Horses in the Middle Ages

901: 286: 1333:"four-horn" saddle, and were used without stirrups. The development of the solid saddle tree was significant; it raised the rider above the horse's back, and distributed the rider's weight, reducing the pressure on any one part of the horse's back, thus greatly increasing the comfort of the horse and prolonging its useful life. Horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree. It also allowed a more built up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle. From the 12th century on, the high war-saddle became more common, providing protection as well as added security. The built up cantle of a solid-treed saddle enabled horsemen to use 912: 1124: 1043: 377: 136: 1517:, which restricted breathing and reduced the pulling power of the horse. Two horses harnessed with a breastcollar harness were limited to pulling a combined total of about 1,100 pounds (500 kg). In contrast, the horse collar rested on horses' shoulders and did not impede breathing. It allowed a horse to use its full strength, by pushing forward with its hindquarters into the collar rather than to pull with its shoulders. With the horse collar, a horse could provide a work effort of 50% more foot-pounds per second than an 776: 617: 1616: 932:, or travelled to find work; others travelled as a pastime. Most people undertook small journeys on foot and hired horses for longer journeys. For the upper classes, travel was accompanied by a great deal of pomp and display, with fine horses, large retinues and magnificent cavalcades in order to display their wealth as well as to ensure personal comfort. For example, in 1445, the English royal household contained 60 horses in the king's stable and 186 kept for "chariots" (carriages) and 1624: 1230: 400:, renowned and admired for its capabilities in war. It was well trained, and was required to be strong, fast and agile. A 14th-century writer described them as "tall and majestic and with great strength". In contemporary sources, the destrier was frequently referred to as the "great horse" because of its size and reputation. Being a subjective term, it gives no firm information about its actual height or weight, but since the average horse of the time was 12 to 14 684: 19: 4146: 1458: 522: 850: 884:. This arose not from vanity, but necessity: if unhorsed during battle, a knight would remain vulnerable if unable to mount by himself. In reality, of course, a wounded or weary knight might find it difficult, and rely on a vigilant squire to assist him. Incidentally, a knight's armour served in his favour in any fall. With his long hair twisted on his head to form a springy padding under his padded-linen hood, and his 592:, with the warriors lightly armed on swift horses and their heavy war horses safely in the stable. Pitched battles were sometimes unavoidable, but were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry. While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks, by the 14th century, it was common for knights to dismount to fight. Horses were sent to the rear, and kept ready for pursuit. By the 95:. Reference is also given to their place of origin, such as "Spanish horses," but whether this referred to one breed or several is unknown. Another difficulty arising during any study of medieval documents or literature is the flexibility of the medieval languages, where several words can be used for one thing (or, conversely, several objects are referred to by one word). Words such as ' 1352:; this could be for decorative or protective purposes. Early forms of horse armour, usually restricted to tournaments, comprised padded leather pieces, covered by a trapper (a decorated cloth), which was not particularly heavy. Mail and plate armour was also occasionally used; there are literary references to horse armour (an "iron blanket") starting in the late 12th century. 818:(56 to 60 inches, 142 to 152 cm), distinguished from a riding horse by its strength and skill, rather than its size. This average does not seem to vary greatly across the medieval period. Horses appear to have been selectively bred for increased size from the 9th and 10th centuries, and by the 11th century the average warhorse was probably 14.2 to 15 373:: by describing their purpose or their physical attributes. Many of the definitions were not precise, or were interchangeable. Prior to approximately the 13th century, few pedigrees were written down. Thus, many terms for horses in the Middle Ages did not refer to breeds as we know them today, but rather described appearance or purpose. 869:, or horse armour, rarely weighed more than 70 pounds (32 kg). Allowing for the weight of the rider and other equipment, horses can carry approximately 30% of their weight; thus such loads could certainly be carried by a heavy riding horse in the 1,200 to 1,300 pounds (540 to 590 kg) range, and a draught horse was not needed. 1449:

could be used both to encourage horses to quickly move forward or to direct lateral movement. Early spurs had a short shanks or "neck", placing the rowel relatively close to the rider's heel; further developments in the spur shape lengthened the neck, making it easier to touch the horse with less leg movement on the part of the rider.

