762:
649:
1595:
531:
444:, another design of Colonel Swan, as being the first modern oil tanker. It adopted the best practices from previous oil tanker designs to create the prototype for all subsequent vessels of the type. It was the first dedicated steam-driven ocean-going tanker in the world and was the first ship in which oil could be pumped directly into the vessel hull instead of being loaded in barrels or drums. It was also the first tanker with a horizontal bulkhead, its features included cargo valves operable from the deck, cargo main piping, a vapor line,
19:
2083:
933:
329:
1797:
393:, exploded in Baku while taking on kerosene. The pipe carrying the cargo was jerked away from the hold when the ship was hit by a gust of wind. Kerosene then spilled onto the deck and down into the engine room, where mechanics were working in the light of kerosene lanterns. The ship then exploded, killing half the crew. Nobel responded to the disaster by creating a flexible, leakproof loading pipe which was much more resistant to spills.
1819:
125:. But transport by barrel had several problems. The first problem was weight: the standard empty barrel weighed 64 pounds (29 kg), representing 20% of the total weight of a full barrel. Also barrels were leaky, and could only be carried one way. Finally, barrels were themselves expensive. For example, in the early years of the Russian oil industry, barrels accounted for half the cost of petroleum production.
417:
209:
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Although the tanker fleet increased around 12 percent annually around 1970, a shortage on tonnage remained. In 1973 this resulted in an enormous increase in new building orders, especially from oil majors that wanted to gain on the quicker deciding independents, who could ask enormous rates for their
915:
With the right connections at the
Shipping Board, ships could be bought cheaply, which caused a lot of fraud. This system was too complicated for the oil companies however, so when World War II started, independents owned 39 percent of the world tanker fleet. This was especially because oil companies
1957:, a length overall of 380.0 metres (1,246.7 ft) and a cargo capacity of 3,166,353 barrels (503,409,900 L). The first ULCC tankers to be built for some 25 years, they were also the first ULCCs to be double-hulled. To differentiate them from smaller ULCCs, these ships are sometimes given the
1093:
of 30,000 long tons was the largest tanker of its time. Four of the five Bulk class tankers sank, likely because welding technology was not yet fully understood. As larger ships could not be constructed in the yard at
Norfolk, Virginia, Ludwig went to Japan where he introduced the block construction
219:
Ludvig was a pioneer in the development of early oil tankers. He first experimented with carrying oil in bulk on single-hulled barges. Turning his attention to self-propelled tankships, he faced a number of challenges. A primary concern was to keep the cargo and fumes well away from the engine room
841:
The submarines are sinking freight ships faster than freight ships are being built by the whole world. In this way, too, then, the
Germans are succeeding. Now if this goes on long enough, the Allies' game is up. For instance, they have lately sunk so many fuel oil ships, that this country may very
3427:
However, largely due to the commercial pressure exercised on the classification societies, and to the growing number of organisations operating in the field without having sufficient expertise and professionalism, the confidence of the shipping community in these organisations has declined in the
2016:
Open registries have been branded as flags of convenience by ITF (International
Transport Workers' Federation) to have lower standards for vessel, equipment, and crew than the traditional maritime countries and often have classification societies certify and inspect the vessels in their registry,
1780:
with 204 vessels, many of them tankers, was the largest shipping company in the world with a tonnage of 20.5 million, but in the five years after that he sold some 140 vessels to manage the crisis. In 1980, Daniel K. Ludwig had the largest fleet after Y. K. Pao and C. Y. Tung and was regarded the
1112:
that Ludwig had built in 1955, was at 56,000 long tons not only the largest freighter in the world, but also a self-unloading ore-oil carrier, the only one of that type ever built. It exploded on 6 December 1960 near Brazil — likely because of cargo leakage in the double bottom — resulting in the
952:
from invading
Ethiopia. A solution was found by flagging out to Panama, which was under US control. The advantage for shipping companies was not having to comply with US regulations and not having to sail with US crew which were 50 percent more expensive than European crews at that time. In 1939
871:
Between 1916 and 1921, 316 tankers were built with a total capacity of 3.2 million long tons of deadweight, where the entire world fleet before World War I was just above 2 million tons. In 1923 about 800,000 long tons were laid up, which gave enormous opportunities for speculators, such as
396:
In 1883, oil tanker design took a large step forward. Working for the Nobel company, British engineer
Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a set of three Nobel tankers. Instead of one or two large holds, Swan's design used several holds which spanned the width, or beam, of the ship. These holds were
320:
built in 1864, brought it to
Teklenborgs Werft, and added seventy iron tanks to the hold. The piping between the tanks was connected so that all could be filled from a single tank. The composite hull, with structural members of iron covered with wooden planking, was especially suitable for the
2017:
instead of by their own shipping authority. This made it attractive for ship owners to change flag, whereby the ship lost the economic link and the country of registry. With this, also the link between classification society and traditional maritime country became less obvious - for instance
1591:. Even larger tankers were now built, as the limitations of the Suez Canal were not governing anymore. In only a couple of years the size of tankers quadrupled to more than 500,000 long tons and there were even plans for tankers of 1,000,000 long tons. In 1969 the first ULCC's were built.
794:
to
Britain at the outset of World War I. This technique enabled the Navy to keep its fleets at sea for extended periods, with a far greater range independent of the availability of a friendly port. This independence proved crucial to victory in World War II by the ships commanded by
2031:. A ship owner that is dissatisfied with class can change to a different class relatively easily. This has led to more competition between classes and a relaxation of the rules. This has led to the shipping industry losing confidence in the classification societies, but also by the
2035:. Today open registries are amongst the leading performers on the white lists, are first to ratify and implement International Conventions, including Labor Standards, and are often offering the level of service and attention which the traditional national registries are missing.
401:, where oil sloshing from side to side could cause a ship to capsize. But this approach of dividing the ship's storage space into smaller tanks virtually eliminated free-surface problems. This approach, almost universal today, was first used by Swan in the Nobel tankers
1757:, tripling oil prices to US$ 10 per barrel, halting economic growth. Newly build ships sometimes went straight from the yard to lay-up. The situation worsened when the Suez Canal was reopened in 1975. Just when the situation began to improve in 1979, the
1047:. Intense competition among shipowners also played a part. But apart from these considerations is a simple economic advantage: The larger an oil tanker is, the more cheaply it can move crude oil, and the better it can help meet growing demands for oil.
227:, built in 1878, was the world's first successful oil tanker. He designed this ship together with Sven Alexander Almqvist, who also built the vessel. The contract to build it was signed in January 1878, and it made its first run later that year from
1030:
Where the size of tankers had been more or less the same for 25 years, after World War II they have grown in size significantly, initially slowly. A typical T2 tanker of the World War II era was 532 feet (162 m) long and had a capacity of
1050:
Where the refinery of oil had taken place near the well earlier, this moved to the consumer location during this stage. Oil production in the Middle East developed and the dominance of product tankers was replaced by crude oil carriers. Soon,
964:
were sinking more ships than could be built with existing methods. By building in blocks and welding, the construction time could be reduced dramatically. Daniel Keith Ludwig had an important role in this, as he introduced the method at his
52:
The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry. Although use of oil reaches to prehistory, the first modern commercial exploitation of oils distilled from material extracted from the ground dates back to
3183:
111:, whale oil became rare and expensive. By this time, petroleum oil had already begun to supplant fish, whale, and vegetable oils for applications such as indoor and outdoor lighting, and transatlantic export had already begun.
2012:
was the first ship in that register. In 1967 Liberia passed the United
Kingdom as the largest register. Nowadays, Panama — currently the largest register — and Liberia have one third of the world fleet under their flag.
732:
that allowed much larger ships and a simpler construction process. Just before World War I it owned a fleet of 20 tankers. Standard Oil did not participate directly in the newly discovered oil fields in Texas — such as
1102:
of 38,000 long tons. That same year, Onassis had a tanker of 45,000 long tons built and also
Niarchos had supertankers built. Both Onassis and Niarchos claimed to be the largest independent tanker owner in the world.
700:
were issued. By the time Shell merged with Royal Dutch Petroleum in 1907, the company had 34 steam-driven oil tankers. Standard Oil started building tankers the same way as Shell and by 1900 owned around 60 tankers.
