: 1552: 1544: 1536: 1532: 1531: 1526: 1525:Fisher, R. A. 1520: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1477: 1475: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1431: 1423: 1417: 1413: 1412: 1404: 1396: 1390: 1386: 1385: 1380: 1374: 1366: 1354: 1346: 1340: 1336: 1335: 1330: 1326: 1320: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1283: 1278: 1272: 1264: 1260: 1254: 1252: 1250: 1243: 1242:0-632-01541-1 1239: 1236:, Blackwell. 1235: 1229: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1210:. Edinburgh: 1209: 1205: 1199: 1191: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1176: 1171: 1165: 1163: 1154: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1139: 1131: 1129: 1127: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1109:Wilson, E. O. 1104: 1096: 1095: 1090: 1084: 1082: 1073: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1024: 1022: 1020: 1012: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 970: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 943: 941: 939: 937: 935: 926: 920: 916: 912: 911: 903: 901: 896: 889: 887: 883: 878: 877:Steven Pinker 872: 867: 865: 864: 859: 855: 851: 846: 844: 839: 835: 831: 827: 816: 807: 803: 800:This section 798: 795: 791: 790: 782: 778: 775: 770: 768: 764: 760: 755: 753: 746: 742: 738: 733: 728: 724: 714: 712: 708: 704: 700: 695: 691: 688: 687:interspecific 684: 680: 670: 668: 664: 658: 643: 640: 635: 631: 629: 625: 621: 585: 584: 583: 582: 581: 580: 579: 569: 568: 567: 566: 565: 564: 563: 561: 557: 553: 549: 548: 543: 539: 533: 531: 530:haplodiploidy 527: 524: 518: 516: 511: 507: 504: 500: 496: 492: 484: 480: 476: 475:Elliott Sober 472: 468: 464: 461: 457: 452: 450: 445: 444:Elliott Sober 440: 436: 433: 427: 417: 415: 411: 407: 402: 400: 395: 393: 392: 386: 382: 378: 375: 371: 367: 366:Kin selection 363: 361: 354: 350: 349:Kin selection 340: 338: 337:kin selection 334: 330: 325: 323: 322: 317: 316: 311: 307: 306:C. M. Perrins 303: 299: 295: 287: 283: 279: 275: 274:kin selection 271: 267: 263: 259: 257: 256: 251: 247: 243: 238: 235: 231: 223: 222: 221:On Aggression 217: 216:Konrad Lorenz 214: 210: 206: 201: 198: 197: 192: 191: 187:in his book, 186: 182: 177: 176:kin selection 173: 163: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 144:Elliott Sober 141: 136: 134: 130: 126: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 84:kin selection 81: 77: 73: 72:Konrad Lorenz 69: 64: 62: 58: 54: 47: 43: 40: 36: 32: 28: 23: 19: 7410: 7402: 7394: 7390:E. O. Wilson 7376: 7363: 7312: 7286: 7282:Thysanoptera 7272: 7131: 7114:Presociality 7050: 7037: 7024: 7011: 6840: 6770:Sociobiology 6628:Neuroscience 6608:Intelligence 6154:Anthropology 6107:Color vision 6092:Multitasking 6071:Flynn effect 6066:Intelligence 6048:Folk biology 5791:Evolutionary 5641:Polymorphism 5624:Astrobiology 5586: 