1659:. If roads permitted, women sometimes rode in early carriages developed from freight wagons, pulled by three or four horses. After the invention of better suspension systems, travel in carriages became more comfortable. Women of the nobility also rode horses for sport, accompanying men in activities that included 1529:, which show carters hauling stone from quarries 50 miles (80 km) distant; the carts weighed, on average, 5,500 pounds (2,500 kg), on which 5,500 pounds (2,500 kg) of stone was regularly loaded, sometimes increasing to 8,600 pounds (3,900 kg) – a significant increase from Roman-era loads. 1448:

were commonly used throughout the period, especially by knights, with whom they were regularly associated. A young man was said to have "won his spurs" when he achieved knighthood. Wealthy knights and riders frequently wore decorated and filigreed spurs. Attached to the rider's heel by straps, spurs

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A number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses. Horse dealers (frequently called "horse coursers" in England) bought and sold horses, and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures, responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses. Others, such as the "hackneymen" offered horses for

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with handles and a footrest was available by the 13th century and allowed women of the nobility to ride while wearing elaborate gowns, they were not universally adopted during the Middle Ages. This was largely due to the insecure seat they offered, which necessitated a smooth-gaited horse being led

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were frequently covered with large, ornamental "bosses." Some designs were also more extreme and severe than those used today. The curb bit was known during the classical period, but was not generally used during the Middle Ages until the mid-14th century. Some styles of snaffle bit used during the

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allowed horsepower to be directed more efficiently. Horse teams usually were four horses, or perhaps six, as compared to eight oxen, and the lesser numbers compensated for the fact that the horses needed to be fed grain on top of pasture, unlike oxen. The increased speed of horses also allowed more

1115:. Starting in the 12th century, in England the use of oxen to pull carts was gradually superseded by the use of horses, a process that extended through the 13th century. This change came because horse-drawn transport moved goods quicker and over greater distances than ox-drawn methods of transport. 1401:

itself. Other scholars, however, dispute this assertion, suggesting that stirrups provided little advantage in shock warfare, being useful primarily for allowing a rider to lean farther to the left and right on the saddle while fighting, and simply reduce the risk of falling off. Therefore, it is

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depicts working horses), and also clear from the change from the Roman two-field crop-rotation system to a new three-field system, which increased the cultivation of fodder crops (predominantly oats, barley and beans). Horses were also used to process crops; they were used to turn the wheels in

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were often used as war horses in Europe due to their natural aggression and hot-blooded tendencies. A 13th-century work describes destriers "biting and kicking" on the battlefield, and, in the heat of battle, war horses were often seen fighting each other. However, the use of mares by European

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with a solid tree provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider. The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid-treed saddle, possibly as early as the 1st century BC, and it was widespread by the 2nd century AD. Early medieval saddles resembled the Roman

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The speed of travel varied greatly. Large retinues could be slowed by the presence of slow-paced carts and litters, or by servants and attendants on foot, and could rarely cover more than fifteen to twenty miles a day. Small mounted companies might travel 30 miles a day. However, there were

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Despite the difficulties of travel, it was customary for many people, including women, to travel long distances. Upper-class wives frequently accompanied their husbands on crusade or to tournaments, and many women traveled for social or family engagements; both nuns and laywomen would perform

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were traditionally used as work animals on farms, horses began to be used in greater numbers after the development of the horse collar. Oxen and horses were sometimes harnessed together. The transition from oxen to horses for farm work was documented in pictorial sources (for example, the

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could not spend more than twenty marks on a rouncey. Knights were expected to have at least one war horse (as well as riding horses and packhorses), with some records from the later Middle Ages showing knights bringing twenty-four horses on campaign. Five horses was perhaps the standard.