3042:"exxon+background"+governmentauthor%3A%28Coastal+Zone+Information+Center%29&psh=&sbh=&tfh=&originalSearch=&sb=dno&sb=dno&ps=10&ps=10&packageId=CZIC-he554-n5-d44-1982-v-1 "Govinfo"
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133:
The movement of oil in bulk was attempted in many places and in many ways. Modern oil pipelines have existed since 1860. The first oil tankers were two sail-driven tankers that were built in 1863 on England's
1673:
The increase in scale brought a new problem. Until then, the washing of tanks after cargo discharge was done by water. In December 1969 three tankers exploded during tank washing. The Dutch Shell tanker
1152:. Although the voyage was a success, a second attempt to cross the passage in winter proved impossible, and there were numerous environmental concerns with the project, so it was cancelled and the
2067:, nowadays consisting of 24 European countries and Canada. In practice, this was a reaction on the failure of the flag states - especially flags of convenience that have delegated their task to
749:. In combination with the oil fields discovered in Mexico and Venezuela, this caused a rise in the demand for tankers, which gave opportunities for the first independents, such as the Norwegian
1630:
of 458.45 metres (1,504.1 ft) and a draft of 24.611 metres (80.74 ft). She has 46 tanks, 31,541 square metres (339,500 sq ft) of deck, and is too large to pass through the
920:
of the oil companies was not affected, because the charter hire was not recognized as debt in that time. In 1934 H.T. Schierwater founded the International Tanker Owners' Association — later
257:
cargo in two iron tanks joined by pipes. One tank was forward of the midships engine room and the other was aft. The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical watertight compartments for extra
3416:
The Commission shares the concerns often expressed in various sectors of the maritime industry that the performance of classification societies does not always meet the standards required.
1082:, with the demand for oil increasing to the point in 1947 that there was a shortage of tankers. Freight tariffs tripled overnight, enabling some to recoup their investment in one voyage.
2060:
1903:
1148:
built. This was the largest merchant vessel ever built in the United States. It was converted to have ice breaking capacities in 1969 and was the first commercial ship to cross the
88:
in the United States was dug here in 1859, initially yielding around ten barrels per day. Within two years, the Titusville field was providing 3,000 barrels per day (480 m/d).
2049:
In 1978, a number of European countries agreed in The Hague on a memorandum that agreed to audit whether the labour conditions on board vessels were according to the rules of the
1670:
vessels. Where the existing tanker fleet comprised some 150 million long tons, in a quarter of a year a tonnage of 75 million was ordered, although new build prices doubled.
3776:
729:
3191:
3824:
3244:
157:
in 1873, although the vessel's use was soon curtailed by the authorities citing safety concerns. By 1871, the Pennsylvania oil fields were making limited use of oil tank
1884:, a VLCC with two propellers, two rudders and two redundant engine rooms, where a single fault does not result in loss of steering, reducing the chances of a grounding.
342:
Nobel also began to adopt a single-hull design, where the ship's hull forms part of its tank structure. In November 1880 he ordered his first single-hulled tanker, the
453:
1686:
were damaged heavily, but remained afloat. Shell investigated the matter and came to the conclusion that water drops that impact steel with high velocity generates
2106:
1165:
was the first Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC) built. In twenty years, the size of tankers had increased tenfold. In 1968, the first Ultra Large Crude Carrier, the
220:
to avoid fires. Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to temperature changes, and providing a method to ventilate the tanks.
668:(KNMEP) ("Royal Dutch Company for the Working of Petroleum Wells in the Dutch Indies") — part of Royal Dutch Petroleum — was founded. In 1892 it found oil near
1718:
921:
3653:
895:
The bunkering of ships with oil instead of coal, mass-production of automobiles and increasing aviation, all increased demand for oil and thus oil transport.
2043:
261:. The ship had a length overall of 184 feet (56 m), a beam of 27 feet (8.2 m), and a draft of 9 feet (2.7 m). Unlike later Nobel tankers, the
3309:
1875:
1108:
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as being too risky. Samuel approached the problem a different way: asking the company for the specifications of a tanker it would allow through the canal.
239:
design was widely studied and copied, with Nobel refusing to patent any part of it. In October 1878 he ordered two more tankers of the same design: the
3371:
1167:
427:
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1980:
With the exception of the pipeline, the tanker is the most cost-effective way to move oil today. Worldwide, tankers carry some 2 billion barrels (3.2
1611:
2754:
599:
485:
ship, was capable of carrying 750 long tons (760 t) of refined oil was powered by three 120 horsepower (89 kW) diesel motors. The larger
2027:
1161:
1550:* Tonnage Classes are in thousands of long tons, dwt. ** Size categories for these years are 100,000 to 159,999 dwt and 160,000 to 199,999 dwt.
3751:
2458:
860:
commandeered all ships in the United States and also took over all yards. An unprecedented budget of $ US1.3 billion was used for this end. At
397:
further subdivided into port and starboard sections by a longitudinal bulkhead. Earlier designs suffered from stability problems caused by the
3011:
2967:
1880:
1649:
3803:
1874:, a measure that is not seen as the best solution by all experts. Where a double hull should minimize the consequences after a disaster,
854:
Gasoline is as vital as blood in the coming battles…a failure in the supply of gasoline would cause the immediate paralysis of our armies
4023:
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304:
entered the petroleum trade in 1877, he noted the difficulties of using barrels, and began to experiment with the former emigrant ships
4152:
1126:
3571:
3115:
3074:
3525:
1992:
The first open register was Panama in 1916. Fear for political instability and high and excessive consular fees led the president of
69:. The oil was moved in earthenware vessels to the river bank where it was then poured into boat holds for transportation to Britain.
1701:. The use of IG is seen as the biggest step in increasing tanker safety. Ten years later however, fifty people were killed when the
3934:
3480:
1769:
after being in service for only ten years. It took until the end of the 1980s before any profits were being made in oil transport.
1690:
that can cause explosions in combination with cargo vapors. This only became apparent with the large sizes of the tanks of VLCC's.
1565:
1130:. In ten years time, tanker size had quadrupled. In 1958, Ludwig broke the barrier of 100,000 long tons of heavy displacement. His
988:
with a capacity of 16,613 long tons of deadweight, was the most popular variant with nearly 500 built during the war. A small
3783:
945:
761:
3832:
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641:, the fledgling Shell company was ready to become Standard Oil's first challenger in the Asian market. On August 24, 1892, the
1727:
4180:
3642:
3459:
1741:. The advantages were cleaner tanks, no corrosive sea water in cargo tanks and no polluted sea water being pumped overboard.
146:
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to the East Coast of the U.S. This 5,218 GRT schooner was fitted out as an oil tanker in 1906, and sunk in a storm off
2717:
560:
2479:
603:
564:
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in 1967 caused a public awareness about the environmental dangers of oil tankers. Oil companies united in 1970 in the
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the world's first tanker, built by Sven Alexander Almqvist at Motala Varv and delivered to the Nobel brothers in Baku
3421:
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the Safety of the Seaborne Oil Trade
1035:. A modern ultra-large crude carrier (ULCC) can be 1,300 feet (400 m) long and have a capacity of 500,000
888:. The resulting explosion killed two crew members and badly injured Ludwig. After this, he was a strong believer in
3660:
559:
The idea that led to moving Russian oil to the Far East via the Suez Canal was the brainchild of two men: importer
1000:. After the war these tankers were used commercially for decades, and many were sold on the international market.
953:
there were 52 tankers with a total capacity of 700,000 long tons of deadweight under Panamanian flag, a boost for
648:
4385:
4359:
3418:
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used this to buy tankers cheaply. The expected economic decline did not come, due to reasons amongst others the
4372:
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974:
832:
54:
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Underway replenishment was quickly adopted by other navies. One example of this is the Australian fleet oiler
1587:
closed until 1975 and freight rates skyrocketed because of the shortage of tonnage now ships had to pass the
680:
arrived in Singapore. At first, chartered ships were used, but in 1896 KNMEP launched its first tankers, the
2273:
1895:
from large tankers in smaller ones that are able to reach the destination port. The largest oil terminal is
2716:
2116:
1153:
1066:
After the war, it was expected that a large number of tankers would be laid up, which indeed happened. The
857:
717:
29:
3704:. Marine Board Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
2788:
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2255:
1984:
10 L) annually, and the cost of transportation by tanker amounts to US$ 0.02 per gallon at the pump.
745:. Avoiding the use of Standard Oil's pipe line system, they started using tankers to get their oil to the
3443:
2446:
2022:
1888:
1827:
1678:
sank off Dakar and became the largest merchant vessel ever lost. The other two, the British Shell tanker
1663:
688:. The threat of the Tank Syndicate was reduced as the Dutch government excluded them from trading in the
514:, built in 1902, was the largest purely sail tanker ever built. It carried coal, and oil in barrels from
24:
4035:
The History of the Ship: The Comprehensive Story of Seafaring from the Earliest Times to the Present Day
2121:
1923:
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did have this system, preventing an explosion when it broke in two on 21 July 1980 during discharge at
1594:
546:
468:
4173:
1839:
598:, each had a capacity of 5,010 long tons of deadweight. In 1893 the Samuel brothers founded the
583:
489:
employed four 180 hp (130 kW) engines. The first seagoing diesel-powered tanker, 4,500-ton
2824:"Energy Security Policy as Economic Statecraft: A Concise Historical Overview of the Last 100 Years"
2823:
1043:
which interrupted traffic through the Suez Canal contributed, as did nationalization of Middle East
4138:
575:
81:
3019:
2977:
3755:
1887:
The size of VLCCs and ULCCs limits their sailing area and available ports. In the United States,
1014:. This size restriction became much less of a priority after the closing of the canal during the
916:
needed capital to invest in the growing oil market. By not buying the ships, but chartering, the
666:
Koninklijke Nederlandsche Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van Petroleumbronnen in Nederlandsch-Indie
509:
4158:
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530:
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sank that year, it was decided to also audit on safety and pollution. To this end, in 1982 the
2001:
1864:
1702:
899:
780:
2642:
1906:
ordered four double-hull supertankers in 1999. These ships were built in 2002 and 2003 as the
924:
or INTERTANKO — to protect the interests of these companies in a strongly fluctuating market.