5572:Biogeography 5527:Saltationism 5517:Orthogenesis 5502:Alternatives 5431: 5417: 5350:Cospeciation 5345:Cladogenesis 5294:Saltationism 5251:Mating types 5174:Color vision 5159:Avian flight 5081:mitochondria 4819:Canalisation 4697:Biodiversity 4442:Introduction 4386: 4374: 4362: 4340: 4295: 4291:E. O. Wilson 4261:Noam Chomsky 4227:presociality 4167: 4119:Sociobiology 4066: 4053: 4012:the original 3993: 3959: 3955: 3930: 3924: 3896: 3862: 3858: 3843:the original 3804: 3798: 3756: 3752: 3713: 3709: 3673:(2): 67–88. 3670: 3666: 3638:. Retrieved 3634: 3621: 3611: 3604: 3593: 3586:Coyne, J. A. 3567:the original 3546: 3542: 3529: 3521:the original 3500: 3496: 3483: 3463: 3451: 3446: 3413: 3409: 3403: 3380: 3357: 3350: 3307: 3303: 3293: 3252: 3248: 3242: 3191: 3187: 3177: 3136: 3132: 3126: 3093: 3089: 3083: 3071:. Retrieved 3060: 3019: 3015: 3009: 2974: 2970: 2916: 2912: 2906: 2873: 2869: 2863: 2828: 2824: 2814: 2781: 2777: 2771: 2746: 2694: 2690: 2656: 2648: 2639: 2633: 2588: 2584: 2574: 2531: 2527: 2508:10 September 2506:. Retrieved 2499:the original 2470: 2466: 2453: 2426: 2422: 2412: 2371: 2365: 2352: 2331: 2320: 2287: 2283: 2274: 2249: 2245: 2236: 2201: 2197: 2187: 2178: 2174: 2168: 2156:. Retrieved 2145: 2131:(1): 17–26. 2128: 2122: 2087: 2083: 2053: 2049: 2039: 2027:. Retrieved 2023:the original 2018: 2008: 1981: 1977: 1952:. Retrieved 1948:the original 1939: 1903: 1899: 1870:(1): 53–61. 1867: 1863: 1855: 1851: 1841: 1822: 1801: 1797: 1787: 1744: 1740: 1727: 1702: 1698: 1692: 1667: 1663: 1654: 1611: 1607: 1566: 1560: 1550: 1543: 1529: 1519: 1486: 1482: 1440: 1436: 1430: 1410: 1403: 1383: 1373: 1333: 1319: 1286: 1280: 1271: 1262: 1233: 1228: 1207: 1198: 1174: 1137: 1115:. New York: 1112: 1103: 1093: 1037: 1033: 1009: 973: 967: 915:Random House 909: 874: 869: 861: 847: 840: 837: 810: 806:adding to it 801: 779: 771: 756: 750: 696: 692: 676: 663:J. L. Mackie 660: 646:Applications 636: 632: 627: 623: 619: 601: 577: 545: 538:haplodiploid 534: 519: 512: 508: 488: 460:E. O. Wilson 456:Martin Nowak 453: 441: 437: 429: 403: 396: 389: 379: 372:in 1930 and 364: 356: 326: 319: 313: 308:(1964), and 296:argued that 291: 278:haplodiploid 253: 219: 202: 194: 188: 179: 148:E. O. Wilson 137: 125:haplodiploid 110:argued that 65: 52: 51: 38: 18: 7288:Kladothrips 7224:Crabronidae 7209:Hymenoptera 7122:Agriculture 7095:Eusociality 6909:Determinism 6821:Coevolution 6765:Primatology 6603:Gender role 6508:Orientation 6388:Screen time 6245:Affectional 6227:Development 5906:Mate choice 5833:By-products 5801:Adaptations 5764:Cognitivism 5651:Systematics 5522:Mutationism 5340:Catagenesis 5268:Snake venom 5201:Eusociality 5179:in primates 5169:Cooperation 5097:In animals 4917:butterflies 4890:Cephalopods 4880:Brachiopods 4812:Development 4786:Mate choice 4539:Convergence 4522:Coevolution 4480:Abiogenesis 4336:Steven Rose 4215:eusociality 4031:|work= 3865:: 374–385. 