Hookworm infection

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parts of the country were eradicating nutritional and bacterial diseases. The hookworm, an intestinal parasite, infected and chronically debilitated a great many southerners, perhaps as many as 2 million. In the 1930s, a cooperative study by the Florida State Board of Health, the Rockefeller Foundation, and Vanderbilt University found the State's adolescents aged 15 to 18 the most affected group (44.7 percent), and the Panhandle the most severely affected area with nearly half of its teenagers (49 .2 percent) infested with hookworm (Eberson, 1980; and Link, 1988). John D. Rockefeller found the situation so appalling in the early twentieth century that he established and funded the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission for the Eradication of Hookworm Disease.

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proteolytic cascade. Several of these proteins that are responsible for this proteolytic cascade are also essential for the worm's nutrition and survival. Therefore, a vaccine that could induce antibodies for these antigens could interfere with the hookworm's digestive pathway and impair the worm's survival. Three proteins have been identified: the aspartic protease-hemoglobinase APR-1, the cysteine protease-hemoglobinase CP-2, and a glutathione S-transferase. Vaccination with APR-1 and CP-2 led to reduced host blood loss and fecal egg counts in dogs. With APR-1, vaccination even led to reduced worm burden. Research is currently stymied at the development of at least one of these antigens as a recombinant protein for testing in clinical trials.

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interest in the topic of hookworm-related anemia during pregnancy. With the understanding that chronic hookworm infection can often lead to anemia, many people are now questioning if the treatment of hookworm could effect change in severe anemia rates and thus also on maternal and child health as well. Most evidence suggests that the contribution of hookworm to maternal anemia merits that all women of child-bearing age living in endemic areas be subject to periodic anthelmintic treatment. The World Health Organization even recommends that infected pregnant women be treated after their first trimester. Regardless of these suggestions, only Madagascar, Nepal and Sri Lanka have added deworming to their antenatal care programs.

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group, both illustrated rather similar rates in adverse birth outcomes. The treated group demonstrated 5.6% adverse birth outcomes, while the control group had 6.25% adverse birth outcomes. Furthermore, Larocque et al. illustrated that treatment for hookworm infection actually led to positive health results in the infant. This study concluded that treatment with mebendazole plus iron supplements during antenatal care significantly reduced the proportion of very low birth weight infants when compared to a placebo control group. Studies so far have validated recommendations to treat infected pregnant women for hookworm infection during pregnancy.

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future economic productivity. In 2001, the 54th World Health Assembly passed a resolution demanding member states to attain a minimum target of regular deworming of at least 75% of all at-risk school children by the year 2010. A 2008 World Health Organization publication reported on these efforts to treat at-risk school children. Some of the interesting statistics were as follows: 1) only 9 out of 130 endemic countries were able to reach the 75% target goal; and 2) less than 77 million school-aged children (of the total 878 million at risk) were reached, which means that only 8.78% of at-risk children are being treated for hookworm infection.

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While reinfection may occur, it is still recommended that regular treatments be conducted as it will minimize the occurrence of chronic outcomes. There are also increasing concerns about the issue of drug resistance. Drug resistance has appeared in front-line anthelmintics used for livestock nematodes. Generally human nematodes are less likely to develop resistance due to longer reproducing times, less frequent treatment, and more targeted treatment. Nonetheless, the global community must be careful to maintain the effectiveness of current anthelmintic as no new anthelmintic drugs are in the late-stage development.

1182: 797:, where the heaviest parasitic loads tend to occur in children, hookworm prevalence and intensity can be higher among adult males. The explanation for this is that hookworm infection tends to be occupational, so that coworkers and other close groups maintain a high prevalence of infection among themselves by contaminating their work environment. However, in most endemic areas, adult women are the most severely affected by anemia, mainly because they have much higher physiological needs for iron (menstruation, repeated pregnancy).An interesting consequence of this in the case of 990:

community-directed treatment approach than the school-based approach. The community-directed treatment model used in this specific study allowed villagers to take control of the child's treatment by having villagers select their own community drug distributors to administer the antihelminthic drugs. Additionally, villagers organized and implemented their own methods for distributing the drugs to all children. The positive results associated with this new model highlight the need for large-scale community involvement in deworming campaigns.

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have shown that this effect cannot be explained by a variety of alternative factors, including differential trends across areas, changing crop prices, shifts in certain educational and health policies and the effect of malaria eradication. No significant contemporaneous results were found for adults who should have benefited less from the intervention owing to their substantially lower (prior) infection rates. The program nearly eradicated hookworm and would flourish afterward with new funding as the

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all of these larvae are stimulated to re-enter the circulation (presumably by sudden hormonal changes), then to pass into the mammary glands, so that the newborn baby can receive a large dose of infective larvae through its mother's milk. This accounts for otherwise inexplicable cases of very heavy, even fatal, hookworm infections in children a month or so of age, in places such as China, India and northern Australia. An identical phenomenon is much more commonly seen with

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therefore, has focused on the development of a vaccine that could be integrated into existing control programs. The goal of vaccine development is not necessarily to create a vaccine with sterilizing immunity or complete protection against immunity. A vaccine that reduces the likelihood of vaccinated individuals developing severe infections and thus reduced blood and nutrient levels could still have a significant impact on the high burden of disease throughout the world.

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stress that shoes must be worn, however, these come with their own health risks and may not be effective. Shoe wearing patterns in towns and villages across the globe are determined by cultural beliefs, and the levels of education within that society. The wearing of shoes will prevent the entry of hookworm infections from the surrounding soils into tender skin regions; such as areas between the toes.

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genetic variability in hookworm populations. Again this can serve as a major tool for different public health measures against hookworm infection. Most research regarding diagnostic tools is now focused on the creation of a rapid and cost-effective assay for the specific diagnosis of hookworm infection. Many are hopeful that its development can be achieved within the next five years.

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Na-ASP-2 and observed for six months after the final vaccination. The vaccine induced significant anti-Na-ASP-2 IgG and cellular immune responses. In addition, it was safe and produced no debilitating side effects. The vaccine is now in a phase one trial; healthy adult volunteers with documented evidence of previous infection in Brazil are being given the same

850:(and most other hookworm species) are indistinguishable, to identify the genus, they must be cultured in the lab to allow larvae to hatch out. If the fecal sample is left for a day or more under tropical conditions, the larvae will have hatched out, so eggs might no longer be evident. In such a case, it is essential to distinguish hookworms from 1285:

regions include: South Asia (50 million), Latin America and the Caribbean (50 million), South Asia (59 million), Middle East/North Africa (10 million). A majority of these infected individuals live in poverty-stricken areas with poor sanitation. Hookworm infection is most concentrated among the world's poorest who live on less than $ 2 a day.

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then molt into the third-stage larvae, or L3. This is the filariform stage of the parasite, that is, the nonfeeding infective form of the larvae. The L3 larvae are extremely motile and seek higher ground to increase their chances of penetrating the skin of a human host. The L3 larvae can survive up to 2 weeks without finding a host. While

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alveoli. They then travel up the trachea to be coughed and swallowed by the host. After being swallowed, the L3 larvae are then found in the small intestine, where they molt into the L4, or adult worm stage. The entire process from skin penetration to adult development takes about 5–9 weeks. The female adult worms release eggs (

1655:, Sr. The five-year program was a remarkable success and a great contribution to the United States' public health, instilling public education, medication, field work and modern government health departments in eleven southern states. The hookworm exhibit was a prominent part of the 1910 Mississippi state fair. 1670:

Although the campaign did not focus on long-term treatments, it did set the terms of the relationship between Mexico and the Rockefeller Foundation. The scientific knowledge behind this campaign helped shape public health policies, improved public health and built a strong relationship between US and Mexico.

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larvae, as infection with the latter has more serious implications and requires different management. The larvae of the two hookworm species can also be distinguished microscopically, although this would not be done routinely, but usually for research purposes. Adult worms are rarely seen (except via

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ASP-2 (Na-ASP-2) is currently the leading larval-stage hookworm vaccine candidate. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study has already been performed; 36 healthy adults without a history of hookworm infection were given three intramuscular injections of three different concentrations of

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were less common in children who belonged to large families. Since then, studies have noted the effect of gastrointestinal worms on the development of allergies in the developing world. For example, a study in Gambia found that eradication of worms in some villages led to increased skin reactions to

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This lack of deworming of pregnant women is explained by the fact that most individuals still fear that anthelmintic treatment will result in adverse birth outcomes. But a 2006 study by Gyorkos et al. found that when comparing a group of pregnant women treated with mebendazole with a control placebo

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on the prevalence of hookworm infection but no impact at all on the intensity of hookworm infection. This seems to suggest that environmental control alone has a limited but incomplete effect on the transmission of hookworms. It is imperative, therefore, that more research is performed to understand

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caused by iron deficiency anemia are also experienced by some hookworm-infected patients. Recently, more attention has been given to other important outcomes of hookworm infection that play a large role in public health. It is now widely accepted that children who have chronic hookworm infection can

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and travel up the trachea. Then once the larvae reach the small intestine of the host and begin to mature, the infected individual will experience diarrhea and other gastrointestinal discomfort. However, the "silent and insidious" symptoms referred to by Stoll are related to chronic, heavy-intensity

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Hookworm infection is generally considered to be asymptomatic, but as Norman Stoll described in 1962, it is an extremely dangerous infection because its damage is "silent and insidious." An individual may experience general symptoms soon after infection. Ground-itch, which is an allergic reaction at

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While annual or semi-annual mass antihelminthic administration is a critical aspect of any public health intervention, many have begun to realize how unsustainable it is due to aspects such as poverty, high rates of re-infection, and diminished efficacy of drugs with repeated use. Current research,

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Other important issues related to the treatment of hookworm are reinfection and drug resistance. It has been shown that reinfection after treatment can be extremely high. Some studies even show that 80% of pretreatment hookworm infection rates can be seen in treated communities within 30–36 months.