505:, 4,600-long-ton (4,700 t) kerosene tankers with 1,200-horsepower (890 kW) engines.
338:
is the oldest surviving American tanker and the world's only surviving sail-driven oil tanker.
3387:
1931:
941:
431:
333:
44:
is part of the evolution of the technology of oil transportation alongside the oil industry.
3889:
2025:
with the United States. This made it easier to change class and introduced a new phenomena;
4514:
4349:
4345:
4326:
4166:
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was the largest producer in the world at that time, but was limited to the Russian market.
457:
4060:
Shaw, Jim (March 2017), "Tank Ship Development and the birth of the American oil tanker",
3545:
99:
as lamp oil, which has a smokeless combustion in contrast with the until then highly used
8:
3850:
2032:
2018:
1970:
1773:
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filling their large iron drinking water tanks with oil. In October 1879 he purchased the
3993:
4339:
4241:
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2748:
2101:
2064:
1954:
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845:
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was lost in 1893 after being grounded in fog, Standard Oil purchased the sister ships.
3750:
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with seawater when empty of cargo. The ship was built in Britain and was purchased by
439:
421:
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4116:
4110:
4095:
4074:
4039:
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3980:
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3701:
Double-Hull Tanker Legislation: An Assessment of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (1998)
3684:
3638:
3617:
3598:
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783:. A large ship at the time, with a capacity of 14,500 long tons of deadweight,
773:
689:
669:
653:
607:
4013:
3283:
2374:
1022:, shipowners realized that bigger tankers were the key to more efficient transport.
4378:
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3940:
The Russian Rockefellers: The Saga of the Nobel Family and the Russian Oil Industry
3537:
2126:
2088:
2009:
1075:
949:
750:
725:
114:
18:
835:
caused a shortage of tankers. The United States ambassador to the United Kingdom,
4089:
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3871:
Sailing ship to supertanker: the hundred-year story of British Esso and its ships
3632:
2972:
2354:(in German). Bremen-Blumenthal: Buchdruckerei Friedrich Pörtner. pp. 36–37.
2111:
1782:
1754:
1631:
713:
697:
519:
482:
476:
1789:. He also owns almost ten percent of the largest shipping company in the world,
960:
The block construction method was invented in the United States, because German
121:
were originally used to transport Pennsylvania oil in 40-US-gallon (150 L)
4365:
3998:
3360:
1997:
1843:
1801:
1786:
1750:
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1607:
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soon be in a perilous condition — even the Grand Fleet may not have enough fuel
796:
317:
290:
150:
66:
2487:
1733:
Washing with water in combination with the Load on Top system was replaced by
582:— the Russian oil company of the Rothschilds — and ordered three tankers from
177:
The modern oil tanker was developed in the period from 1877 to 1885. In 1876,
4508:
4248:
4027:. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 881–889.
4018:
3864:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 316–322.
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202:
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33:
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size designation. In February 2008, their owners announced plans to convert
1891:(LOOP) is the only facility that is able to handle VLCCs. To overcome this,
1796:
602:
together with Fred Lane and Asian trading companies. In 1897 it was renamed
321:
addition of tanks, because they could be firmly fastened to the iron beams.
76:
oil fields became a major supplier of oil, and a center of innovation after
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4234:
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3276:"World's Largest Double-Hull Tanker Newbuildings Fly Marshall Islands Flag"
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2718:
Navy Dept., Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Naval History Division
2082:
1777:
1569:
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865:
814:
553:
472:
449:
186:
182:
178:
92:
73:
3735:
3659:. Institute of Shipping Economics and Logistics. p. 3. Archived from
3581:(Winter 2002). Houston: American Bureau of Shipping: 10–11. Archived from
2256:"'Innovasjon' i maritim og marin industri – hva kan vi lære av hverandre?"
1969:
into stationary floating storage and offloading units to be placed in the
1902:
ULCCs had not been built since the beginning of the 1980s until the Greek
932:
4482:
4469:
4452:
4446:
2055:
1871:
1765:, causing oil prices to rise to US$ 30. Ships were sometimes sent to the
1658:
1580:
1121:
1070:
had replaced the War Shipping Board, but fraudulent activities remained.
1040:
1015:
997:
917:
828:
301:
294:
278:
270:
108:
77:
62:
1089:
in 1947 and began building larger tankers in his Welding Shipyards. The
325:
made seven trips from Germany to North America as a sailing oil tanker.
4494:
1896:
1892:
1870:
was the incentive to introduce legislation requiring tankers to have a
1857:
1713:
1709:
1584:
1011:
1004:
821:
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which provided underway replenishment services in the United Kingdom's
734:
328:
282:
274:
198:
135:
2636:, The Rothschild Archive, Review of the year April 2006 to March 2007"
382:. Branobel experienced one of the first oil tanker disasters. In 1881
61:(kerosene) in 1850. In the early 1850s, oil began to be exported from
4490:
4486:
4303:
4298:
4293:
1723:
1697:(IG), reducing the oxygen level such that the tank remains below the
1694:
993:
989:
981:
788:
657:
630:
618:
445:
232:
100:
3774:
2837:(4). Piraeus: Institute of International Economic Relations: 327–329
567:. Prior bids to move oil through the canal had been rejected by the
2486:. Aberdeen, New Jersey: Rich Galiano. 28 April 2009. Archived from
985:
738:
693:
677:
634:
534:
258:
254:
190:
162:
96:
85:
58:
1953:
Each of the four sister ships has a capacity of over 441,500
737:— and Oklahoma, which gave opportunities for new oil companies as
346:. Within a year, he ordered seven more single-hulled tankers: the
4402:
4332:
4188:
4071:
From T-2 to Supertanker: Development of the Oil Tanker, 1940-2000
3681:
International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT)
3678:
2512:
From T-2 to Supertanker: Development of the Oil Tanker, 1940-2000
1993:
1927:
1818:
1060:
1056:
1052:
936:
Allied oil tankers were often targeted by U-boats in World War II
889:
673:
622:
614:
494:
286:
3849:
3242:
1950:— are as of 2008 the world's four largest working supertankers.
416:
3212:
961:
742:
626:
467:
In 1903, the Nobel brothers built two oil tankers which ran on
266:
3561:
European Commission / European Maritime Safety Agency (2005).
3526:"Combined Ships: An Empirical Investigation About Versatility"
944:
could not support the United Kingdom directly, as in 1935 the
810:, had played a key role in developing underway replenishment.
545:
The 1880s also saw the beginnings of the Asian oil trade. The
28:
while taking bunkers shortly after its completion at the yard
4405:
3273:
1974:
1568:
to become involved in the following issuing of rules such as
1039:. Several factors encouraged this growth. Hostilities in the
1010:
Until 1956, tankers were designed to be able to navigate the
881:
864:, the largest shipyard in the world was built, known for the
721:
579:
515:
158:
118:
4145:
3916:. Washington, D.C.: Ship Structure Committee. Archived from
3614:
Tanker operations: a handbook for the person-in-charge (PIC)
1662:
and converted into a permanently moored storage tanker. The
4012:
3442:
898:
In 1928 the World's largest oil tanker was the 16,436
638:
538:
228:
208:
201:. It was, during the late 19th century, one of the largest
194:
3822:
3801:
574:
Armed with the canal companies specifications, Samuel had
563:
and shipowner/broker Fred Lane — the London agent for the
3979:(4th ed.). Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press.
1666:
are the biggest ships ever constructed by gross tonnage.
779:, launched on April 17, 1915, pioneered the technique of
165:
similar to those in use today. In 1877, the sailing ship
3995:
United Nations Council on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
3974:
3503:
The Tankship Tromedy: The Impending Disasters in Tankers
2107:
List of replenishment ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary
645:
became the first tanker to pass through the Suez Canal.
3782:. United States Maritime Administration. Archived from
3563:
Double Hull Tankers: High Level Panel of Experts Report
3361:"Chapter 2, Structure and ownership of the world fleet"
1738:
1693:
The solution was found by filling the cargo tanks with
1573:
3752:
Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA)
3652:
Institute of Shipping Economics and Logistics (2005).
3084:(4). American Bureau of Shipping: 5–11. Archived from
1622:. This ship was built with a capacity of 564,763
922:
International Association of Independent Tanker Owners
724:— also had its own tanker fleet. They quickly adopted
3307:
3243:
Overseas Shipholding Group, Inc. (28 February 2008).