3640:28 November 3489:Dawkins, R. 2374:(1): 1–16. 1581:(see also: 1489:: S59–S79. 1361:|work= 858:Jerry Coyne 767:Pleistocene 759:Robert Boyd 542:eusociality 526:Hymenoptera 501:, then the 414:green beard 370:R.A. Fisher 244:. In 1976, 160:ethologists 154:especially 133:Hymenoptera 76:R.A. Fisher 42:watercolour 7431:Categories 7343:Coalescent 7331:In culture 7308:Coleoptera 7274:Synalpheus 7268:Crustacean 7229:Halictidae 7157:Polyethism 6856:Population 6851:Lamarckism 6697:behavioral 6675:Behavioral 6623:Narcissism 6568:Aggression 6358:Hypophobia 6348:Depression 6235:Attachment 6217:Universals 6181:Psychology 6159:Biological 6147:Musicology 6137:Aesthetics 6036:Basophobia 5843:Exaptation 5821:Reciprocal 5512:Lamarckism 5490:Philosophy 5413:David Hume 5375:Peripatric 5370:Parapatric 5355:Ecological 5335:Anagenesis 5330:Allopatric 5322:Speciation 5286:Gradualism 5211:Metabolism 5071:chromosome 5061:Eukaryotes 4839:Modularity 4756:Population 4682:Population 4643:Speciation 4621:Panspermia 4574:Extinction 4569:Exaptation 4544:Divergence 4517:Cladistics 4505:Reciprocal 4485:Adaptation 4326:Leon Kamin 4249:Supporters 4240:Polyethism 3377:1022077347 3209:10642/8292 3069:. Edge.org 2154:. Edge.org 2029:12 January 1954:12 January 1858:: 527–543. 1804:: 527–543. 892:References 824:See also: 602:in which b 234:ethologist 213:naturalist 118:sacrifice 7437:Selection 7301:Aphididae 7296:Hemiptera 7234:Honey bee 7172:Thelytoky 7127:Gamergate 6701:cognitive 6693:Affective 6578:Cognition 6532:Sexuality 6518:Pair bond 6278:Education 5935:Cognition 5853:Inclusive 5793:processes 5781:Criticism 5646:Protocell 5497:Darwinism 5385:Sympatric 5134:processes 5022:Tetrapods 4971:Kangaroos 4897:Dinosaurs 4834:Inversion 4803:Variation 4724:Gene flow 4717:Inclusive 4527:Mutualism 4472:Evolution 4314:Opponents 4220:evolution 4210:Sociality 4198:in humans 4033:ignored ( 4023:cite book 3956:Evolution 3817:CiteSeerX 3675:CiteSeerX 3563:146359497 3517:143378724 3416:: 64–80. 3389:cite book 3324:2520-8969 3269:0022-5002 3218:0376-6357 3153:0376-6357 3139:: 65–72. 3110:1555-5542 2825:Evolution 2778:Evolution 2544:CiteSeerX 2266:142713581 2181:(1): 182. 1978:Evolution 1757:CiteSeerX 1437:Evolution 1363:ignored ( 1353:cite book 1220:776867845 1054:1476-4687 1006:205224117 785:Criticism 570:rb > c 479:Selection 454:In 2010, 449:selection 333:honeybees 288:(centre). 270:honeybees 205:Darwinism 129:honeybees 59:in which 57:evolution 35:blackcock 7404:The Ants 7322:Isoptera 7246:Mammalia 7239:Vespidae 6970:Memetics 6730:Ethology 6688:genetics 6523:Physical 6488:Jealousy 6443:Activity 6249:maternal 6205:Religion 6193:Morality 6171:Language 6052:taxonomy 5865:Mismatch 5811:Cheating 5806:Altruism 5674:Category 5549:Vitalism 5544:Theistic 5537:Spandrel 5221:Morality 5216:Monogamy 5091:plastids 5056:Flagella 5012:Reptiles 4993:sea cows 4976:primates 4885:Molluscs 4863:Bacteria 4751:Mutation 4684:genetics 4660:Taxonomy 4606:Mismatch 4586:Homology 4500:Cheating 4495:Altruism 4364:Category 4148:Ethology 3984:28563418 3947:43998139 3893:(1998). 