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continued the debate regarding school-based programs. They examined the effects of community-directed treatments versus school-based treatments in the Tanga Region of Tanzania. A major conclusion was that the mean infection intensity of hookworm was significantly lower in the villages employing the

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Recently, many people have begun to question if the school-based programs are necessarily the most effective approach. An important concern with school-based programs is that they often do not reach children who do not attend school, thus ignoring a large number of at-risk children. A 2008 study by

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Most of these public health concerns have focused on children who are infected with hookworm. This focus on children is largely due to the large body of evidence that has demonstrated strong associations between hookworm infection and impaired learning, increased absences from school, and decreased

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worms are grayish white or pinkish with the head slightly bent in relation to the rest of the body. This bend forms a definitive hook shape at the anterior end for which hookworms are named. They possess well-developed mouths with two pairs of teeth. While males measure approximately one centimeter

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Inadequate public health services and a general lack of basic citizen knowledge of health and hygiene reflected the weak public education system. Health problems, especially in the Gulf Coast States where frost came late, if at all, abounded in an era when active public health departments in other

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and hookworm. While original hypotheses stated that co-infection with multiple parasites would impair the host's immune response to a single parasite and increase susceptibility to clinical disease, studies have yielded contrasting results. For example, one study in Senegal showed that the risk of

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Many of the numbers regarding the prevalence of hookworm infection are estimates as there is no international surveillance mechanism currently in place to determine prevalence and global distribution. Some prevalence rates have been measured through survey data in endemic regions around the world.

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is found in more scattered focal environments, namely Europe and the Mediterranean. Most infected individuals are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia/the Pacific Islands with each region having estimates of 198 million and 149 million infected individuals, respectively. Other affected

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Diagnosis depends on finding characteristic worm eggs on microscopic examination of the stools, although this is not possible in early infection. Early signs of infection in most dogs include limbular limping and anal itching. The eggs are oval or elliptical, measuring 60 by 40 μm, colorless,

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infection is translactational transmission of infection: the skin-invasive larvae of this species do not all immediately pass through the lungs and on into the gut, but spread around the body via the circulation, to become dormant inside muscle fibers. In a pregnant woman, after childbirth some or

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Blood tests in early infection often show a rise in numbers of eosinophils, a type of white blood cell that is preferentially stimulated by worm infections in tissues (large numbers of eosinophils are also present in the local inflammatory response). Falling blood hemoglobin levels will be seen in

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eggs can be found in warm, moist soil where they eventually hatch into first-stage larvae, or L1. L1, the feeding noninfective rhabditoform stage, will feed on soil microbes and eventually molt into second-stage larvae, L2, which is also in the rhabditoform stage. It will feed for about 7 days and

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Some hypotheses and studies suggest that helminth infections may protect against cerebral malaria due to the possible modulation of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines responses. Furthermore, the mechanisms underlying this supposed increased susceptibility to disease are unknown. For

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The commission found that an average of 40% of school-aged children were infected with hookworm. Areas with higher levels of hookworm infection prior to the eradication program experienced greater increases in school enrollment, attendance, and literacy after the intervention. Econometric studies

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Evaluation of numerous public health interventions has generally shown that improvement in each individual component ordinarily attributed to poverty (for example, sanitation, health education and underlying nutrition status) often have minimal impact on transmission. For example, one study found

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infections in dogs, where the newborn pups can even die of hemorrhaging from their intestines caused by massive numbers of feeding hookworms. This also reflects the close evolutionary link between the human and canine parasites, which probably have a common ancestor dating back to when humans and

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The RF's hookworm campaign in Mexico showed how science and politics play a role in developing health policies. It brought together government officials, health officials, public health workers, Rockefeller officials and the community. This campaign was launched to eradicate hookworms in Mexico.

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correctly hypothesized that hookworm was linked to the fact that workers had to defecate inside the 15 km tunnel, and that many wore worn-out shoes. The work environment often contained standing water, sometimes knee-deep, and the larvae were capable of surviving several weeks in the water,

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utilized this technology to create helminth distribution maps of sub-Saharan Africa. By relating satellite derived environmental data with prevalence data from school-based surveys, they were able to create detailed prevalence maps. The study focused on a wide range of helminths, but interesting

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Many mass deworming programs also combine their efforts with a public health education. These health education programs often stress important preventative techniques such as: washing your hands before eating, and staying away from water/areas contaminated by human feces. These programs may also

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They mate inside the host, females laying from 10,000 to 30,000 eggs per day and some 15 to 56 million eggs during their adult lifetimes, which pass out in feces. Because 5 to 7 weeks are needed for adult worms to mature, mate, and produce eggs, in the early stages of very heavy infection, acute

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It is estimated that a third of all pregnant women in developing countries are infected with hookworm, 56% of all pregnant women in developing countries experience anemia, 20% of all maternal deaths are either directly or indirectly related to anemia. Numbers like this have led to an increased

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Improved molecular diagnostic tools are another technological advancement that could help improve existing prevalence statistics. Recent research has focused on the development of a DNA-based tool that can be used for diagnosis of infection, specific identification of hookworm, and analysis of

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Massa K, Magnussen P, Sheshe A, Ntakamulenga R, Ndawi B, Olsen A (2009). "The effect of the community-directed treatment approach versus the school-based treatment approach on the prevalence and intensity of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis among schoolchildren in Tanzania".

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on the same schedule used in the initial study. If this study is successful, the next step would be to conduct a phase two trial to assess the rate and intensity of hookworm infection among vaccinated persons. Because the Na-ASP-2 vaccine only targets the larval stage, it is critical that all

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programs have been the most popular strategy to address the issue of hookworm infection in children. School-based programs are extremely cost-effective as schools already have an available, extensive, and sustained infrastructure with a skilled workforce that has a close relationship with the

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can infect both through penetration and orally. After the L3 larvae have successfully entered the host, they then travel through the subcutaneous venules and lymphatic vessels of the human host. Eventually, the L3 larvae enter the lungs through the pulmonary capillaries and break out into the

3039:"Global network for neglected tropical diseases receives $ 34 million from Gates Foundation: IDB leads campaign to greatly reduce the burden of most neglected diseases by 2020 in Latin America and the Caribbean." Press Release. Global Network for Neglected Tropical Diseases. 30 January 2009. 1847:

Adult hookworm antigens have also been identified as potential candidates for vaccines. When adult worms attach to the intestinal mucosa of the human host, erythrocytes are ruptured in the worm's digestive tract which causes the release of free hemoglobin which is subsequently degraded by a

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may be used. A 2008 review found that the efficacy of single-dose treatments for hookworm infections were as follows: 72% for albendazole, 15% for mebendazole, and 31% for pyrantel pamoate. This substantiates prior claims that albendazole is much more effective than mebendazole for hookworm

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adults are short-lived, surviving on average for only about 6 months. However, the infection can be prolonged because dormant larvae can be "recruited" sequentially from tissue "stores" over many years, to replace expired adult worms. This can give rise to seasonal fluctuations in infection

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endoscopy, surgery or autopsy), but if found, would allow definitive identification of the species. Classification can be performed based on the length of the buccal cavity, the space between the oral opening and the esophagus: hookworm rhabditoform larvae have long buccal cavities whereas

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The intensity of hookworm infection as well as the species of hookworm have yet to be studied as they relate to hookworm-related anemia during pregnancy. Additionally, more research must be done in different regions of the world to see if trends noted in completed studies

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Recent research has focused on the development of DNA-based tools for diagnosis of infection, specific identification of hookworm, and analysis of genetic variability within hookworm populations. Because hookworm eggs are often indistinguishable from other parasitic eggs,

1636:, Dr. Bailey K. Ashford, a US Army physician, organized and conducted a parasite treatment campaign, which cured approximately 300,000 people (one-third of the Puerto Rican population) and reduced the death rate from this anemia by 90 percent during the years 1903–04. 1752:

clinical malaria infection was increased in helminth-infected children in comparison to helminth-free children while other studies have failed to reproduce such results, and even among laboratory mouse experiments the effect of helminths on malaria is variable.

1772:(IgE) production. However, the effect of such responses on the human immune response is unknown. Additionally, both malaria and helminth infection can cause anemia, but the effect of co-infection and possible enhancement of anemia is poorly understood. 1315:

recently donated US$ 34 million to fight Neglected Tropical Diseases including hookworm infection. Former US President Clinton also announced a mega-commitment at the Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) 2008 Annual Meeting to de-worm 10 million children.

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dogs first started living closely together. Filariform larvae are the infective stage of the parasite: infection occurs when larvae in soil penetrate the skin, or when they are ingested through contaminated food and water following skin penetration.

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hookworm infections. Major morbidity associated with hookworm infection is caused by intestinal blood loss, iron deficiency anemia, and protein malnutrition. They result mainly from adult hookworms in the small intestine ingesting blood, rupturing

1012:. But while these may seem like simple tasks, they raise important public health challenges. Most infected populations are from poverty-stricken areas with very poor sanitation. Thus, it is most likely that at-risk children do not have access to 728:

experience growth retardation as well as intellectual and cognitive impairments. Additionally, recent research has focused on the potential of adverse maternal-fetal outcomes when the mother is infected with hookworm during pregnancy.

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states that infants and children who lack exposure to infectious agents are more susceptible to allergic diseases via modulation of immune system development. The theory was first proposed by David P. Strachan who noted that

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is common in Africa. Although exact numbers are unknown, preliminary analyses estimate that as many as a quarter of African schoolchildren (17.8–32.1 million children aged 5–14 years) may be coincidentally at-risk of both

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and live in environments with no proper sanitation infrastructure. Health education, therefore, must address preventive measures in ways that are both feasible and sustainable in the context of resource-limited settings.

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Historical examples, such as the hookworm campaigns in Mississippi and Florida from 1943 to 1947 have shown that the primary cause of hookworm infection is poor sanitation, which can be solved by building and maintaining

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Bethony JM, Simon G, Diemert DJ, Parenti D, Desrosiers A, Schuck S, Fujiwara R, Santiago H, Hotez PJ (May 2008). "Randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial of the Na-ASP-2 hookworm vaccine in unexposed adults".

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conclusions about hookworm specifically were found. As compared to other helminths, hookworm is able to survive in much hotter conditions and was highly prevalent throughout the upper end of the thermal range.

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infections. Also of note is that the World Health Organization does recommend anthelmintic treatment in pregnant women after the first trimester. It is also recommended that if the patient also has anemia that

1525:, a Persian physician of the eleventh century, discovered the worm in several of his patients and related it to their disease. In later times, the condition was noticeably prevalent in the mining industry in 3183:

Fleming FM, Brooker S, Geiger SM, Caldas IR, Correa-Oliveira R, Hotez PJ, Bethony JM (January 2006). "Synergistic associations between hookworm and other helminth species in a rural community in Brazil".