2000:, in 1948 to start an open register with the help of
1134:
displaced 104,500 long tons, a 23% increase from the
4112:
Supertanker!: The Story of the World's Biggest Ships
3760:
Shipbuilding and Ship Repair - Hazards and Solutions
3178:
2723:
Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships Volume 6
2484:
Scuba Diving - New Jersey & Long Island New York
2078:
2046:
has established TOCA (Transfer Of Class Agreement).
1602:
rivals some of the world's largest buildings in size
992:
was used for small ports and near shore. The larger
765:
Underway replenishment was pioneered aboard the USS
508:
The 475 ft (145 m), seven-masted schooner
3910:"Case Study II: Derbyshire, Loss of a Bulk Carrier"
2771:
Navy Contribution to Australian Maritime Operations
1606:The world's largest supertanker ever was built for
3775:Office of Data and Economic Analysis (July 2006).
3475:
3447:
2632:"Jonker, Joost and Luiten van Zanden, Jan (2007).
460:along with several of her sister ships. After the
3251:. Overseas Shipholding Group, Inc. Archived from
2777:. Royal Australian Navy. 2005. pp. 113–120.
2375:"Falls of Clyde National Historic Landmark Study"
4506:
3957:
3908:Tarman, Daniel; Heitmann, Edgar (7 April 2008).
3634:The Life and Letters of Walter H. Page Volume II
2271:
1716:tanker was still not fitted with inert gas. The
1574:International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation
4149:- the society of International Tanker Operators
3823:Overseas Shipholding Group (28 February 2008).
3802:Overseas Shipholding Group (22 February 2008).
3282:. International Registries, Inc. Archived from
3274:International Registries, Inc (30 April 2007).
2275:Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry
1785:owns the largest tanker operator in the world,
1744:
1174:
3975:Turpin, Edward A.; McEwen, William A. (1980).
3907:
3868:
3825:"Overseas Shipholding Group Enters FSO Market"
3245:"Overseas Shipholding Group Enters FSO Market"
2561:
2559:
2508:
2372:
1120:of 85,000 long tons was built just before the
984:played an important part in World War II. The
756:
4189:World War II Maritime Commission ship designs
4174:
3338:Overseas Shipholding Group, 2008, Fleet List.
2871:Auke Visser's International Esso Tankers site
2687:
2685:
2683:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2539:
1007:was introduced to determine freight tariffs.
908:, completed that year for Canadian owners by
3831:. Overseas Shipholding Group. Archived from
3806:. Overseas Shipholding Group. Archived from
3728:"The Liberty Ship and the T-2 Tanker (1941)"
3697:
3593:Hayler, William B.; Keever, John M. (2003).
3592:
2753:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2681:
2679:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2166:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2158:
1648:in 1991. From 1979 to 2004 she was owned by
1553:
448:for added safety, and the ability to fill a
141:The first ocean-going oil-tank steamer, the
3569:
3316:. Tankers International LLC. Archived from
3072:
2265:
2215:
2213:
2211:
1113:largest spill until then with 60,000 tons.
265:design was built small enough to sail from
4181:
4167:
3725:
3679:International Chamber of Shipping (1996).
2536:
2349:
2343:
2071:- to comply with their inspection duties.
2063:(Paris MoU) was agreed upon, establishing
1856:. This was the first time the monopoly of
1726:. It has also saved many lives during the
1141:In 1962 Niarchos had the 106,000 long ton
753:, that launched its first tanker in 1913.
253:carried its 242 long tons (246 t) of
3616:. Cambridge, MD: Cornell Maritime Press.
3238:
3236:
3006:
3004:
2962:
2960:
2660:
2603:
2225:
2176:
2155:
2143:
1188:Number of Vessels in Each Tonnage Class*
4108:
4087:
3630:
3536:(3). Taylor and Francis, Ltd.: 231–248.
3499:
3346:
3344:
3332:
3213:Hellespont Shipping Corporation (2008).
3126:
3124:
3110:
3108:
3106:
2941:
2939:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2423:
2421:
2336:
2334:
2332:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2208:
1817:
1795:
1593:
1566:Oil Companies International Marine Forum
931:
760:
647:
529:
415:
327:
207:
172:
17:
4153:The International Maritime Organization
4031:
3869:Sawyer, L. A.; Mitchell, W. O. (1987).
3847:
3804:"Overseas Shipholding Group Fleet List"
3174:
3172:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2913:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2905:
2761:
2587:
2585:
2472:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2320:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2170:
2149:
1583:of 1967 was of greater importance. The
1018:of 1956. Forced to move oil around the
706:CompañĂa Mexicana de PetrĂłleo El Aguila
316:at Liverpool, an 1,876-ton full-rigged
4507:
4068:
4006:. New York and Geneva: United Nations.
3233:
3001:
2957:
2430:
2201:
2199:
2197:
2195:
1576:was founded to indemnify the victims.
876:. In 1925 he had bought the freighter
493:, was built by Nobel's competitors in
4162:
4010:
3887:
3873:. Lavenham, Suffolk: Terence Dalton.
3611:
3523:
3400:
3341:
3303:
3301:
3160:
3151:
3142:
3133:
3121:
3103:
3073:Evangelista, Joe, ed. (Winter 2002).
2936:
2703:
2609:
2418:
2219:
1838:was used for the first time when the
1055:tankers were built, soon followed by
940:When World War II broke out in 1939,
147:Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company
4059:
3932:
3308:Tankers International (March 2008).
3169:
3057:
3048:
2992:
2948:
2920:
2902:
2893:
2884:
2849:
2821:
2694:
2615:
2594:
2582:
2402:
2393:
2299:
2244:. Tschudi Tribune. 2013. p. 12.
652:A Royal Dutch Petroleum dock in the
169:was converted to carry oil in bulk.
128:
4069:Spyrou, Andrew G. (February 2006).
3206:
2366:
2192:
1652:, at which point she was bought by
884:tanks leaked, which resulted in an
604:Shell Transport and Trading company
13:
4155:- Tanker Safety (for double-hulls)
4053:
4000:Review of Maritime Transport, 2006
3977:Merchant Marine Officers' Handbook
3935:"4: The World's First Oil Tankers"
3298:
3267:
3018:. 15 December 1958. Archived from
2864:
1987:
1781:richest man of the United States.
1025:
880:and put tanks in the holds. These
676:, just some months before Samuels
525:
14:
4526:
4130:
3595:American Merchant Seaman's Manual
3221:. Hellespont Shipping Corporation
2976:. 14 October 1957. Archived from
2061:Paris Memorandum of Understanding
1922:. Hellespont sold these ships to
1068:United States Maritime Commission
3777:"World Merchant Fleet 2001–2005"
3509:. Tavernier, FL: The CTX Press.
2081:
1904:Hellespont Steamship Corporation
1124:started with the seizure of the
856:". Wilson reacted strongly. The
3631:Hendrick, Burton Jesse (2007).
3436:
3409:
3353:
3066:
3034:
2858:
2815:
2806:
2624:
2568:
2502:
2439:
1616:Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd.
927:
710:Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company
586:in northern England. Named the
103:. The lamp oil became known as
3964:Standard for Inert Gas Systems
3888:Singh, Baljit (11 July 1999).
3530:Maritime Policy and Management
3190:. wartsila.com. Archived from
2867:"C. O. Stillman - (1937-1942)"
2350:Spengemann, Friedrich (1951).
2248:
2242:"Pioneers in the tanker trade"
2234:
1098:. Here, in 1952, he built the
1063:tankers because of economics.
975:Emergency Shipbuilding program
833:unrestricted submarine warfare
741:and Texas Fuel Company, later
664:In the meanwhile, in 1890 the
193:(short for Brothers Nobel) in
1:
3392:: CS1 maint: date and year (
2436:Turpin and McEven, 1980:8-24.
2132:
1852:, although the vessel was in
1737:(COW), a method developed by
1159:In 1966 the 206,000 long ton
47:
3734:. Marine Log. Archived from
3683:. New York: Hyperion Books.
3368:Review of Maritime Transport
2634:Searching for oil in Roubaix
2117:List of Type T2 Tanker names
2021:with the United Kingdom and
1814:was used for the first time.
1745:Oil crisis and consolidation
1558:The oil spill caused by the
1175:World tanker fleet 1957–1980
1154:Trans-Alaska Pipeline System
613:With facilities prepared in
556:dominated the world market.
145:, was designed and built by
7:
3444:Central Intelligence Agency
3166:Devanney, 2006, p. 246–258.
3075:"Scaling the Tanker Market"
2074:
1889:Louisiana Offshore Oil Port
1664:Batillus class supertankers
757:World War I and interbellum
730:longitudinal framing system
716:to develop the newly found
469:internal combustion engines
95:led to the availability of
10:
4531:
3890:"The world's biggest ship"
3848:Redwood, Boverton (1911).
3114:Det Norske Veritas, 2008.
2855:Devanney, 2006, pp. 17-18.
2261:(in Norwegian). p. 9.