3879:14122417 3839:12054837 3783:17110493 3753:Genetics 3740:17110494 3710:Genetics 3629:(2012). 3537:(1994). 3491:(1994). 3461:(1995). 3438:21839750 3342:31976461 3285:52944940 3277:30302758 3234:24719296 3226:29278778 3194:: 3–16. 3169:37938046 3161:28899811 3118:85150030 3044:12623279 3001:19805434 2941:14574401 2898:18643499 2890:18357481 2855:23730755 2806:28581060 2727:35849910 2625:15256603 2566:12713947 2495:37774648 2487:18217526 2445:17305808 2360:(1964). 2328:(1975). 2228:19805434 2000:23730749 1928:12941597 1821:(2015). 1779:10833350 1719:24652191 1684:26014121 1646:20164866 1527:(1930). 1511:20931060 1503:18811313 1465:28567731 1381:(1972). 1327:(2017). 1261:(2016). 1206:(1962). 1172:(1976). 1111:(2013). 1091:(1871). 1072:20740005 998:21430723 741:cultural 703:fixation 679:altruism 639:parasite 554:and the 523:eusocial 503:organism 435:models. 360:altruism 329:eusocial 276:: their 138:In 1994 131:(in the 94:such as 7261:Meerkat 7251:Blesmol 6871:Species 6643:Suicide 6478:Fantasy 6458:Arousal 6240:Bonding 6129:Culture 5953:Display 5940:Emotion 5848:Fitness 5737:History 5565:Related 5395:History 5256:Meiosis 5191:Empathy 5186:Emotion 5086:nucleus 5027:Viruses 5017:Spiders 4929:Mammals 4912:Insects 4712:Fitness 4648:Species 4447:Outline 4376:Commons 3976:2409191 3809:Bibcode 3774:1775010 3731:1775021 3418:Bibcode 3333:6901638 3052:6190689 3024:Bibcode 2992:2781880 2949:4305295 2921:Bibcode 2846:3744746 2798:2407855 2719:7652573 2699:Bibcode 2691:Science 2593:Bibcode 2536:Bibcode 2404:5310280 2396:5875341 2376:Bibcode 2312:1108197 2292:Bibcode 2284:Science 2219:2781880 1908:Bibcode 1892:9398503 1872:Bibcode 1749:Bibcode 1637:3151728 1616:Bibcode 1457:2407552 1331:(ed.). 1311:4177102 1291:Bibcode 1063:3279739 978:Bibcode 745:gopuram 707:alleles 282:workers 232:". The 120:fitness 48:, 1901. 31:lekking 7219:Apidae 7202:Groups 7102:Topics 7049: 7036: 7023: 6613:Memory 6573:Autism 6540:female 6473:Desire 6210:Origin 6186:Speech 6176:Origin 5948:Affect 5684:Portal 5360:Hybrid 5196:Ethics 5038:organs 5000:Plants 4986:lemurs 4981:humans 4966:horses 4956:hyenas 4944:wolves 4939:canids 4873:origin 4126:Topics 4004: 3982: 3974: 3945: 3905: 3877: 3837: 3819: 3781: 3771: 3738: 3728: 3697:125841 3695: 3677: 3561: 3515: 3471: 3436: 3375: 3365: 3340: 3330: 3322: 3283: 3275: 3267: 3232: 3224: 3216: 3167: 3159: 3151: 3116: 3108: 3073:20 Apr 3050: 3042: 2999: 2989: 2947: 2939: 2913:Nature 2896: 2888: 2853: 2843: 2804: 2796: 2759: 2725: 2717: 2669: 2623: 2616:491990 2613: 2564: 2546: 2493: 2485: 