2085:"Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015" 1276:

It is estimated that between 576 and 740 million individuals are infected with hookworm. Of these infected individuals, about 80 million are severely affected. The major cause of hookworm infection is

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The infective larvae develop and survive in an environment of damp dirt, particularly sandy and loamy soil. They cannot survive in clay or muck. The main lines of precaution are those dictated by good

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that the introduction of latrines into a resource-limited community only reduced the prevalence of hookworm infection by four percent. However, another study in Salvador, Brazil found that improved

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Gandhi NS, Jizhang C, Khoshnood K, Fuying X, Shanwen L, Yaoruo L, Bin Z, Haechou X, Chongjin T, Yan W, Wensen W, Dungxing H, Chong C, Shuhua X, Hawdon JM, Hotez PJ (August 2001). "Epidemiology of

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can occur early or in later stages, as well, although gastrointestinal symptoms tend to improve with time. Signs of advanced severe infection are those of anemia and protein deficiency, including

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Zhan B, Liu S, Perally S, Xue J, Fujiwara R, Brophy P, Xiao S, Liu Y, Feng J, Williamson A, Wang Y, Bueno LL, Mendez S, Goud G, Bethony JM, Hawdon JM, Loukas A, Jones K, Hotez PJ (October 2005).

2006:"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015" 1818:

Current research focuses on targeting two stages in the development of the worm: the larval stage and the adult stage. Research on larval antigens has focused on proteins that are members of the

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McKenna, Megan L.; McAtee, Shannon; Hotez, Peter J.; Bryan, Patricia E.; Jeun, Rebecca; Bottazzi, Maria E.; Flowers, Catherine C.; Ward, Tabitha; Kraus, Jacob; Mejia, Rojelio (8 November 2017).

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The symptoms can be linked to inflammation in the gut stimulated by feeding hookworms, such as nausea, abdominal pain and intermittent diarrhea, and to progressive anemia in prolonged disease:

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Loukas, Alex; Bethony, Jeffrey M.; Williamson, Angela L.; Goud, Gaddam N.; Mendez, Susana; Zhan, Bin; Hawdon, John M.; Bottazzi, Maria Elena; Brindley, Paul J.; Hotez, Peter J. (15 May 2004).

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There have also been technological developments that may facilitate more accurate mapping of hookworm prevalence. Some researchers have begun to use geographical information systems (GIS) and

1095:(200 mg) be administered three times daily at the same time as anthelmintic treatment; this should be continued until hemoglobin values return to normal which could take up to 3 months. 1158:. Tetrachloroethylene was reported to have a cure rate of 80 percent for Necator infections, but 25 percent in Ancylostoma infections, and often produced mild intoxication in the patient. 3603:

Birn, Anne-Emanuelle; Solórzano, Armando (November 1999). "Public health policy paradoxes: science and politics in the Rockefeller Foundation's hookworm campaign in Mexico in the 1920s".

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Hookworms infected about 428 million people in 2015. Heavy infections can occur in both children and adults, but are less common in adults. They are rarely fatal. Hookworm infection is a

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tends to cause a prolonged infection, generally 1 to 5 years (many worms die within a year or two of infecting), though some adult worms have been recorded to live for 15 years or more.

1726:(anti-worm drugs) given in the second trimester of pregnancy "may reduce maternal anaemia and worm prevalence when used in settings with high prevalence of maternal helminthiasis". 506:

by 0.5 millimeter, the females are often longer and stouter. Additionally, males can be distinguished from females based on the presence of a prominent posterior copulatory bursa.

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also known as creeping eruption. The hosts of these worms are not human and the larvae can only penetrate the upper five layers of the skin, where they give rise to intense, local

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have been lost due to hookworm infection. Recently, there has been increasing interest to address the public health concerns associated with hookworm infection. For example, the

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are better adapted to cooler climates. Generally, they live for only a few weeks at most under natural conditions, and die almost immediately on exposure to direct sunlight or

5833: 189:. Initially, itching and a rash may occur at the site of infection. Those only affected by a few worms may show no symptoms. Those infected by many worms may experience 2374:

Bethony J, Brooker S, Albonico M, Geiger SM, Loukas A, Diemert D, Hotez PJ (May 2006). "Soil-transmitted helminth infections: ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm".

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Brooker S, Clements AC, Bundy DA (2006). "Global epidemiology, ecology and control of soil-transmitted helminth infections". In Hay SI, Graham A, Rogers DJ (eds.).

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Pal D, Chattopadhyay UK, Sengupta G (April 2007). "A study on the prevalence of hookworm infection in four districts of West Bengal and its linkage with anemia".

3048:"Deworm the World at Clinton Global Initiative 2008 Annual Meeting: up to 10 million children to benefit from deworming!" Press Release. Deworm the World, 2008. 376:

The incubation period can vary between a few weeks to many months, and is largely dependent on the number of hookworm parasites an individual is infected with.

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Albanese G, Venturi C, Galbiati G (2001). "Treatment of larva migrans cutanea (creeping eruption): A comparison between albendazole and traditional therapy".

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community. With little training from a local health system, teachers can easily administer the drugs which often cost less than US$ 0.50 per child per year.

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25,000–30,000 eggs/day), which are passed in the feces of the human host. These eggs hatch in the environment within several days and the cycle starts anew.

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On October 26, 1909, the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission for the Eradication of Hookworm Disease was organized as a result of a gift of US$ 1 million from

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averages must be more than 1,000 mm (39 in) a year for them to survive. Only if these conditions exist can the eggs hatch. Infective larvae of

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through areas contaminated with fecal matter. The larvae are able to penetrate the skin of the foot, and once inside the body, they migrate through the

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Risk of infection can be reduced on an individual level by not walking barefoot in areas where the disease is common. At a population level, decreasing

6108: 2550: 766:, thready pulse, coldness of the skin, pallor of the mucous membranes, fatigue and weakness, shortness of breath and in cases running a fatal course, 6077: 5024: 4032:

Spiegel A, Tall A, Raphenon G, Trape JF, Druilhe P (2003). "Increased frequency of malaria attacks in subjects co-infected by intestinal worms and

2340: 5826: 3930:"Epidemiology of Plasmodium-Helminth co-infection in Africa: Populations at risk, potential impact on anemia and prospects for combining control" 3322: 1043:

the efficacy and sustainability of integrated programs that combine numerous preventive methods including education, sanitation, and treatment.

4489:"Vaccination of Dogs with a Recombinant Cysteine Protease from the Intestine of Canine Hookworms Diminishes the Fecundity and Growth of Worms" 368:. With advancing movement of the larvae, the rear portions of the lesions become dry and crusty. The lesions are typically intensely itchy. 6181: 3728:

Gyorkos TW, Larocque R, Casapia M, Gotuzzo E (September 2006). "Lack of risk of adverse birth outcomes after deworming in pregnant women".

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hookworm infections in Xiulongkan Village, Hainan Province, China: high prevalence and intensity among middle-aged and elderly residents".

1361: 4547:"Biochemical Characterization and Vaccine Potential of a Heme-Binding Glutathione Transferase from the Adult Hookworm Ancylostoma caninum" 6288: 1384:

Important trends noted were that prevalence increased with age (plateau of about 41 years) and women had higher prevalence rates than men

228:(immature worms), which can then penetrate the skin. One type can also be spread through contaminated food. Risk factors include walking 2555: 838:. During its passage down the intestine, the ovum develops and thus the eggs passed in feces have a segmented ovum, usually with 4 to 8 5819: 1914: 2140: 1608:

allowing them to infect many of the workers. In 1897, it was established that the skin was the principal avenue of infection and the

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Hartgers FC, Yazdanbakhsh M (October 2006). "Co-infection of helminths and malaria: modulation of the immune responses to malaria".

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respectively. Hookworm eggs are deposited in the stools of infected people. If these end up in the environment, they can hatch into

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In the 1920s, hookworm eradication reached the Caribbean and Latin America, where great mortality was reported among people in the

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While hookworm infection may not directly lead to mortality, its effects on morbidity demand immediate attention. When considering

4616: 3824:"A double-blind randomized controlled trial of antenatal mebendazole to reduce low birthweight in a hookworm-endemic area of Peru" 6092: 4731: 2062: 1947: 6048: 3573:(BOEM), Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, U .S. Department of the Interior. pp. 35–36. Archived from 6278: 57: 954: 943:+ moxidectin) topical solution for dogs and cats. It utilizes moxidectin for control and prevention of roundworms, hookworms, 2252: 2179: 4607: 6118: 4435:"Vaccination with Recombinant Aspartic Hemoglobinase Reduces Parasite Load and Blood Loss after Hookworm Infection in Dogs" 1105:

Albendazole is effective both in the intestinal stage and during the stage the parasite is still migrating under the skin.

302:. Coughing, chest pain, wheezing, and fever sometimes result from severe infection. Epigastric pains, indigestion, nausea, 6082: 4387:

Williamson AL, Lecchi P, Turk BE, Choe Y, Hotez PJ, McKerrow JH, Cantley LC, Sajid M, Craik CS, Loukas A (August 2004).

5842: 4433:

Loukas A, Bethony JM, Mendez S, Fujiwara RT, Goud GN, Ranjit N, Zhan B, Jones K, Bottazzi ME, Hotez PJ (October 2005).

3683: 3364: 2781: 1701:

was the leading method. It was not until later in the mid-20th century when new organic drug compounds were developed.

1312: 3570: 2719: 657:

symptoms might occur without any eggs being detected in the patient's feces. This can make diagnosis very difficult.

6201: 3563: 1844:

subjects enrolled in the study be treated with antihelminthic drugs to eliminate adult worms prior to vaccination.

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Gasser RB, Cantacessi C, Campbell BE (January 2009). "Improved molecular diagnostic tools for human hookworms".

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The hookworm thrives in warm soil where temperatures are over 18 °C (64 °F). They exist primarily in

532:

possesses a pair of cutting plates in the buccal capsule. Additionally, the hook shape is much more defined in

275: 1856:

The term "hookworm" is sometimes used to refer to hookworm infection. A hookworm is a type of parasitic worm (

5892: 2877:"Efficacy of current drugs against soil-transmitted helminth infections: systematic review and meta-analysis" 1663: 1568:, found these worms during autopsies and went a step further in linking them to local endemic occurrences of 1289: 1185: 6196: 290:

No symptoms or signs are specific for hookworm infection, but they give rise to a combination of intestinal

5190: 2838:"Impact of drainage and sewerage on intestinal nematode infections in poor urban areas in Salvador, Brazil" 1819: 925: 1756:

example, helminth infections cause potent and highly polarized immune response characterized by increased

5527: 5176: 5083: 4724: 2337: 1320:

The following are some of the most recent findings on prevalence rates in regions endemic with hookworm.