2122:Marine transfer operations
1924:Overseas Shipholding Group
1791:Overseas Shipholding Group
1218:
1215:
720:, nationalized in 1938 as
584:William Gray & Company
547:oil industry in Azerbaijan
471:, as opposed to the older
4479:
4462:
4415:
4318:
4286:
4263:
4194:
4109:Sullivan, George (1978).
4088:Stopford, Martin (1997).
4038:. New York: Lyons Press.
4032:Woodman, Richard (1998).
3570:Evangelista, Joe (2002).
3406:Devanney, 2006, p. 21-23.
3148:Devanney, 2006, p. 28-33.
3139:Devanney, 2006, p. 34-35.
3054:Devanney, 2006, p. 25-27.
2890:Devanney, 2006, p. 19-20.
2621:Devanney, 2006, p. 14-16.
2379:Maritime Heritage Program
2272:Vassiliou, M. S. (2009).
1934:– currently known as the
1706:exploded at Whiddy Island
1554:Closure of the Suez Canal
1264:
1212:
1187:
1184:
426:grounded in heavy fog at
161:and cylindrical railroad
153:for the American-Belgian
42:history of the oil tanker
30:Chantiers de l'Atlantique
3933:Tolf, Robert W. (1976).
3914:Educational Case Studies
3756:"Process: Tank Cleaning"
3314:tankersinternational.com
2700:Devanney, 2006, p. 17-20
2137:
2069:classification societies
712:") — founded in 1909 by
606:, forerunner of today's
576:James Fortescue Flannery
82:Titusville, Pennsylvania
4115:. New York: Dodd Mead.
4094:. New York: Routledge.
4024:Encyclopædia Britannica
3861:Encyclopædia Britannica
3597:. Cornell Maritime Pr.
3542:10.1080/030888399286862
3524:Douet, M. (July 1999).
3500:Devanney, Jack (2006).
3454:. Skyhorse Publishing.
3450:CIA World Factbook 2008
2831:Agora Without Frontiers
2509:Spyrou, Andrew (2011).
2381:. National Park Service
2373:Delgado, James (1988).
1836:Intervention Convention
1826:, a V-MAX, approaching
1812:Intervention Convention
1749:On 10 October 1973 the
1579:For tanker owners, the
946:Shipping Neutrality Act
692:. To prevent a hostile
497:. Nobel responded with
454:Wilhelm Anton Riedemann
4011:Watts, Philip (1911).
3215:"2000's Fleet Renewal"
3157:Devanney, 2006, p. 34.
3063:Devanney, 2006, p. 28.
2998:Devanney, 2006, p. 22.
2954:Devanney, 2006, p. 21.
2945:Huber, 2001, fig 1-16.
2899:Devanney, 2006, p. 20.
2812:Hendrick, 2007, p. 14.
2565:Woodman, 1975, p. 177.
2231:Woodman, 1975, p. 176.
2002:Edward Stettinius, Jr.
1831:
1815:
1603:
948:was signed to prevent
937:
848:wrote to US president
781:underway replenishment
769:
661:
578:designing tankers for
542:
435:
339:
300:When W.A. Riedmann of
216:
37:
3762:. Department of Labor
3698:Marine Board (1998).
3654:"ISL Market Analysis"
3637:. BiblioBazaar, LLC.
3419:COM(2000) 142 final,
3184:"Hellespont Alhambra"
2968:"The Biggest Tankers"
2189:Woodman, 1975, p 175.
1932:TI class supertankers
1912:Hellespont Metropolis
1821:
1799:
1597:
935:
764:
651:
537:'s oil facilities in
533:
419:
331:
211:
173:The modern oil tanker
105:Pennsylvania Kerosine
21:
4073:. : iUniverse, Inc.
3732:Ships of the Century
3612:Huber, Mark (2001).
3487:. Det Norske Veritas
3350:Huber, 2001, p. 211.
3180:Wärtsilä Corporation
3091:on 30 September 2007
2455:Alexandria, Virginia
1860:was broken through.
1854:international waters
1719:Energy Concentration
1003:In this period, the
955:flags of convenience
797:Fleet Admiral Nimitz
565:De Rothschild Frères
551:John D. Rockefellers
458:Standard Oil Company
438:Others point to the
4416:Miscellaneous-cargo
3789:on 21 February 2007
3754:(30 January 2008).
3726:Marine Log (2008).
3374:: 36. December 2007
3320:on 3 September 2010
3286:on 15 February 2009
3194:on 22 February 2008
2278:. Scarecrow Press.
2033:European Commission
1971:Al Shaheen oilfield
1908:Hellespont Alhambra
1774:World-Wide Shipping
1753:begun, causing the
1654:First Olsen Tankers
1572:. In 1968 also the
1179:Data according to.
1085:Ludwig had started
900:gross register tons
874:Daniel Keith Ludwig
824:from 1917 to 1919.
456:, an agent for the
399:free surface effect
4384:Type S4-SE2-BE1 ("
4371:Type S4-SE2-BD1 ("
4353:-class cable layer
4340:Landing Ship, Tank
4091:Maritime economics
3894:The Times of India
3835:on 23 January 2016
3810:on 9 December 2008
3666:on 8 December 2005
3477:Det Norske Veritas
3255:on 23 January 2016
2933:Huber, 2001, p.23.
2794:on 23 January 2016
2768:"Afloat Support".
2451:GlobalSecurity.org
2415:Tolf, 1976, p. 58.
2399:Tolf, 1976, p. 56.
2340:Tolf, 1976, p. 55.
2205:Tolf, 1976, p. 54.
2102:List of oil spills
2065:Port State Control
1876:Concordia Maritime
1832:
1816:
1759:Iranian Revolution
1688:static electricity
1682:and the Norwegian
1604:
1109:Sinclair Petrolore
1087:Universe Tankships
938:
858:War Shipping Board
846:Georges Clemenceau
770:
718:Mexican oil fields
662:
569:Suez Canal Company
543:
522:in December 1907.
436:
340:
217:
72:In the 1860s, the
57:'s manufacture of
38:
4502:
4501:
4431:("Coastal Cargo")
4392:attack cargo ship
4358:Type S4-S2-BB3 ("
3851:"Petroleum"
3644:978-1-4346-0691-4
3461:978-1-60239-080-5
3012:"Dona's Daughter"
2917:Marine Log, 2008.
2427:Huber, 2001, p.5.
2097:Aristotle Onassis
1899:in Saudi Arabia.
1763:second oil crisis
1735:crude oil washing
1589:Cape of Good Hope
1548:
1547:
1150:Northwest Passage
1072:Aristotle Onassis
1020:Cape of Good Hope
980:Particularly the
967:Welding Shipyards
886:explosive mixture
837:Walter Hines Page
808:executive officer
787:began refuelling
698:preference shares
696:by Standard Oil,
690:Dutch East Indies
670:Pangkalan Brandan
654:Dutch East Indies
608:Royal Dutch Shell
129:Early oil tankers
91:The invention of
22:The Shell tanker
4522:
4449:("Refrigerated")
4379:attack transport
4338:Type S3-S2-BP ("
4183:
4176:
4169:
4160:
4159:
4126:
4105:
4084:
4065:
4049:
4028:
4016:
4007:
4005:
3990:
3971:
3969:
3959:Transport Canada
3954:
3943:. Hoover Press.
3929:
3927:
3925:
3904:
3902:
3900:
3884:
3865:
3853:
3844:
3842:
3840:
3819:
3817:
3815:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3788:
3781:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3722:
3720:
3718:
3694:
3675:
3673:
3671:
3665:
3658:
3648:
3627:
3608:
3589:
3588:on 9 April 2008.
3587:
3576:
3566:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3544:. Archived from
3520:
3508:
3496:
3494:
3492:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3453:
3431:
3413:
3407:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3391:
3383:
3381:
3379:
3365:
3357:
3351:
3348:
3339:
3336:
3330:
3329:
3327:
3325:
3305:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3271:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3260:
3240:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3226:
3210:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3199:
3176:
3167:
3164:
3158:
3155:
3149:
3146:
3140:
3137:
3131:
3128:
3119:
3112:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3096:
3090:
3079:
3070:
3064:
3061:
3055:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3029:
3027:
3008:
2999:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2964:
2955:
2952:
2946:
2943:
2934:
2931:
2918:
2915:
2900:
2897:
2891:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2862:
2856:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2828:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2793:
2787:. Archived from
2776:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2752:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2714:
2701:
2698:
2692:
2689:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2647:
2641:. Archived from
2640:
2628:
2622:
2619:
2613:
2607:
2601:
2598:
2592:
2589:
2580:
2579:
2572:
2566:
2563:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2529:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2495:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2465:
2447:"Tanker History"
2443:
2437:
2434:
2428:
2425:
2416:
2413:
2400:
2397:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2352:Petroleumklipper
2347:
2341:
2338:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2292:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2238:
2232:
2229:
2223:
2217:
2206:
2203:
2190:
2187:
2174:
2168:
2153:
2147:
2127:Stavros Niarchos
2091:
2089:Transport portal
2086:
2085:
2010:Stavros Niarchos
1983:
1182:
1181:
1168:Universe Ireland
1076:Stavros Niarchos
805:
772:The fleet oiler
751:Wilh. Wilhelmsen
511:Thomas W. Lawson
428:Blue Point Beach
388:
115:Break-bulk boats
80:struck oil near
4530:
4529:
4525:
4524:
4523:
4521:
4520:
4519:
4505:
4504:
4503:
4498:
4475:
4458:
4411:
4319:Special-purpose
4314:
4282:
4264:Emergency cargo
4259:
4190:
4187:
4133:
4123:
4102:
4081:
4056:
4054:Further reading
4046:
4003:
3987:
3967:
3951:
3923:
3921:
3920:on 2 April 2008
3898:
3896:
3881:
3838:
3836:
3813:
3811:
3792:
3790:
3786:
3779:
3765:
3763:
3741:
3739:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3691:
3669:
3667:
3663:
3656:
3645:
3624:
3605:
3585:
3574:
3551:
3549:
3548:on 11 June 2008
3517:
3506:
3490:
3488:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3439:
3434:
3428:recent decades.