2443: 2402: 2394: 2340: 2310: 2264: 2226: 2216: 2158:19 Apr 1998: 1926: 1890: 1829: 1777: 1759: 1717: 1682: 1644: 1634: 1608:Nature 1573: 1509: 1501: 1463: 1455: 1418: 1391: 1341: 1309: 1282:Nature 1240: 1218: 1186: 1149: 1070: 1060: 1052: 1034:Nature 1004: 996: 969:Nature 921: 832:, and 614:>rb 594:> c 391:Nature 106:, and 6583:Crime 6166:Crime 6097:Sleep 6087:skill 5927:Areas 5147:Death 5142:Aging 5121:brain 4907:Fungi 4868:Birds 4781:Fungi 4579:Event 4462:Index 4015:(PDF) 3998:(PDF) 3972:JSTOR 3943:S2CID 3921:(PDF) 3875:S2CID 3846:(PDF) 3795:(PDF) 3693:S2CID 3663:(PDF) 3559:S2CID 3513:S2CID 3281:S2CID 3230:S2CID 3165:S2CID 3114:S2CID 3048:S2CID 2945:S2CID 2894:S2CID 2794:JSTOR 2723:S2CID 2502:(PDF) 2491:S2CID 2463:(PDF) 2400:S2CID 2262:S2CID 2119:(PDF) 1737:(PDF) 1715:S2CID 1680:S2CID 1507:S2CID 1453:JSTOR 1307:S2CID 1002:S2CID 499:cells 495:genes 286:queen 203:Once 7415:1994 7407:1990 7399:1975 7379:2000 7366:1927 6536:male 5897:Male 5634:Tree 5106:hair 5046:Cell 4949:dogs 4934:cats 4924:Life 4902:Fish 4855:taxa 4077:blog 4035:help 4002:ISBN 3980:PMID 3903:ISBN 3835:PMID 3779:PMID 3736:PMID 3642:2018 3635:Edge 3469:ISBN 3434:PMID 3395:link 3373:OCLC 3363:ISBN 3338:PMID 3320:ISSN 3273:PMID 3265:ISSN 3222:PMID 3214:ISSN 3157:PMID 3149:ISSN 3106:ISSN 3075:2018 3040:PMID 2997:PMID 2937:PMID 2886:PMID 2851:PMID 2802:PMID 2757:ISBN 2715:PMID 2667:ISBN 2621:PMID 2585:PNAS 2562:PMID 2510:2013 2483:PMID 2441:PMID 2392:PMID 2338:ISBN 2308:PMID 2224:PMID 2160:2018 2031:2015 1996:PMID 1956:2015 1924:PMID 1888:PMID 1827:ISBN 1775:PMID 1642:PMID 1571:ISBN 1499:PMID 1461:PMID 1416:ISBN 1389:ISBN 1365:help 1339:ISBN 1238:ISBN 1216:OCLC 1184:ISBN 1147:ISBN 1068:PMID 1050:ISSN 994:PMID 919:ISBN 761:and 725:and 685:and 622:> 473:and 410:meme 351:and 250:gene 174:and 156:ants 142:and 78:and 70:and 7214:Ant 7177:War 6435:Sex 6112:Eye 5132:Of 5101:eye 5051:DNA 5036:Of 4853:Of 3964:doi 3935:doi 3867:doi 3827:doi 3805:215 3769:PMC 3761:doi 3757:175 3726:PMC 3718:doi 3714:175 3685:doi 3551:doi 3505:doi 3456:in 3426:doi 3414:299 3328:PMC 3312:doi 3257:doi 3253:110 3204:hdl 3196:doi 3192:161 3141:doi 3137:161 3098:doi 3032:doi 3020:220 2987:PMC 2979:doi 2975:364 2929:doi 2917:425 2878:doi 2874:127 2841:PMC 2833:doi 2786:doi 2707:doi 2695:269 2611:PMC 2601:doi 2589:101 2554:doi 2532:221 2475:doi 2431:doi 2384:doi 2300:doi 2288:191 2254:doi 2214:PMC 2206:doi 2202:364 2133:doi 2092:doi 2058:doi 1986:doi 1916:doi 1904:224 1880:doi 1868:189 1767:doi 1745:204 1707:doi 1672:doi 1632:PMC 1624:doi 1612:463 1535:159 1491:doi 1487:150 1445:doi 1299:doi 1287:201 1058:PMC 1042:doi 1038:466 986:doi 974:471 884:or 808:. 590:+ b 268:in 33:of 7433:: 4052:. 4027:: 4025:}} 4021:{{ 3978:. 3970:. 3960:41 3958:. 3941:. 3931:63 3929:. 3923:. 3889:; 3873:. 3863:21 3861:. 3857:. 3833:. 3825:. 3815:. 3803:. 3797:. 