5946: 6308: 6298: 6283: 6231: 594:

can be ingested, the usual method of infection is through the skin; this is commonly caused by walking

279: 3487:"The Hookworm And Civilization: The Work Of The Rockefeller Sanitary Commission In The Souther States" 3399: 2876: 384: 6176: 6026: 5781: 5704: 5675: 1869: 866: 852: 2809:

Huttly SR (1990). "The impact of inadequate sanitary conditions on health in developing countries".

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in the host. This long-term blood loss can manifest itself physically through facial and peripheral

6208: 6128: 5983: 5787: 4868: 4812: 4692: 3564:

Assessment of Historical, Social, and Economic Impacts of OCS Development on Gulf Coast Communities

2171: 1292:(DALYs), neglected tropical diseases, including hookworm infection, rank among diarrheal diseases, 1039: 3929: 6191: 5961: 5869: 5724: 5505: 5494: 5078: 5018: 5004: 4827: 4806: 3562:

Wallace, Barbara; Kirkley, James; McGuire, Thomas; Austin, Diane; Goldfield, David (April 2001).

1462: 929: 637: 480: 337: 74: 5912: 5622: 5403: 5256: 4946: 4941: 4932: 4908: 4717: 3873:"Effect of mass deworming with antihelminthics for soil-transmitted helminths during pregnancy" 2702: 1660: 1644: 1621: 1573: 1389: 1293: 1113: 486: 295: 4656: 4389:"A multi-enzyme cascade of hemoglobin proteolysis in the intestine of blood-feeding hookworms" 3486: 2964: 2620:

Yong TS, Lee JH, Sim S, Lee J, Min DY, Chai JY, Eom KS, Sohn WM, Lee SH, Rim HJ (March 2007).

1181: 6313: 6303: 5489: 5032: 4913: 4794: 1742: 1609: 920:

Deworm pet dogs and cats. Canine and feline hookworms rarely develop to adulthood in humans.

553: 405: 214: 94: 5978: 4709: 2540:

One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the

2194:"Hookworms." The Center for Food Security and Public Health. May 2005. Iowa State University 2163: 1906: 869:

assays could serve as a molecular approach for accurate diagnosis of hookworm in the feces.

834:

shell membrane. When released by the worm in the intestine, the egg contains an unsegmented

6273: 5988: 5755: 5582: 5408: 5382: 5364: 5134: 3928:

Brooker S, Akhwale W, Pullan R, Estambale B, Clarke SE, Snow RW, Hotez PJ (December 2007).

3822:

Larocque R, Casapia M, Gotuzzo E, MacLean JD, Soto JC, Rahme E, Gyorkos TW (October 2006).

2622:"Differential diagnosis of Trichostrongylus and hookworm eggs via PCR using ITS-1 sequence" 2132: 1592: 1569: 1176: 8: 5922: 5794: 5769: 5696: 5349: 5298: 4873: 4854: 4800: 4789: 4681: 3639: 3491: 2164: 1698: 1652: 1542: 1151: 804: 474: 1972: 878: 5655: 5641: 5561: 5533: 5513: 5343: 5318: 5218: 5168: 5059: 4990: 4893: 4571: 4546: 4519: 4461: 4434: 4325: 4299: 4272: 4224: 4199: 4180: 4132: 4107: 4009: 3978: 3954: 3905: 3872: 3853: 3799: 3772: 3753: 3741: 3702: 3659: 3539: 3514: 3459: 3430: 3375: 3298: 3273: 3209: 3114: 2984:"Clinical Aspects and Treatment of the More Common Intestinal Parasites of Man (TB-33)" 2942: 2646: 2621: 2602: 2399: 2315: 2288: 2109: 2084: 2030: 2005: 1840: 1787: 1781: 1600: 1565: 1116:. However, as red blood cell levels are restored, shortage of other essentials such as 1052: 703: 607: 438: 428: 299: 248: 220: 142: 100: 83: 64: 4686: 4597: 4049: 3675: 3616: 3356: 2853: 2502: 2435: 2418: 2387: 2100: 2054: 2021: 1939: 735:) from one-third to half an inch long in the intestine chiefly through the labours of 6293: 6140: 5902: 5811: 4888: 4833: 4740: 4576: 4562: 4527: 4511: 4466: 4410: 4369: 4333: 4317: 4264: 4260: 4229: 4172: 4168: 4137: 4088: 4053: 4014: 3959: 3910: 3892: 3845: 3840: 3823: 3804: 3745: 3707: 3689: 3679: 3620: 3544: 3482: 3464: 3380: 3360: 3303: 3254: 3249: 3228: 3201: 3197: 3165: 3150: 3106: 3067: 3022: 2934: 2930: 2896: 2857: 2818: 2777: 2754: 2651: 2594: 2506: 2475: 2471: 2440: 2391: 2320: 2248: 2175: 2114: 2035: 1625: 126: 52: 4276: 4184: 4071:

Knowles SC (August 2011). "The effect of helminth co-infection on malaria in mice".

3857: 3213: 3118: 2946: 2606: 6146: 6043: 5688: 5681: 5547: 5161: 5129: 4566: 4558: 4501: 4456: 4446: 4400: 4361: 4307: 4256: 4219: 4211: 4164: 4127: 4119: 4080: 4045: 4004: 3994: 3949: 3941: 3900: 3888: 3884: 3835: 3794: 3784: 3757: 3737: 3697: 3671: 3612: 3534: 3526: 3515:"Disease and Development: Evidence from Hookworm Eradication in the American South" 3454: 3446: 3370: 3352: 3293: 3285: 3244: 3193: 3155: 3145: 3098: 3014: 2926: 2888: 2849: 2746: 2641: 2633: 2586: 2498: 2467: 2430: 2403: 2383: 2310: 2300: 2104: 2096: 2025: 2017: 1830:, these proteins have also been successfully isolated from the secreted product of 1809: 1769: 1632:. Testing in the 1900s revealed very heavy infestations in school-age children. In 1556:

of a peasant woman. Dubini published details in 1843 and identified the species as

1328: 1189: 1087: 268: 162: 4365: 3349:

Global Mapping of Infectious Diseases: Methods, Examples and Emerging Applications

630:

prevalence and intensity (apart from normal seasonal variations in transmission).

6257: 5956: 5555: 5501: 5415: 5153: 5103: 5098: 4996: 4981: 4920: 4819: 4697: 4493: 4451: 4084: 3789: 3132:

Verle P, Kongs A, De NV, Thieu NQ, Depraetere K, Kim HT, Dorny P (October 2003).

2983: 2750: 2723: 2344: 2305: 1596: 1561: 1365: 1092: 892: 751: 736: 694:

the site of parasitic penetration and entry, is common in patients infected with

599: 524:

with males usually 5 to 9 mm long and females about 1 cm long. Whereas

423: 396: 357: 319: 205: 5973: 747: 6245: 6153: 5888: 5647: 5610: 5541: 5356: 5335: 5304: 5262: 5141: 5090: 5069: 5038: 5010: 4953: 4880: 3018: 1677:

towards the end of the 18th century, as well as through descriptions sent from

1604: 1588: 1481: 1155: 1147: 977: 442: 353: 256: 190: 5968: 4671: 4215: 3977:

Brooker S, Clements AC, Hotez PJ, Hay SI, Tatem AJ, Bundy DA, Snow RW (2006).

3450: 2716: 6267: 5634: 5615: 5375: 5370: 5121: 5109: 4860: 4744: 4515: 4321: 4123: 3945: 3896: 3693: 3233:) transmission in inland areas of sandy soils in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa" 3133: 2892: 2637: 2546: 2541: 1757: 1549: 1466: 1435: 1063: 794: 115: 3005:

Fenwick A (March 2012). "The global burden of neglected tropical diseases".

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Diemert, David J.; Bethony, Jeffrey M.; Hotez, Peter J. (15 January 2008).

4268: 4176: 4141: 4108:"Malaria and helminth interactions in humans: an epidemiological viewpoint" 4092: 4057: 4018: 3999: 3963: 3914: 3849: 3808: 3749: 3711: 3624: 3548: 3384: 3323:"Hookworm, a disease of extreme poverty, is thriving in the US south. Why?" 3307: 3258: 3205: 3169: 3110: 3071: 3026: 2938: 2900: 2861: 2837: 2758: 2655: 2598: 2479: 2395: 2324: 2118: 2039: 1723: 1414: 1405:

Could not identify species, but previous studies in North Vietnam reported

1301: 1017: 1013: 940: 763: 720: 434: 415: 400: 307: 291: 237: 209: 131: 4639: 4602: 4233: 3530: 3468: 3289: 3160: 2822: 2510: 2444: 1907:"CDC - Hookworm - General Information - Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)" 6213: 6133: 5761: 5746: 5602: 5469: 5450: 5441: 5429: 5283: 5247: 5229: 5196: 5182: 4974: 4900: 4845: 4780: 2458:

Stoll NR (August 1962). "On endemic hookworm, where do we stand today?".

1674: 1633: 1332: 1121: 1099: 1079: 1071: 1067: 903: 839: 771: 708: 699: 645: 584: 411: 361: 345: 264: 260: 158: 154: 109: 4523: 4329: 3574: 924:, the common dog hookworm, occasionally develops into an adult to cause 817: 6022: 5666: 5588: 5573: 5329: 5288: 3274:"Human Intestinal Parasite Burden and Poor Sanitation in Rural Alabama" 1690: 1639: 1324: 1139: 1135: 1117: 1083: 936: 911: 740: 712: 333: 315: 252: 241: 233: 149: 119: 4598:

CDC Department of Parasitic Diseases images of the hookworm life cycle

2559:. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 58. 1304:

as one of the most important health problems of the developing world.

5274: 5117: 4770: 4765: 2672: 1857: 1792: 1154:, given as 3 to 4 cc in the fasting state, followed by 30 to 45 g of 944: 767: 633: 615: 611: 548: 450: 182: 3773:"Hookworm-Related Anaemia among Pregnant Women: A Systematic Review" 928:

in people, but their invasive larvae can cause an itchy rash called

6240: 6218: 6186: 5865: 5715: 5596: 5474: 5423: 5238: 4752: 4506: 4488: 4312: 4294: 3134:"Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections in northern Vietnam" 1765: 1628:

seen in the southern United States as being caused by the hookworm

1580: 1522: 1356:

Both hookworm infection load and degree of anemia in the mild range

1143: 1035: 1031: 948: 759: 755: 724: 641: 595: 572: 491: 341: 311: 303: 229: 197:. The mental and physical development of children may be affected. 186: 2287:

Hotez PJ, Bethony J, Bottazzi ME, Brooker S, Buss P (March 2005).