3425:
3414:
3410:
3405:
3401:
3385:
3384:
3377:
3375:
3363:
3359:
3358:
3354:
3349:
3342:
3337:
3333:
3323:
3321:
3306:
3299:
3289:
3287:
3272:
3268:
3258:
3256:
3241:
3234:
3224:
3222:
3211:
3207:
3197:
3195:
3177:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3147:
3143:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3122:
3113:
3104:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3077:
3071:
3067:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3049:
3040:
3039:
3035:
3025:
3023:
3010:
3009:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2983:
2981:
2966:
2965:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2944:
2937:
2932:
2921:
2916:
2903:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2885:
2875:
2873:
2863:
2859:
2854:
2850:
2840:
2838:
2826:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2807:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2785:
2774:
2767:
2766:
2762:
2746:
2745:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2715:
2704:
2699:
2695:
2690:
2661:
2651:
2649:
2648:on 7 March 2012
2645:
2638:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2583:
2574:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2537:
2527:
2525:
2523:
2507:
2503:
2493:
2491:
2490:on 14 June 2012
2478:
2477:
2473:
2463:
2461:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2426:
2419:
2414:
2403:
2398:
2394:
2384:
2382:
2371:
2367:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2300:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2270:
2266:
2258:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2240:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2218:
2209:
2204:
2193:
2188:
2177:
2169:
2156:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2112:List of tankers
2087:
2080:
2077:
1990:
1988:Open registries
1981:
1930:in 2004. These
1916:Hellespont Tara
1783:John Fredriksen
1755:1973 oil crisis
1747:
1699:explosive limit
1684:Kong Haakon VII
1632:English Channel
1612:Oppama Shipyard
1610:in 1979 at the
1556:
1551:
1177:
1136:Universe Leader
1132:Universe Apollo
1118:Universe Leader
1096:Kure Naval Yard
1028:
1026:Supertanker era
973:as part of the
930:
803:
759:
714:Weetman Pearson
528:
526:Asian oil trade
520:Isles of Scilly
483:diesel-electric
389:s sister-ship,
386:
291:Mariinsk Canals
175:
131:
50:
12:
11:
5:
4528:
4518:
4517:
4500:
4499:
4480:
4477:
4476:
4474:
4473:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4459:
4457:
4456:
4450:
4444:
4438:
4432:
4426:
4419:
4417:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4409:
4395:
4382:
4369:
4366:escort carrier
4356:
4346:Type S3-S2-BP1
4343:
4336:
4322:
4320:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4311:("Z-ET1-S-C3")
4306:
4301:
4296:
4290:
4288:
4284:
4283:
4281:
4280:
4274:
4267:
4265:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4257:
4252:
4245:
4238:
4231:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4198:
4196:
4192:
4191:
4186:
4185:
4178:
4171:
4163:
4157:
4156:
4150:
4142:
4132:
4131:External links
4129:
4128:
4127:
4121:
4106:
4100:
4085:
4079:
4066:
4055:
4052:
4051:
4050:
4044:
4029:
4019:Chisholm, Hugh
4008:
3991:
3985:
3972:
3955:
3949:
3930:
3905:
3885:
3879:
3866:
3856:Chisholm, Hugh
3845:
3829:Press Releases
3820:
3799:
3772:
3748:
3723:
3710:
3695:
3689:
3676:
3649:
3643:
3628:
3622:
3609:
3603:
3590:
3567:
3558:
3521:
3515:
3497:
3473:
3460:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3432:
3408:
3399:
3352:
3340:
3331:
3297:
3280:Press Releases
3266:
3249:Press Releases
3232:
3205:
3168:
3159:
3150:
3141:
3132:
3120:
3102:
3065:
3056:
3047:
3033:
3022:on 31 May 2008
3000:
2991:
2980:on 21 May 2008
2956:
2947:
2935:
2919:
2901:
2892:
2883:
2865:Visser, Auke.
2857:
2848:
2814:
2805:
2783:
2760:
2732:
2720:(June 1976) .
2702:
2693:
2691:Devanney, 2006
2659:
2623:
2614:
2612:, p. 882.
2602:
2593:
2581:
2567:
2535:
2521:
2501:
2471:
2438:
2429:
2417:
2401:
2392:
2365:
2342:
2298:
2284:
2264:
2247:
2233:
2224:
2222:, p. 881.
2207:
2191:
2175:
2173:, p. 320.
2154:
2152:, p. 316.
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2130:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2076:
2073:
2038:To counteract
1998:William Tubman
1989:
1986:
1977:in late 2009.
1878:developed the
1840:US Coast Guard
1830:from anchorage
1751:Yom Kippur War
1746:
1743:
1628:length overall
1608:Tung Chao Yung
1555:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1529:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1512:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1495:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1478:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1427:
1426:
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1406:
1403:
1400:
1397:
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1312:
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1307:
1304:
1301:
1297:
1296:
1293:
1290:
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1285:
1282:
1279:
1275:
1274:
1271:
1267:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1245:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1236:
1233:
1229:
1228:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1189:
1186:
1176:
1173:
1094:method at the
1045:oil refineries
1027:
1024:
929:
926:
758:
755:
600:Tank Syndicate
527:
524:
335:Falls of Clyde
318:composite ship
273:by way of the
205:in the world.
185:, brothers of
174:
171:
151:United Kingdom
130:
127:
123:wooden barrels
67:British colony
49:
46:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4527:
4516:
4513:
4512:
4510:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4478:
4471:
4468:
4467:
4465:
4461:
4454:
4451:
4448:
4445:
4443:("Passenger")
4442:
4439:
4437:("Passenger")
4436:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4407:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4383:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4370:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4347:
4344:
4341:
4337:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4317:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4291:
4289:
4285:
4279:("VC2-S-AP1")
4278:
4275:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4266:
4262:
4256:
4253:
4250:
4246:
4243:
4239:
4236:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4195:Cargo designs
4193:
4184:
4179:
4177:
4172:
4170:
4165:
4164:
4161:
4154:
4151:
4148:
4147:
4143:
4141:
4140:
4136:Bill Willis.
4135:
4134:
4124:
4122:0-396-07527-4
4118:
4114:
4113:
4107:
4103:
4101:0-415-15309-3
4097:
4093:
4092:
4086:
4082:
4080:0-595-36068-8
4076:
4072:
4067:
4063:
4062:Ships Monthly
4058:
4057:
4047:
4045:1-55821-681-2
4041:
4037:
4036:
4030:
4026:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4009:
4002:
4001:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3986:0-87033-056-X
3982:
3978:
3973:
3966:
3965:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3950:0-8179-6581-5
3946:
3942:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3906:
3895:
3891:
3886:
3882:
3880:0-86138-055-X
3876:
3872:
3867:
3863:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3846:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3821:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3785:
3778:
3773:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3738:on 5 May 2008
3737:
3733:
3729:
3724:
3713:
3711:0-309-06370-1
3707:
3703:
3702:
3696:
3692:
3690:1-85609-081-7
3686:
3682:
3677:
3662:
3655:
3650:
3646:
3640:
3636:
3635:
3629:
3625:
3623:0-87033-528-6
3619:
3615:
3610:
3606:
3604:0-87033-549-9
3600:
3596:
3591:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3568:
3564:
3559:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3516:0-9776479-0-0
3512:
3505:
3504:
3498:
3486:
3482:
3481:"Knock Nevis"
3478:
3474:
3463:
3457:
3452:
3451:
3445:
3441:
3440:
3429:
3424:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3403:
3395:
3389:
3373:
3369:
3362:
3356:
3347:
3345:
3335:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3304:
3302:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3270:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3239:
3237:
3220:
3219:Group History
3216:
3209:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3175:
3173:
3163:
3154:
3145:
3136:
3127:
3125:
3117:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3087:
3083:
3076:
3069:
3060:
3051:
3043:
3037:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3007:
3005:
2995:
2979:
2975:
2974:
2969:
2963:
2961:
2951:
2942:
2940:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2924:
2914:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2896:
2887:
2872:
2868:
2861:
2852:
2836:
2832:
2825:
2822:Tsakiris, T.