3777:. 3767:. 3755:. 3751:. 3734:. 3724:. 3712:. 3708:. 3691:. 3683:. 3671:16 3669:. 3665:. 3633:. 3592:. 3575:^ 3557:. 3547:17 3545:. 3541:. 3511:. 3501:17 3499:. 3495:. 3432:. 3424:. 3412:. 3391:}} 3387:{{ 3379:. 3371:. 3336:. 3326:. 3318:. 3308:42 3306:. 3302:. 3279:. 3271:. 3263:. 3251:. 3228:. 3220:. 3212:. 3202:. 3190:. 3186:. 3163:. 3155:. 3147:. 3135:. 3112:. 3104:. 3094:10 3092:. 3046:. 3038:. 3030:. 3018:. 2995:. 2985:. 2973:. 2969:. 2957:^ 2943:. 2935:. 2927:. 2915:. 2892:. 2884:. 2872:. 2849:. 2839:. 2829:67 2827:. 2823:. 2800:. 2792:. 2782:35 2780:. 2755:. 2751:. 2735:^ 2721:. 2713:. 2705:. 2693:. 2681:^ 2665:. 2663:98 2619:. 2609:. 2599:. 2587:. 2583:. 2560:. 2552:. 2542:. 2530:. 2518:^ 2489:. 2481:. 2471:82 2469:. 2465:. 2439:. 2427:20 2425:. 2421:. 2398:. 2390:. 2382:. 2370:. 2364:. 2306:. 2298:. 2286:. 2260:. 2250:72 2248:. 2222:. 2212:. 2200:. 2196:. 2179:89 2177:. 2129:12 2127:. 2121:. 2104:^ 2088:96 2086:. 2070:^ 2054:17 2052:. 2017:. 1994:. 1982:67 1980:. 1976:. 1964:^ 1942:. 1938:. 1922:. 1914:. 1902:. 1886:. 1878:. 1866:. 1856:15 1854:. 1850:. 1810:^ 1802:15 1800:. 1796:. 1773:. 1765:. 1755:. 1743:. 1739:. 1713:. 1701:. 1678:. 1666:. 1640:. 1630:. 1622:. 1610:. 1606:. 1590:^ 1505:. 1497:. 1485:. 1473:^ 1459:. 1451:. 1441:31 1439:. 1357:: 1355:}} 1351:{{ 1305:. 1297:. 1285:. 1248:^ 1214:. 1161:^ 1141:. 1125:^ 1080:^ 1066:. 1056:. 1048:. 1036:. 1032:. 1018:^ 1008:. 1000:. 992:. 984:. 972:. 966:. 958:; 954:; 950:; 933:^ 913:. 899:^ 828:, 620:rb 586:rb 562:: 304:, 258:. 162:. 102:, 98:, 7087:e 7080:t 7073:v 6911:/ 6703:/ 6699:/ 6695:/ 6686:/ 6677:/ 6538:/ 6534:/ 6525:/ 6305:/ 6251:/ 6247:/ 6085:/ 6059:/ 6050:/ 5977:/ 5937:/ 5899:/ 5718:e 5711:t 5704:v 5310:/ 5301:/ 5292:/ 5288:/ 4423:e 4416:t 4409:v 4229:) 4111:e 4104:t 4097:v 4079:) 4058:. 4037:) 3986:. 3966:: 3949:. 3937:: 3911:. 3881:. 3869:: 3829:: 3811:: 3785:. 3763:: 3742:. 3720:: 3699:. 3687:: 3644:. 3598:. 3553:: 3507:: 3477:. 3440:. 3428:: 3420:: 3397:) 3344:. 3314:: 3287:. 3259:: 3236:. 3206:: 3198:: 3171:. 3143:: 3120:. 3100:: 3077:. 3054:. 3034:: 3026:: 3003:. 2981:: 2951:. 2931:: 2923:: 2900:. 2880:: 2857:. 2835:: 2808:. 2788:: 2765:. 2729:. 2709:: 2701:: 2675:. 2627:. 2603:: 2595:: 2568:. 2556:: 2538:: 2512:. 2477:: 2447:. 2433:: 2406:. 2386:: 2378:: 2372:7 2346:. 2314:. 2302:: 2294:: 2268:. 2256:: 2230:. 2208:: 2162:. 2139:. 2135:: 2098:. 2094:: 2064:. 2060:: 2033:. 2002:. 1988:: 1958:. 1930:. 1918:: 1910:: 1894:. 1882:: 1874:: 1835:. 1781:. 1769:: 1751:: 1721:. 1709:: 1703:6 1686:. 1674:: 1668:6 1648:. 1626:: 1618:: 1585:) 1579:. 1537:. 1513:. 1493:: 1467:. 1447:: 1424:. 1397:. 1367:) 1347:. 1313:. 1301:: 1293:: 1222:. 1192:. 1155:. 1119:. 1074:. 1044:: 988:: 980:: 927:. 815:) 811:( 628:r 624:c 616:k 612:e 608:e 604:k 592:e 588:k 226:"

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.