1560:. Working in the Egyptian medical system in 1852 German physician 5993: 5951: 5908: 5312: 5054: 3871:

Salam, Rehana A.; Das, Jai K.; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A. (2021-05-17).

1553: 1538: 1534: 1526: 1507: 1297: 1075: 884: 831: 786:. However, the blood loss in the stools is not visibly apparent. 649: 323: 194: 3658:

Brooker, Simon; Bethony, Jeffrey; Hotez, Peter J. (2004-01-01).

3404:), costituente un sesto genere dei Nematoidei proprii dell'uomo" 2735: 4666: 4651: 1796: 1694: 1678: 1584: 1530: 1131: 1009: 907: 896: 783: 614:

and enter the digestive system, finishing their journey in the

365: 198: 79: 2243:

Markell, Edward K.; John, David C.; Petri, William H. (2006).

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which is found in the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia.

1082:

polymerization within the parasite. In certain circumstances,

5898: 4739: 3927: 3821: 3727: 1775: 1511: 1308: 779: 775: 716: 446: 419: 352:

hookworm. The larvae migrate in tortuous tunnels between the

329: 225: 3351:. Advances in Parasitology. Vol. 62. pp. 221–261. 3084: 2373: 590:

Infection of the host is by the larvae, not the eggs. While

39: 5918: 4486: 4432: 3561: 3410:), constituting a sixth genus of the human nematoids]. 3103:

10.1645/0022-3395(2001)087[0739:EONAHI]2.0.CO;2

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James, William D.; Berger, Timothy G.; et al. (2006).

1552:

was the modern-day discoverer of the worm in 1838 after an

1484:(RS) to examine helminth ecology and epidemiology. Brooker 1109: 835: 827: 603: 568: 564: 560: 490:

infect both cats and dogs. Some of these infections can be

457: 336:(mostly in the Americas) can produce a skin disease called 259:

are effective. Treatment is typically with the medications

4350: 3182: 2988:

Veterans Administration Technical Bulletin 1946 & 1947

2774:

The Barefoot Book: 50 Great Reasons to Kick Off Your Shoes

2572: 2570: 2568: 2566: 1130:

During the 1910s, common treatments for hookworm included

3227:

Mabaso ML, Appleton CC, Hughes JC, Gouws E (April 2004).

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Secreted Proteins. Although they were first described in

1689:

Treatment in the early 20th century relied on the use of

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Cooper PJ (2004). "Intestinal worms and human allergy".

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Ethiopian children treated for schistosoma and hookworms

3976: 3271: 2916: 2563: 1521:), described as a derangement characterized by anemia. 1074:. BZAs kill adult worms by binding to the nematode's β- 5841: 2835: 6229: 3278:

The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene

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Hotez PJ, Pritchard DI (1995). "Hookworm infection".

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and various other tropical and sub-tropical regions.

758:(or dirt-eating), obstinate constipation followed by 579:

can survive at higher temperatures, whereas those of

4629: 4154: 4105: 3771:

Brooker S, Hotez PJ, Bundy DA (2008). Raso G (ed.).

3346: 1454:

Coastal plain areas had a prevalence rate of 63% of

4292: 3657: 2166:

Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology

2053:Prevention, CDC - Centers for Disease Control and. 1307:It has been estimated that as many as 22.1 million 69:

Itchiness, localized rash, abdominal pain, diarrhea

3653: 3651: 2247:(9th ed.). St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier Saunders. 1506:The symptoms now attributed to hookworm appear in 1161: 1127:may develop, so these might also be supplemented. 6078:London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases 4544: 4106:Mwangi TW, Bethony JM, Brooker S (October 2006). 3770: 3428: 3131: 2836:Moraes LR, Cancio JA, Cairncross S (April 2004). 2715:"How does deworming work?" Deworm the World. < 1643:A doctor examines a boy for signs of hookworm in 702:may result as the larvae begin to break into the 6265: 4625:) at MetaPathogen: facts, life cycle, references 4612:) at MetaPathogen: facts, life cycle, references 2242: 1402:52% of a total of 526 tested households infected 861:rhabditoform larvae have short buccal cavities. 672:larvae only infect through penetration of skin, 3648: 2205:"CDC - Zoonotic Hookworm - General Information" 1579:A breakthrough came 25 years later following a 3870: 3660:"Human Hookworm Infection in the 21st Century" 2958: 2956: 2874: 2492: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2226: 971: 5827: 4725: 4191: 3602: 2912: 2910: 2796: 2701:(27/28): 237–252. 4 July 2008. Archived from 2619: 2497:. Vol. 272, no. 6. pp. 68–74. 1934: 1932: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1150:. By the 1940s, the treatment of choice used 1112:supplementation can cause relief symptoms of 1098:Hookworm infection can be treated with local 917:Do not walk barefoot in known infected areas. 610:, and are swallowed. They then pass down the 344:, usually on the foot or lower leg, known as 204:Two common hookworm infections in humans are 6319:Infectious diseases with eradication efforts 4288: 4286: 3723: 3721: 3506: 2667: 2665: 2289:"Hookworm: "The Great Infection of Mankind"" 2000: 1998: 1448:Inland areas had a prevalence rate of 9% of 618:, where the larvae mature into adult worms. 5941: 4482: 4480: 4428: 4426: 4424: 4197: 3877:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2953: 2416: 2223: 2161: 1967: 1965: 1062:The most common treatment for hookworm are 410:which is the more common type found in the 348:. This infection is due to larvae from the 5834: 5820: 5228: 4732: 4718: 4603:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4070: 3983:and hookworm among African schoolchildren" 3512: 3320: 2907: 2282: 2280: 2278: 2276: 2274: 2272: 2270: 2268: 2266: 2264: 1929: 1882: 1776:Hygiene hypothesis and hookworm as therapy 993: 790:cases of prolonged infection with anemia. 731:The disease was linked to nematode worms ( 236:is poor. Diagnosis is by examination of a 38: 4570: 4505: 4460: 4450: 4404: 4311: 4283: 4246: 4223: 4131: 4008: 3998: 3953: 3904: 3839: 3798: 3788: 3718: 3701: 3555: 3538: 3458: 3374: 3297: 3248: 3159: 3149: 3004: 2808: 2662: 2645: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2434: 2314: 2304: 2108: 2029: 1995: 1615: 4477: 4421: 4200:"Hay fever, hygiene, and household size" 2545: 2457: 2077: 1962: 1693:to reduce protective mucus, followed by 1638: 1180: 1102:when the hookworm is still in the skin. 1024: 953: 816: 632: 547: 383: 6093:Malaria Eradication Scientific Alliance 3637: 3492:The World's Work: A History of Our Time 2998: 2978: 2976: 2261: 2245:Markell and Voge's medical parasitology 1735: 6266: 3397: 2962: 2771: 2517: 2197: 2155: 2052: 1709: 939:is available in the United States as ( 395:Hookworm infections in humans include 16:Disease caused by intestinal parasites 5815: 4713: 3641:The Rural School and Hookworm Disease 1722:A review found that a single dose of 1564:, drawing upon the work of colleague 1057: 285: 6119:National Malaria Eradication Program 3481: 2973: 2417:Hawdon JM, Hotez PJ (October 1996). 2143:from the original on 4 December 2014 2095:(10053): 1459–1544. 8 October 2016. 2016:(10053): 1545–1602. 8 October 2016. 1473:35% infection rate of predominantly 1427:63% infection rate of predominantly 1378:60% infection rate of predominantly 1345:43% infection rate of predominantly 830:stained and with a thin transparent 371: 271:may be needed in those with anemia. 6083:Global Polio Eradication Initiative 3321:Pilkington, Ed (5 September 2017). 2875:Keiser J, Utzinger J (April 2008). 1409:in more than 95% of hookworm larvae 1313:Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 13: 6289:Conditions diagnosed by stool test 5843:Eradication of infectious diseases 3742:10.1097/01.inf.0000234068.25760.97 3644:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1983:from the original on 23 April 2017 1950:from the original on 23 April 2017 1917:from the original on 22 April 2017 688: 640:workers built and installed 2,065 14: 6330: 6182:Mathematical modelling of disease 4591: 3571:Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 3495:. Vol. XXIV. pp. 504–18 3429:Peduzzi R, Piffaretti JC (1983). 2503:10.1038/scientificamerican0695-68 2065:from the original on 21 June 2017 1697:to kill the worms. By the 1940s, 1572:, which would probably be called 1177:Helminthiasis § Epidemiology 512:is very similar in morphology to 6251: 6239: 6049:Bovine spongiform encephalopathy 4563:10.1128/IAI.73.10.6903-6911.2005 4261:10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00728.x 4169:10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00901.x 3841:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01706.x 3406:[New human intestinal worm ( 3400:"Nuovo verme intestinale umano ( 3336:– via www.TheGuardian.com. 3250:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01216.x 3198:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01541.x 3151:10.1046/j.1365-3156.2003.01123.x 2931:10.1046/j.1365-4362.2001.01103.x 2691:"Soil-transmitted helminthiasis" 2533: 681:about 9,000–10,000 eggs/day and 322:, and abdominal distension with 6114:Boll Weevil Eradication Program 6088:Global Certification Commission 4538: 4380: 4344: 4240: 4148: 4099: 4064: 4025: 3970: 3921: 3864: 3815: 3764: 3631: 3596: 3475: 3422: 3391: 3340: 3314: 3265: 3220: 3176: 3125: 3078: 3051: 3042: 3033: 2966:Preventive Medicine and Hygiene 2963:Milton, Joseph Rosenau (1913). 2868: 2829: 2802: 2790: 2765: 2729: 2709: 2683: 2613: 2486: 2451: 2410: 2331: 1740:Co-infection with hookworm and 1612:of the hookworm was clarified. 1595:. In an 1880 paper, physicians 1587:epidemic that took place among 1192:per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002 1170: 1162:Reinfection and drug resistance 879:Helminthiasis § Prevention 793:In contrast to most intestinal 403:. Ancylostomiasis is caused by 141:Not walking barefoot, stopping 3889:10.1002/14651858.CD005547.pub4 3435:and the Saint Gothard anaemia" 2188: 2170:. Saunders Elsevier. pp. 2125: 2046: 1851: 1290:disability-adjusted life years 1053:Helminthiasis § Treatment 528:possesses two pairs of teeth, 276:soil-transmitted helminthiasis 1: 6279:Parasitic nematodes of humans 5893:Eradication of dracunculiasis 4366:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.02.049 4198:Strachan DP (November 1989). 4050:10.1016/S0035-9203(03)90117-9 4038:Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg 3676:10.1016/S0065-308X(04)58004-1 3617:10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00160-4 3412:Annali Universali di Medicina 3357:10.1016/S0065-308X(05)62007-6 2854:10.1016/S0035-9203(03)00043-9 2842:Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg 2739:Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg 2436:10.1016/S0959-437X(96)80092-X 2388:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68653-4 2347:, accessed September 29, 2008 2133:"Neglected Tropical Diseases" 2101:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1 2022:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6 1875: 1684: 1664:International Health Division 1515: 1186:Disability-adjusted life year 1002: 872: 543: 497: 193:, diarrhea, weight loss, and 181:is an infection by a type of 5191:Diphyllobothrium mansonoides 4452:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020295 4085:10.1016/j.ijpara.2011.05.009 3790:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000291 3439:Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.) 2751:10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.07.009 2472:10.1016/0014-4894(62)90072-3 2306:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020067 1973:"CDC - Hookworm - Treatment" 1820:pathogenesis-related protein 1620:In 1899, American zoologist 1501: 1078:and subsequently inhibiting 1046: 812: 644:for hookworm eradication in 426:. Necatoriasis is caused by 7: 5528:Angiostrongylus cantonensis 5177:Spirometra erinaceieuropaei 3060:Indian J. Pathol. Microbiol 2969:. D. Appleton. p. 119. 1863: 1803: 1704: 972:School-based mass deworming 962: 10: 6335: 3019:10.1016/j.puhe.2011.11.015 2055:"CDC - Hookworm - Biology" 1940:"CDC - Hookworm - Disease" 1807: 1800:allergies among children. 1779: 1496: 1174: 1050: 876: 698:. Additionally, cough and 520:is generally smaller than 280:neglected tropical disease 6177:Globalization and disease 6169: 6101: 6070: 6061: 6036: 6027:Eradication of rinderpest 6015: 6006: 5932: 5879: 5858: 5849: 5782:Capillaria philippinensis 5745: 5714: 5705:Halicephalobus gingivalis 5676:Strongyloides stercoralis 5665: 5572: 5468: 5440: 5393: 5282: 5273: 5246: 5237: 5215: 5152: 5068: 5053: 4964: 4931: 4844: 4779: 4764: 4751: 4633: 4216:10.1136/bmj.299.6710.1259 4112:Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol 3638:Ferrell, John A. (1914). 3451:10.1136/bmj.287.6409.1942 2797:Birn & Solórzano 1999 2677:Public Health at a Glance 2338:"CDC Factsheet: Hookworm" 1870:List of parasites (human) 251:, not using raw feces as 168: 148: 137: 125: 108: 89: 73: 63: 51: 46: 37: 29: 24: 6209:Tuberculosis elimination 6129:India National PolioPlus 5788:Intestinal capillariasis 4869:Dicrocoelium dendriticum 4124:10.1179/136485906X118468 3979:"The co-distribution of 3946:10.4269/ajtmh.2007.77.88 3664:Advances in Parasitology 2893:10.1001/jama.299.16.1937 2638:10.3347/kjp.2007.45.1.69 1591:workmen employed on the 606:, and from there up the 567:soil and cannot live in 433:the more common type in 379: 232:in warm climates, where 212:, caused by the species 5870:Eradication of smallpox 5775:Trichuriasis / Whipworm 5725:Enterobius vermicularis 5506:Cutaneous larva migrans 5079:Echinococcus granulosus 5019:Heterophyes heterophyes 5005:Gastrodiscoides hominis 4828:Trichobilharzia regenti 3730:Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J 3569:(Report). New Orleans: 3398:Dubini, Angelo (1843). 2772:Howell, Daniel (2010). 2591:10.1586/14737159.9.1.17 2556:Encyclopædia Britannica 1624:identified progressive 1463:Lowndes County, Alabama 994:Public health education 930:cutaneous larva migrans 638:Civilian Public Service 389:Ancylostoma braziliense 338:cutaneous larva migrans 267:for one to three days. 5913:Eradication of malaria 5623:Visceral larva migrans 5404:Gnathostoma spinigerum 5257:Dracunculus medinensis 5163:Diphyllobothrium latum 4942:Paragonimus westermani 4909:Opisthorchis viverrini 4406:10.1074/jbc.M405842200 4000:10.1186/1475-2875-5-99 3828:Trop. Med. Int. Health 3402:Agchylostoma duodenale 3237:Trop. Med. Int. Health 3186:Trop. Med. Int. Health 3138:Trop. Med. Int. Health 2579:Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn 2423:Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev 1661:Rockefeller Foundation 1648: 1645:Coffee County, Alabama 1622:Charles Wardell Stiles 1616:Eradication programmes 1574:iron-deficiency anemia 1294:ischemic heart disease 1273: 1114:iron-deficiency anemia 959: 926:eosinophilic enteritis 842:. As the eggs of both 822: 733:Ankylostoma duodenalis 653: 621:Once in the host gut, 556: 487:Uncinaria stenocephala 468:may also be affected. 456:Other animals such as 392: 296:iron-deficiency anemia 98:(old world hookworm), 6009:agricultural diseases 5490:Ancylostoma duodenale 5033:Metagonimus yokogawai 4619:Ancylostoma duodenale 4034:Plasmodium falciparum 3981:Plasmodium falciparum 3934:Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 3531:10.1162/qjec.121.1.73 3433:Ancylostoma duodenale 3408:Ancylostoma duodenale 3290:10.4269/ajtmh.17-0396 2799:, pp. 1200, 1205 1743:Plasmodium falciparum 1642: 1610:biological life cycle 1184: 1175:Further information: 1051:Further information: 1025:Integrated approaches 957: 902:Do not use untreated 877:Further information: 820: 799:Ancylostoma duodenale 636: 551: 492:transmitted to humans 406:Ancylostoma duodenale 387: 360:of the skin, causing 215:Ancylostoma duodenale 95:Ancylostoma duodenale 5947:Lymphatic filariasis 5756:Trichinella spiralis 5583:Ascaris lumbricoides 5383:Lymphatic filariasis 5365:Wuchereria bancrofti 3777:PLOS Negl. Trop. Dis 3580:on December 12, 2017 2811:World Health Stat. Q 2695:Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec 1913:. 16 December 2014. 