2818:
2809:
2790:
2786:
2780:
2773:
2772:
2764:
2756:
2750:
2735:
2733:0-16-002030-1
2729:
2725:
2724:
2719:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2697:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2644:
2637:
2635:
2627:
2618:
2611:
2606:
2600:Tolf, p. 173.
2597:
2591:Tolf, p. 172.
2588:
2586:
2577:
2571:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2524:
2522:9781462002344
2518:
2515:. iUniverse.
2514:
2513:
2505:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2442:
2433:
2424:
2422:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2396:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2346:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2287:
2285:9780810862883
2281:
2277:
2276:
2268:
2257:
2251:
2243:
2237:
2228:
2221:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2180:
2172:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2090:
2084:
2079:
2072:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2045:
2041:
2040:class hopping
2036:
2034:
2030:
2029:
2028:class hopping
2024:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1867:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1850:
1849:Argo Merchant
1845:
1841:
1837:
1834:In 1976, the
1829:
1825:
1824:Stena Victory
1820:
1813:
1809:
1808:
1807:Argo Merchant
1803:
1798:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1720:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1638:Seawise Giant
1635:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1620:Seawise Giant
1617:
1613:
1609:
1601:
1596:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1562:
1561:Torrey Canyon
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1492:
1489:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1475:
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1469:
1466:
1463:
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1452:
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1445:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1421:
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1412:
1411:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1387:
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1367:
1364:
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1360:
1356:
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1347:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1336:
1333:
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1327:
1326:
1322:
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1316:
1313:
1310:
1309:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1287:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1276:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1231:
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1223:
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1198:
1195:
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1191:
1183:
1180:
1172:
1170:
1169:
1164:
1163:
1162:Idemitsu Maru
1157:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1139:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1104:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1081:
1080:Marshall Plan
1077:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1023:
1021:
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951:
947:
943:
934:
925:
923:
919:
913:
911:
910:Bremer Vulkan
907:
906:
905:C.O. Stillman
901:
896:
893:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
869:
867:
863:
859:
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611:
609:
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589:
585:
581:
577:
572:
570:
566:
562:
561:Marcus Samuel
557:
555:
552:
548:
540:
536:
532:
523:
521:
517:
513:
512:
506:
504:
500:
499:Emanuel Nobel
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
479:
474:
473:steam engines
470:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
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210:
206:
204:
203:oil companies
200:
196:
192:
188:
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180:
170:
168:
164:
160:
156:
155:Red Star Line
152:
148:
144:
139:
137:
126:
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120:
116:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
89:
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83:
79:
75:
70:
68:
64:
60:
56:
45:
43:
35:
34:Saint-Nazaire
31:
27:
26:
20:
16:
4399:Crane vessel
4386:
4373:
4360:
4350:
4327:
4309:Liberty ship
4277:Victory ship
4273:("EC2-S-C1")
4271:Liberty ship
4144:
4139:Supertankers
4137:
4111:
4090:
4070:
4061:
4034:
4022:
4014:"Ship"
3999:
3976:
3963:
3939:
3922:. Retrieved
3918:the original
3913:
3897:. Retrieved
3893:
3870:
3859:
3837:. Retrieved
3833:the original
3828:
3812:. Retrieved
3808:the original
3791:. Retrieved
3784:the original
3764:. Retrieved
3759:
3740:. Retrieved
3736:the original
3731:
3715:. Retrieved
3700:
3680:
3668:. Retrieved
3661:the original
3633:
3613:
3594:
3583:the original
3578:
3562:
3550:. Retrieved
3546:the original
3533:
3529:
3502:
3489:. Retrieved
3485:DNV Exchange
3484:
3465:. Retrieved
3449:
3437:Bibliography
3426:
3420:
3415:
3411:
3402:
3388:cite journal
3376:. Retrieved
3367:
3355:
3334:
3322:. Retrieved
3318:the original
3313:
3310:"Fleet List"
3288:. Retrieved
3284:the original
3279:
3269:
3257:. Retrieved
3253:the original
3248:
3223:. Retrieved
3218:
3208:
3196:. Retrieved
3192:the original
3188:wartsila.com
3187:
3162:
3153:
3144:
3135:
3130:Singh, 1999.
3093:. Retrieved
3086:the original
3081:
3068:
3059:
3050:
3036:
3024:. Retrieved
3020:the original
3015:
2994:
2982:. Retrieved
2978:the original
2971:
2950:
2895:
2886:
2874:. Retrieved
2870:
2860:
2851:
2839:. Retrieved
2834:
2830:
2817:
2808:
2796:. Retrieved
2789:the original
2770:
2763:
2737:. Retrieved
2722:
2696:
2650:. Retrieved
2643:the original
2633:
2626:
2617:
2605:
2596:
2570:
2526:. Retrieved
2511:
2504:
2492:. Retrieved
2488:the original
2483:
2474:
2462:. Retrieved
2459:John E. Pike
2450:
2441:
2432:
2395:
2383:. Retrieved
2378:
2368:
2351:
2345:
2289:. Retrieved
2274:
2267:
2250:
2236:
2227:
2171:Redwood 1911
2150:Redwood 1911
2145:
2054:
2053:. After the
2048:
2039:
2037:
2026:
2015:
2005:
1991:
1979:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1952:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1886:
1879:
1866:Exxon Valdez
1865:
1862:
1847:
1842:took on the
1835:
1833:
1823:
1811:
1805:
1778:Yue-Kong Pao
1771:
1748:
1732:
1717:
1703:
1692:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1672:
1668:
1657:
1646:Jahre Viking
1645:
1641:
1640:was renamed
1637:
1636:
1619:
1605:
1599:
1578:
1559:
1557:
1199:150–199 dwt
1196:100–149 dwt
1185:At year end
1178:
1166:
1160:
1158:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1125:
1117:
1116:In 1956 the
1115:
1107:
1105:
1099:
1090:
1084:
1065:
1049:
1031:16,500
1029:
1009:
1002:
979:
959:
939:
928:World War II
914:
912:in Germany.
904:
902: (GRT)
897:
894:
877:
870:
866:Hog Islander
853:
840:
826:
816:
812:
800:
791:
784:
775:
771:
766:
705:
703:
685:
681:
665:
663:
642:
612:
595:
591:
587:
573:
558:
554:Standard Oil
544:
510:
507:
503:Karl Hagelin
502:
498:
490:
486:
481:, the first
477:
466:
461:
450:ballast tank
440:
437:
422:
410:
406:
402:
395:
391:Nordenskjöld
390:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
341:
334:
322:
313:
309:
305:
299:
262:
250:
249:
245:Nordenskjöld
244:
240:
236:
224:
222:
218:
212:
187:Alfred Nobel
183:Robert Nobel
176:
166:
142:
140:
132:
113:
104:
93:oil refining
90:
84:. The first
74:Pennsylvania
71:
51:
41:
39:
23:
15:
4515:Oil tankers
4483:Empire ship
4481:See also:-
3467:22 February
3095:27 February
2739:23 February
2385:24 February
2056:Amoco Cadiz
2006:World Peace
1881:Stena V-MAX
1872:double hull
1858:flag states
1800:During the
1761:caused the
1659:Knock Nevis
1650:Loki Stream
1642:Happy Giant
1600:Knock Nevis
1581:Six-Day War
1171:was built.
1122:Suez Crisis
1041:Middle East
1016:Suez Crisis
998:fleet oiler
918:bond rating
829:World War I
726:Isherwood's
432:Fire Island
302:GeestemĂĽnde
295:Volga River
279:Lake Ladoga
109:overfishing
78:Edwin Drake
63:Upper Burma
55:James Young
4495:Ocean ship
4425:("Lakers")
4361:Casablanca
4325:Type S2 ("
4146:Intertanko
3378:13 October
3116:Dimensions
2784:0642296154
2610:Watts 1911
2528:7 February
2480:"Gluckauf"
2291:7 February
2220:Watts 1911
2133:References
1944:TI Oceania
1897:Ras Tanura
1893:lightering
1728:Tanker War
1710:Bantry Bay
1704:Betelgeuse
1656:, renamed
1585:Suez Canal
1193:25–99 dwt
1091:Bulkpetrol
1012:Suez Canal
1005:Worldscale
996:was use a
862:Hog Island
822:Royal Navy
815:HMAS
789:destroyers
747:East Coast
735:Spindletop
704:From 1912
446:cofferdams
283:Lake Onega
275:Baltic Sea
199:Azerbaijan
189:, founded
136:River Tyne
48:Background
4491:Park ship
4487:Fort ship
4455:("Barge")
4304:T3 tanker
4299:T2 tanker
4294:T1 tanker
2841:8 October
2749:cite book
1963:TI Africa
1948:TI Africa
1940:TI Europe
1868:oil spill
1787:Frontline
1772:In 1979,
1724:Europoort
1695:inert gas
1644:in 1989,
1570:MARPOL 73
1202:200+ dwt
1145:Manhattan
1100:Petrokure
994:T3 tanker
990:T1 tanker
982:T2 tanker
950:Mussolini
942:Roosevelt
839:, wrote "
774:USS
658:Indonesia
631:Hong Kong
619:Singapore
610:company.