1736:Malaria co-infection 1593:Gotthard Rail Tunnel 893:defecate in the open 422:, and (formerly) in 278:and classified as a 114:Walking barefoot in 104:(new world hookworm) 5923:Eradication of yaws 5770:Trichuris trichiura 5697:Trichostrongyliasis 5299:Onchocerca volvulus 4855:Clonorchis sinensis 4790:Schistosoma mansoni 4771:Trematode infection 4610:Ancylostoma caninum 4295:"Hookworm Vaccines" 3513:Bleakley H (2007). 2679:. World Bank. 2003. 2626:Korean J. Parasitol 2495:Scientific American 1979:. 10 January 2013. 1946:. 10 January 2013. 1710:Anemia in pregnancy 1699:tetrachloroethylene 1653:John D. Rockefeller 1392:, Northwest Vietnam 1349:although with some 1152:tetrachloroethylene 1108:In case of anemia, 922:Ancylostoma caninum 805:Ancylostoma caninum 183:intestinal parasite 5656:Parascaris equorum 5642:Dioctophyme renale 5562:Oesophagostomiasis 5534:Angiostrongyliasis 5514:Necator americanus 5484:Hookworm infection 5344:Dirofilaria repens 5169:Diphyllobothriasis 5060:Tapeworm infection 4991:Fasciolopsis buski 4623:Necator americanus 4300:Clin. Infect. Dis. 3940:(6 Suppl): 88–98. 3485:(September 1912). 3231:Necator americanus 3087:Necator americanus 2722:2009-02-08 at the 2717:dewormtheworld.org 2705:on August 5, 2012. 2673:"School Deworming" 2343:2010-09-04 at the 1841:dose concentration 1788:hygiene hypothesis 1782:Helminthic therapy 1649: 1601:Edoardo Perroncito 1566:Wilhelm Griesinger 1548:Italian physician 1510:papers of ancient 1274: 1270: more than 60 1204: <10 1058:Anthelmintic drugs 1040:significant impact 960: 823: 654: 652:from 1943 to 1947. 557: 478:infects dogs, and 439:sub-Saharan Africa 429:Necator americanus 393: 300:protein deficiency 286:Signs and symptoms 249:outdoor defecation 221:Necator americanus 179:Hookworm infection 172:428 million (2015) 143:outdoor defecation 101:Necator americanus 84:protein deficiency 58:Infectious disease 25:Hookworm infection 6309:Parasites of dogs 6299:Parasites of cats 6284:Tropical diseases 6227: 6226: 6165: 6164: 6141:Polio in Pakistan 6057: 6056: 6002: 6001: 5903:Polio eradication 5809: 5808: 5805: 5804: 5741: 5740: 5464: 5463: 5460: 5459: 5211: 5210: 5207: 5206: 5085:E. multilocularis 5049: 5048: 4889:Fasciola hepatica 4741:Parasitic disease 4707: 4706: 4617:Human hookworms ( 4255:(11–12): 455–67. 4210:(6710): 1259–60. 4073:Int. J. Parasitol 3445:(6409): 1942–45. 2881:J. Am. Med. Assoc 2382:(9521): 1521–32. 2254:978-0-7216-4793-7 2181:978-0-7216-2921-6 1626:pernicious anemia 1545:, and elsewhere. 778:. The worms suck 743:in Egypt (1854). 372:Incubation period 176: 175: 127:Diagnostic method 19:Medical condition 6326: 6256: 6255: 6254: 6244: 6243: 6235: 6147:Every Last Child 6068: 6067: 6044:Ovine rinderpest 6013: 6012: 5856: 5855: 5836: 5829: 5822: 5813: 5812: 5690:Trichostrongylus 5682:Strongyloidiasis 5548:Metastrongylosis 5280: 5279: 5244: 5243: 5235: 5234: 5226: 5225: 5130:Hymenolepis nana 5066: 5065: 4966:Intestinal fluke 4777: 4776: 4762: 4761: 4734: 4727: 4720: 4711: 4710: 4631: 4630: 4585: 4584: 4574: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4509: 4484: 4475: 4474: 4464: 4454: 4430: 4419: 4418: 4408: 4384: 4378: 4377: 4348: 4342: 4341: 4315: 4290: 4281: 4280: 4249:Parasite Immunol 4244: 4238: 4237: 4227: 4195: 4189: 4188: 4157:Parasite Immunol 4152: 4146: 4145: 4135: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4029: 4023: 4022: 4012: 4002: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3957: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3908: 3868: 3862: 3861: 3843: 3819: 3813: 3812: 3802: 3792: 3768: 3762: 3761: 3725: 3716: 3715: 3705: 3655: 3646: 3645: 3635: 3629: 3628: 3611:(9): 1197–1213. 3600: 3594: 3593: 3587: 3585: 3579: 3568: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3542: 3510: 3504: 3503: 3501: 3500: 3479: 3473: 3472: 3462: 3426: 3420: 3419: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3378: 3344: 3338: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3318: 3312: 3311: 3301: 3269: 3263: 3262: 3252: 3224: 3218: 3217: 3180: 3174: 3173: 3163: 3153: 3129: 3123: 3122: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3055: 3049: 3046: 3040: 3037: 3031: 3030: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2980: 2971: 2970: 2960: 2951: 2950: 2919:Int. J. Dermatol 2914: 2905: 2904: 2872: 2866: 2865: 2833: 2827: 2826: 2806: 2800: 2794: 2788: 2787: 2776:. Hunter House. 2769: 2763: 2762: 2733: 2727: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2687: 2681: 2680: 2669: 2660: 2659: 2649: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2574: 2561: 2560: 2539: 2537: 2536: 2530: 2515: 2514: 2490: 2484: 2483: 2455: 2449: 2448: 2438: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2371: 2348: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2318: 2308: 2284: 2259: 2258: 2240: 2221: 2220: 2218: 2216: 2201: 2195: 2192: 2186: 2185: 2169: 2159: 2153: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2139:. June 6, 2011. 2129: 2123: 2122: 2112: 2081: 2075: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2050: 2044: 2043: 2033: 2002: 1993: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1969: 1960: 1959: 1957: 1955: 1936: 1927: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1903: 1810:Hookworm vaccine 1770:Immunoglobulin E 1732: 1543:North Queensland 1520: 1517: 1329:Hooghly District 1269: 1263: 1257: 1251: 1245: 1239: 1233: 1227: 1221: 1215: 1209: 1203: 1197: 1190:hookworm disease 1088:pyrantel pamoate 1018:wash their hands 895:, but rather in 711:, and degrading 332:invasion of the 294:and progressive 269:Iron supplements 163:iron supplements 42: 33:Hookworm disease 22: 21: 6334: 6333: 6329: 6328: 6327: 6325: 6324: 6323: 6264: 6263: 6262: 6252: 6250: 6238: 6230: 6228: 6223: 6161: 6097: 6063: 6053: 6032: 6008: 5998: 5934: 5928: 5881: 5875: 5851: 5845: 5840: 5810: 5801: 5737: 5710: 5661: 5568: 5556:Oesophagostomum 5502:Ancylostomiasis 5472: 5456: 5436: 5416:Gnathostomiasis 5389: 5286: 5269: 5220: 5217: 5203: 5154:Pseudophyllidea 5148: 5099:Taenia saginata 5057: 5045: 4997:Fasciolopsiasis 4982:Echinostomiasis 4960: 4927: 4921:Opisthorchiasis 4840: 4820:Schistosomiasis 4814:S. intercalatum 4768: 4766:Fluke/trematode 4757: 4754: 4747: 4738: 4708: 4703: 4702: 4642: 4594: 4589: 4588: 4557:(10): 6903–11. 4543: 4539: 4500:(10): 1952–61. 4494:J. Infect. Dis. 4485: 4478: 4431: 4422: 4399:(34): 35950–7. 4385: 4381: 4360:(19): 2408–17. 4349: 4345: 4291: 4284: 4245: 4241: 4196: 4192: 4163:(10): 497–506. 4153: 4149: 4104: 4100: 4079:(10): 1041–51. 4069: 4065: 4030: 4026: 3975: 3971: 3926: 3922: 3883:(5): CD005547. 3869: 3865: 3834:(10): 1485–95. 3820: 3816: 3769: 3765: 3726: 3719: 3686: 3656: 3649: 3636: 3632: 3601: 3597: 3583: 3581: 3577: 3566: 3560: 3556: 3511: 3507: 3498: 3496: 3483:Page, Walter H. 3480: 3476: 3427: 3423: 3396: 3392: 3367: 3345: 3341: 3331: 3329: 3319: 3315: 3270: 3266: 3225: 3221: 3181: 3177: 3130: 3126: 3083: 3079: 3056: 3052: 3047: 3043: 3038: 3034: 3003: 2999: 2982: 2981: 2974: 2961: 2954: 2915: 2908: 2887:(16): 1937–48. 2873: 2869: 2834: 2830: 2807: 2803: 2795: 2791: 2784: 2770: 2766: 2734: 2730: 2724:Wayback Machine 2714: 2710: 2689: 2688: 2684: 2671: 2670: 2663: 2618: 2614: 2575: 2564: 2551:Ankylostomiasis 2549:, ed. (1911). " 2534: 2532: 2531: 2518: 2491: 2487: 2456: 2452: 2415: 2411: 2372: 2351: 2345:Wayback Machine 2336: 2332: 2285: 2262: 2255: 2241: 2224: 2214: 2212: 2211:. 25 April 2019 2203: 2202: 2198: 2193: 2189: 2182: 2160: 2156: 2146: 2144: 2131: 2130: 2126: 2083: 2082: 2078: 2068: 2066: 2051: 2047: 2004: 2003: 1996: 1986: 1984: 1971: 1970: 1963: 1953: 1951: 1938: 1937: 1930: 1920: 1918: 1905: 1904: 1883: 1878: 1866: 1854: 1812: 1806: 1784: 1778: 1763: 1738: 1729: 1724:antihelminthics 1712: 1707: 1687: 1618: 1597:Camillo Bozzolo 1562:Theodor Bilharz 1518: 1504: 1499: 1366:Hainan Province 1272: 1271: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1259: 1255: 1253: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1211: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1179: 1173: 1164: 1125: 1093:ferrous sulfate 1066:, specifically 1060: 1055: 1049: 1027: 1005: 996: 974: 965: 914:in agriculture. 881: 875: 815: 782:and damage the 737:Theodor Bilharz 691: 689:Pathophysiology 600:vascular system 546: 500: 424:southern Europe 397:ancylostomiasis 382: 374: 358:stratum corneum 320:cardiac failure 288: 206:ancylostomiasis 20: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6332: 6322: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6261: 6260: 6248: 6225: 6224: 6222: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6205: 6204: 6199: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6173: 6171: 6170:Related topics 6167: 6166: 6163: 6162: 6160: 6159: 6158: 6157: 6154:The Final Inch 6150: 6138: 6137: 6136: 6131: 6123: 6122: 6121: 6116: 6105: 6103: 6099: 6098: 6096: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6074: 6072: 6065: 6059: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6052: 6051: 6046: 6040: 6038: 6034: 6033: 6031: 6030: 6019: 6017: 6010: 6007:Eradication of 6004: 6003: 6000: 5999: 5997: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5979:Onchocerciasis 5976: 5971: 5966: 5965: 5964: 5959: 5949: 5944: 5938: 5936: 5930: 5929: 5927: 5926: 5916: 5906: 5896: 5889:Dracunculiasis 5885: 5883: 5877: 5876: 5874: 5873: 5862: 5860: 5853: 5852:human diseases 5850:Eradication of 5847: 5846: 5839: 5838: 5831: 5824: 5816: 5807: 5806: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5799: 5792: 5791: 5790: 5778: 5766: 5765: 5764: 5751: 5749: 5743: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5736: 5735: 5734: 5733: 5720: 5718: 5712: 5711: 5709: 5708: 5701: 5700: 5699: 5686: 5685: 5684: 5671: 5669: 5663: 5662: 5660: 5659: 5652: 5651: 5650: 5648:Dioctophymosis 5638: 5631: 5630: 5629: 5611:Toxocara canis 5607: 5606: 5605: 5593: 5592: 5591: 5578: 5576: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5566: 5565: 5564: 5552: 5551: 5550: 5542:Metastrongylus 5538: 5537: 5536: 5524: 5523: 5522: 5510: 5509: 5508: 5496:A. braziliense 5486: 5480: 5478: 5466: 5465: 5462: 5461: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5454: 5446: 5444: 5438: 5437: 5435: 5434: 5433: 5432: 5420: 5419: 5418: 5399: 5397: 5391: 5390: 5388: 5387: 5386: 5385: 5361: 5360: 5359: 5357:Dirofilariasis 5347: 5340: 5339: 5338: 5336:Mansonelliasis 5326: 5325: 5324: 5309: 5308: 5307: 5305:Onchocerciasis 5294: 5292: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5268: 5267: 5266: 5265: 5263:Dracunculiasis 5252: 5250: 5241: 5232: 5223: 5213: 5212: 5209: 5208: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5201: 5200: 5199: 5187: 5186: 5185: 5173: 5172: 5171: 5158: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5146: 5145: 5144: 5142:Hymenolepiasis 5126: 5125: 5124: 5095: 5094: 5093: 5091:Echinococcosis 5074: 5072: 5070:Cyclophyllidea 5063: 5051: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5043: 5042: 5041: 5039:Metagonimiasis 5029: 5028: 5027: 5025:Heterophyiasis 5015: 5014: 5013: 5011:Amphistomiasis 5001: 5000: 4999: 4987: 4986: 4985: 4970: 4968: 4962: 4961: 4959: 4958: 4957: 4956: 4954:Paragonimiasis 4937: 4935: 4929: 4928: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4905: 4904: 4903: 4885: 4884: 4883: 4881:Dicrocoeliasis 4865: 4864: 4863: 4850: 4848: 4842: 4841: 4839: 4838: 4837: 4836: 4834:Swimmer's itch 4824: 4823: 4822: 4808:S. haematobium 4785: 4783: 4774: 4759: 4749: 4748: 4737: 4736: 4729: 4722: 4714: 4705: 4704: 4701: 4700: 4689: 4674: 4659: 4643: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4634:Classification 4628: 4627: 4614: 4608:Dog hookworm ( 4605: 4600: 4593: 4592:External links 4590: 4587: 4586: 4537: 4507:10.1086/386346 4476: 4420: 4379: 4343: 4313:10.1086/524070 4282: 4239: 4190: 4147: 4098: 4063: 4024: 3969: 3920: 3863: 3814: 3763: 3717: 3685:978-0120317585 3684: 3647: 3630: 3595: 3554: 3505: 3474: 3421: 3414:(in Italian). 3390: 3366:978-0120317622 3365: 3339: 3313: 3284:(5): 1623–28. 3264: 3219: 3175: 3161:1854/LU-212965 3144:(10): 961–64. 3124: 3077: 3050: 3041: 3032: 2997: 2972: 2952: 2906: 2867: 2848:(4): 197–204. 2828: 2801: 2789: 2783:978-0897935548 2782: 2764: 2728: 2708: 2682: 2661: 2612: 2562: 2547:Chisholm, Hugh 2516: 2485: 2460:Exp. Parasitol 2450: 2409: 2349: 2330: 2260: 2253: 2222: 2196: 2187: 2180: 2154: 2124: 2076: 2045: 1994: 1961: 1928: 1880: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1873: 1872: 1865: 1862: 1853: 1850: 1808:Main article: 1805: 1802: 1780:Main article: 1777: 1774: 1761: 1737: 1734: 1711: 1708: 1706: 1703: 1686: 1683: 1617: 1614: 1605:Luigi Pagliani 1519: 1500 BC 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1482:remote sensing 1478: 1477: 1459: 1458: 1452: 1438:, South Africa 1432: 1431: 1411: 1410: 1403: 1386: 1385: 1382: 1358: 1357: 1354: 1266: 1260: 1254: 1248: 1242: 1236: 1230: 1224: 1218: 1212: 1206: 1200: 1194: 1193: 1172: 1169: 1163: 1160: 1156:sodium sulfate 1148:eucalyptus oil 1123: 1064:benzimidazoles 1059: 1056: 1048: 1045: 1026: 1023: 1004: 1001: 995: 992: 978:mass deworming 973: 970: 964: 961: 934: 933: 918: 915: 900: 874: 871: 814: 811: 690: 687: 545: 542: 499: 496: 481:A. braziliense 472:infects cats, 443:Southeast Asia 381: 378: 373: 370: 354:stratum basale 350:A. braziliense 287: 284: 257:mass deworming 191:abdominal pain 174: 173: 170: 166: 165: 152: 146: 145: 139: 135: 134: 129: 123: 122: 112: 106: 105: 91: 87: 86: 77: 71: 70: 67: 61: 60: 55: 49: 48: 44: 43: 35: 34: 31: 27: 26: 18: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6331: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6271: 6269: 6259: 6249: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6236: 6233: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6194: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6168: 6156: 6155: 6151: 6149: 6148: 6144: 6143: 6142: 6139: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6126: 6124: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6111: 6110: 6109:United States 6107: 6106: 6104: 6100: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6075: 6073: 6069: 6066: 6060: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6041: 6039: 6035: 6028: 6024: 6021: 6020: 6018: 6014: 6011: 6005: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5954: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5939: 5937: 5931: 5924: 5920: 5917: 5914: 5910: 5907: 5904: 5900: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5886: 5884: 5878: 5871: 5867: 5864: 5863: 5861: 5857: 5854: 5848: 5844: 5837: 5832: 5830: 5825: 5823: 5818: 5817: 5814: 5798: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5786: 5785: 5784: 5783: 5779: 5776: 5772: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5760: 5759: 5758: 5757: 5753: 5752: 5750: 5748: 5744: 5732: 5729: 5728: 5727: 5726: 5722: 5721: 5719: 5717: 5713: 5707: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5695: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5678: 5677: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5664: 5658: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5646: 5645: 5644: 5643: 5639: 5637: 5636: 5635:Baylisascaris 5632: 5628: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5619: 5618: 5613: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5601: 5600: 5599: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5584: 5580: 5579: 5577: 5575: 5571: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5558: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5546: 5545: 5544: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5532: 5531: 5530: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5518: 5517: 5516: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5500: 5499: 5498: 5497: 5492: 5491: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5471: 5467: 5453: 5452: 5448: 5447: 5445: 5443: 5439: 5431: 5428: 5427: 5426: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5414: 5413: 5412: 5411: 5406: 5405: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5396: 5392: 5384: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5378: 5373: 5372: 5371:Brugia malayi 5367: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5355: 5354: 5353: 5352: 5348: 5346: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5334: 5333: 5332: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5316: 5315: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5301: 5300: 5296: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5285: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5272: 5264: 5261: 5260: 5259: 5258: 5254: 5253: 5251: 5249: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5214: 5198: 5195: 5194: 5193: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5179: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5167: 5166: 5165: 5164: 5160: 5159: 5157: 5155: 5151: 5143: 5140: 5139: 5138: 5137: 5132: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5122:Cysticercosis 5119: 5116: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5107: 5106: 5101: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5089: 5088: 5087: 5086: 5081: 5080: 5076: 5075: 5073: 5071: 5067: 5064: 5061: 5056: 5052: 5040: 5037: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5023: 5022: 5021: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5009: 5008: 5007: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4993: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4983: 4979: 4978: 4977: 4976: 4972: 4971: 4969: 4967: 4963: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4950: 4949: 4948:P. kellicotti 4944: 4943: 4939: 4938: 4936: 4934: 4930: 4922: 4919: 4918: 4917: 4916: 4911: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4899: 4898: 4897: 4896: 4891: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4879: 4878: 4877: 4876: 4871: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4861:Clonorchiasis 4859: 4858: 4857: 4856: 4852: 4851: 4849: 4847: 4843: 4835: 4832: 4831: 4830: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4815: 4810: 4809: 4804: 4803: 4798: 4797: 4792: 4791: 4787: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4778: 4775: 4772: 4767: 4763: 4760: 4756: 4755:platyhelminth 4750: 4746: 4745:helminthiases 4742: 4735: 4730: 4728: 4723: 4721: 4716: 4715: 4712: 4699: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4688: 4684: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4673: 4669: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4658: 4654: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4626: 4624: 4620: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4595: 4582: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4551:Infect. Immun 4548: 4541: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4496: 4495: 4490: 4483: 4481: 4472: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4416: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4393:J. Biol. Chem 4390: 4383: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4347: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4302: 4301: 4296: 4289: 4287: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4243: 4235: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4194: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4151: 4143: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4118:(7): 551–70. 4117: 4113: 4109: 4102: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4067: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4028: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3982: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3916: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3867: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3818: 3810: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3767: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3724: 3722: 3713: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3654: 3652: 3643: 3642: 3634: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3605:Soc. Sci. Med 3599: 3592: 3576: 3572: 3565: 3558: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3525:(1): 73–117. 3524: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3494: 3493: 3488: 3484: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3434: 3425: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3403: 3394: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3372: 3368: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3343: 3328: 3324: 3317: 3309: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3243:(4): 471–76. 3242: 3238: 3234: 3232: 3223: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3128: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3097:(4): 739–43. 3096: 3092: 3088: 3081: 3073: 3069: 3066:(2): 449–52. 3065: 3061: 3054: 3045: 3036: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3013:(3): 233–36. 3012: 3008: 3007:Public Health 3001: 2994:: 1–14. 1948. 2993: 2989: 2985: 2979: 2977: 2968: 2967: 2959: 2957: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2913: 2911: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2832: 2824: 2820: 2817:(3): 118–26. 2816: 2812: 2805: 2798: 2793: 2785: 2779: 2775: 2768: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2732: 2725: 2721: 2718: 2712: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2686: 2678: 2674: 2668: 2666: 2657: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2616: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2558: 2557: 2552: 2548: 2543: 2542:public domain 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2489: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2466:(4): 241–52. 2465: 2461: 2454: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2429:(5): 618–23. 2428: 2424: 2420: 2413: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2346: 2342: 2339: 2334: 2326: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2271: 2269: 2267: 2265: 2256: 2250: 2246: 2239: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2227: 2210: 2206: 2200: 2191: 2183: 2177: 2173: 2168: 2167: 2158: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2128: 2120: 2116: 2111: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2080: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2049: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2001: 1999: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1968: 1966: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1935: 1933: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1902: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1890: 1888: 1886: 1881: 1871: 1868: 1867: 1861: 1859: 1849: 1845: 1842: 1837: 1836:N. americanus 1833: 1832:N. americanus 1829: 1825: 1822:superfamily, 1821: 1816: 1811: 1801: 1798: 1794: 1789: 1783: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1759: 1758:T-helper cell 1753: 1750: 1749:P. falciparum 1745: 1744: 1733: 1727: 1725: 1720: 1716: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1682: 1680: 1676: 1671: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1656: 1654: 1646: 1641: 1637: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1613: 1611: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1550:Angelo Dubini 1546: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1513: 1509: 1494: 1490: 1487: 1483: 1476: 1475:N. americanus 1472: 1471: 1470: 1469: 1468: 1467:United States 1464: 1457: 1456:N. americanus 1453: 1451: 1450:N. americanus 1447: 1446: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1437: 1436:KwaZulu-Natal 1430: 1429:N. americanus 1426: 1425: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1416: 1408: 1407:N. americanus 1404: 1401: 1400: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1391: 1383: 1381: 1380:N. americanus 1377: 1376: 1375: 1373: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1355: 1352: 1348: 1347:N. americanus 1344: 1343: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1317: 1314: 1310: 1305: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1283: 1279: 1278:N. americanus 1198: no data 1191: 1187: 1183: 1178: 1168: 1159: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1128: 1126: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1106: 1103: 1101: 1096: 1094: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1054: 1044: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1022: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1000: 991: 988: 982: 979: 976:School-based 969: 956: 952: 950: 946: 942: 938: 931: 927: 923: 919: 916: 913: 909: 905: 904:human excreta 901: 898: 894: 890: 889: 888: 886: 880: 870: 868: 862: 860: 859:Strongyloides 855: 854: 853:Strongyloides 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 819: 810: 807: 806: 800: 796: 795:helminthiases 791: 787: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 744: 742: 738: 734: 729: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 705: 701: 697: 696:N. americanus 686: 684: 680: 679:N. americanus 675: 671: 670:N. americanus 666: 662: 661:N. americanus 658: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 628: 624: 619: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 588: 586: 582: 578: 577:N. americanus 574: 570: 566: 562: 555: 550: 541: 539: 535: 531: 530:N. americanus 527: 523: 519: 518:N. americanus 515: 511: 510:N. americanus 507: 504: 495: 493: 489: 488: 483: 482: 477: 476: 471: 470:A. tubaeforme 467: 463: 459: 454: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 430: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 407: 402: 398: 390: 386: 377: 369: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 283: 281: 277: 272: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 245: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 222: 217: 216: 211: 207: 202: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 171: 167: 164: 160: 156: 153: 151: 147: 144: 140: 136: 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