384:Zoroaster
323:Andromeda
314:Andromeda
237:Zoroaster
233:Astrakhan
225:Zoroaster
213:Zoroaster
167:Lindesnæs
163:tank cars
143:Vaderland
107:. Due to
101:whale oil
65:, then a
4509:Category
4472:("Tugs")
3997:(2006).
3961:(1984).
3793:13 March
3717:10 April
3670:26 April
3579:Surveyor
3479:(2008).
3446:(2007).
3182:(2008).
3082:Surveyor
2876:29 April
2576:"Tanker"
2360:73703505
2075:See also
1965:and the
1767:breakers
1676:Marpessa
1143:SS
1127:Pannegia
986:T2-SE-A1
799:who, as
792:en route
739:Gulf Oil
694:takeover
686:Berandan
682:Besitang
678:kerosene
635:Shanghai
594:and the
535:Branobel
462:GlĂĽckauf
441:GlĂĽckauf
423:GlĂĽckauf
364:Socrates
348:Mohammed
293:and the
263:Zoraster
259:buoyancy
255:kerosene
251:Zoraster
243:and the
223:Nobel's
191:Branobel
97:kerosene
86:oil well
59:paraffin
25:Batillus
4441:Type P2
4435:Type P1
4423:Type L6
4403:Derrick
4387:Artemis
4374:Gilliam
4351:Neptune
4333:frigate
4255:Type N3
4249:Type C9
4242:Type C8
4235:Type C7
4228:Type C6
4222:Type C5
4217:Type C4
4212:Type C3
4207:Type C2
4202:Type C1
4064:: 26–31
4021:(ed.).
3924:7 April
3899:7 April
3858:(ed.).
3839:8 April
3814:8 April
3766:8 April
3742:8 April
3552:7 April
3491:8 April
3423:, p. 19
3324:8 April
3290:8 April
3259:8 April
3225:8 April
3198:8 April
3026:8 April
2984:8 April
2798:31 July
2652:19 July
2494:20 July
2464:20 July
2019:Lloyd's
1994:Liberia
1967:TI Asia
1936:TI Asia
1928:Euronav
1920:Fairfax
1846:of the
1844:salvage
1822:Tanker
1804:of the
1802:salvage
1618:as the
1156:built.
1061:Suezmax
1057:Aframax
1053:Panamax
971:Norfolk
962:U-boats
890:welding
882:riveted
878:Phoenix
827:During
817:Kurumba
674:Sumatra
623:Bangkok
615:Jakarta
495:Kolomna
380:Calmuck
360:Spinoza
352:Tatarin
287:Rybinsk
271:Caspian
269:to the
149:of the
4470:Type V
4453:Type B
4447:Type R
4429:Type N
4389:-class
4376:-class
4363:-class
4330:-class
4328:Tacoma
4287:Tanker
4119:
4098:
4077:
4042:
3983:
3947:
3877:
3708:
3687:
3641:
3620:
3601:
3572:"WS50"
3513:
3458:
3372:UNCTAD
2781:
2730:
2519:
2358:
2282:
2042:, the
1959:V-Plus
1946:, and
1810:, the
1712:. The
1680:Mactra
850:Wilson
801:Maumee
785:Maumee
776:Maumee
767:Maumee
743:Texaco
637:, and
627:Saigon
590:, the
487:Sarmat
478:Vandal
475:. The
409:, and
378:, and
376:Talmud
368:Darwin
356:Bramah
310:Derby,
285:, the
267:Sweden
241:Buddha
235:. The
179:Ludvig
159:barges
119:barges
4406:Barge
4017:. In
4004:(PDF)
3968:(PDF)
3854:. In
3787:(PDF)
3780:(PDF)
3664:(PDF)
3657:(PDF)
3586:(PDF)
3575:(PDF)
3507:(PDF)
3430:p. 23
3364:(PDF)
3089:(PDF)
3078:(PDF)
2827:(PDF)
2792:(PDF)
2775:(PDF)
2646:(PDF)
2639:(PDF)
2259:(PDF)
2138:Notes
1975:Qatar
1973:near
1714:Total
1521:304**
1273:1092
804:'
722:Pemex
656:(now
643:Murex
592:Conch
588:Murex
580:Bnito
516:Texas
407:Lumen
403:Blesk
387:'
372:Koran
344:Moses
306:Adona
4463:Tugs
4117:ISBN
4096:ISBN
4075:ISBN
4040:ISBN
3981:ISBN
3945:ISBN
3926:2008
3901:2008
3875:ISBN
3841:2008
3816:2008
3795:2007
3768:2008
3744:2008
3719:2007
3706:ISBN
3685:ISBN
3672:2008
3639:ISBN
3618:ISBN
3599:ISBN
3554:2008
3511:ISBN
3493:2008
3469:2008
3456:ISBN
3394:link
3380:2008
3326:2008
3292:2008
3261:2008
3227:2008
3200:2008
3097:2008
3028:2008
3016:Time
2986:2008
2973:Time
2878:2013
2843:2008
2800:2013
2779:ISBN
2755:link
2741:2008
2728:ISBN
2654:2016
2530:2013
2517:ISBN
2496:2012
2466:2012
2387:2008
2356:OCLC
2293:2013
2280:ISBN
2044:IACS
2004:The
1926:and
1918:and
1863:The
1828:LOOP
1626:, a
1598:The
1544:658
1535:1482
1532:1980
1527:699
1524:45**
1518:1435
1515:1979
1510:700
1501:1453
1498:1978
1493:712
1484:1580
1481:1977
1476:676
1467:1753
1464:1976
1459:588
1450:1714
1447:1975
1442:479
1433:1718
1430:1974
1425:357
1416:1656
1413:1973
1408:270
1399:1609
1396:1972
1391:200
1382:1600
1379:1971
1374:131
1365:1572
1362:1970
1348:1535
1345:1969
1331:1488
1328:1968
1314:1446
1311:1967
1303:1395
1300:1966
1292:1303
1289:1965
1281:1226
1278:1964
1270:1963
1259:1962
1248:1961
1243:826
1240:1960
1235:715
1232:1959
1227:568
1224:1958
1207:1957
1106:The
1074:and
1059:and
728:new
684:and
639:Kobe
596:Clam
539:Baku
501:and
491:Mysl
420:The
332:The
308:and
289:and
229:Baku
195:Baku
181:and
117:and
40:The
3538:doi
2051:ILO
2023:ABS
2008:of
1955:DWT
1776:of
1708:in
1624:DWT
1614:of
1538:300
1504:269
1487:279
1470:265
1453:241
1436:193
1419:152
1402:136
1385:125
1368:110
1357:61
1340:17
1306:34
1295:15
1262:989
1251:892
1210:427
1037:DWT
1033:DWT
969:in
844:".
672:on
430:on
411:Lux
231:to
32:in
4511::
4493:,
4489:,
4485:,
4394:")
4381:")
4368:")
4355:")
4348:("
4342:")
4335:")
3937:.
3912:.
3892:.
3827:.
3758:.
3730:.
3577:.
3534:26
3532:.
3528:.
3483:.
3390:}}
3386:{{
3370:.
3366:.
3343:^
3312:.
3300:^
3278:.
3247:.
3235:^
3217:.
3186:.
3171:^
3123:^
3105:^
3080:.
3014:.
3003:^
2970:.
2959:^
2938:^
2922:^
2904:^
2869:.
2833:.
2829:.
2751:}}
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2662:^
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2538:^
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2210:^
2194:^
2178:^
2157:^
1996:,
1942:,
1938:,
1914:,
1910:,
1793:.
1739:BP
1730:.
1634:.
1541:41
1507:83
1490:76
1473:64
1456:47
1439:42
1422:41
1405:38
1388:37
1371:34
1354:30
1351:96
1337:17
1334:82
1323:2
1317:59
1284:6
1265:4
1254:2
1219:0
1138:.
977:.
957:.
892:.
868:.
831:,
806:s
708:("
633:,
629:,
625:,
621:,
617:,
413:.
405:,
374:,
370:,
366:,
362:,
358:,
354:,
350:,
297:.
281:,
277:,
247:.
197:,
138:.
4497:.
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4247:(
4244:)
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4230:)
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4125:.
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4048:.
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3953:.
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3647:.
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3607:.
3565:.
3556:.
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3471:.
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3263:.
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3099:.
3044:.
3030:.
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2835:9
2802:.
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2578:.
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2498:.
2468:.
2389:.
2362:.
2295:.
1982:Ă—
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1216:0
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