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A further improvement was managed by altering the arrangement of the teams; by hitching horses one behind the other, rather than side by side, weight could be distributed more evenly, and pulling power increased. This increase in horse power is demonstrated in the building accounts of

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was responsible for all aspects relating to horses: the care and management of all horses from the chargers to the pack horses, as well as all travel logistics. The position of marshal (literally "horse servant") was a high one in court circles and the king's marshal (such as the

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agricultural system, but from the 8th century on, a three-field system became more common. One field would be sown with a winter crop, the second with a spring crop, and the third left fallow. This allowed a greater amount of spring crop of oats to be grown, which provided

441:. Sometimes the expected nature of warfare dictated the choice of horse; when a summons to war was sent out in England, in 1327, it expressly requested rounceys, for swift pursuit, rather than destriers. Rounceys were sometimes used as pack horses (but never as cart horses). 1289:

were the first to nail on metal horseshoes. The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to "crescent figured irons and their nails" in a list of cavalry equipment from AD 910. Additional archaeological evidence suggests they were used in

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Consequently, the assumptions and theories developed by historians are not definitive, and debate still rages on many issues, such as the breeding or size of the horse, and a number of sources must be consulted in order to understand the breadth of the subject.

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Riding horses were used by a variety of people during the Middle Ages, and so varied greatly in quality, size and breeding. Knights and nobles kept riding horses in their war-trains, saving their warhorses for the battle. The names of horses referred to a

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War horses were more expensive than normal riding horses, and destriers the most prized, but figures vary greatly from source to source. Destriers are given a values ranging from seven times the price of an ordinary horse to 700 times. The Bohemian king

404:(48 to 56 inches, 122 to 142 cm), a "great horse" by medieval standards might appear small to modern eyes. The destrier was highly prized by knights and men-at-arms, but was actually not very common, and appears to have been most suited to the 608:, were used for scouting and reconnaissance; they also provided a defensive screen for marching armies. Large teams of draught horses, or oxen, were used for pulling the heavy early cannon. Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies. 604:. However, because such tactics left the knight unmounted, the role of the war horse also changed. By the 17th century, the medieval charger had become a thing of the past, replaced by lighter, unarmoured horses. Throughout the period, light horse, or 261:

there, but an equally probable explanation is the historic influence of the Roman horse breeding traditions preserved by the Merovingians, combined with the addition of valuable Spanish and oriental bloodstock captured in the wake of the victory of

1055:

of horse, rather than a breed. Many horses were named by the region where they or their immediate ancestors were foaled. For example, in Germany, Hungarian horses were commonly used for riding. Individual horses were often described by their gait

1521:, because it could move at a greater speed, as well as having generally greater endurance and the ability to work more hours in a day. A single horse with a more efficient collar harness could draw a weight of about 1,500 pounds (680 kg). 329:

were given the responsibility for horse breeding by certain members of the nobility, particularly in Spain. In England, a common source of warhorses were the wild moorland ponies, which were rounded up annually by horse-breeders, including the

1651:-makers. On farms, where every hand was needed, excessive emphasis on division of labour was impracticable, and women often worked alongside men (on their own farms or as hired help), leading the farm horses and oxen, and managing their care. 864:

type is the assumption, still held by many, that medieval armour was heavy. In fact, even the heaviest tournament armour (for knights) weighed little more than 90 pounds (41 kg), and field (war) armour 40 to 70 pounds (18 to 32 kg);

1099:(or "sumpter horse") carried equipment and belongings. Common riding horses, often called "hackneys", could be used as pack horses. Cart horses pulled wagons for trading and freight haulage, on farms, or as part of a military campaign. These 1272:

enabled longer, faster journeys on horseback, particularly in the wetter lands in northern Europe, and were useful for campaigns on varied terrains. By providing protection and support, nailed horse shoes also improved the efficiency of

1285:, there is much debate over the actual origins of the nailed horseshoe, though it does appear to be of European origin. There is little evidence of nailed-on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600, though there is speculation that the Celtic 1541:. Generally raised from the middle and upper classes, the knight was trained from childhood in the arts of war and management of the horse. In most languages, the term for knight reflects his status as a horseman: the Italian 1513:-style harness that had flat straps across the neck and chest of the animal, while useful for pulling light vehicles, was of little use for heavy work. These straps pressed against the horse's sterno-cephalicus muscle and 1495:

during the 5th century, arrived in Europe during the 9th century, and became widespread throughout Europe by the 12th century. It allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle by means of

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and not suited to the anatomy of horses, it required horses to pull with their shoulders rather than using the power of their hindquarters. Harnessed in such a manner, horse teams could pull no more than 500 kg. The

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strike. However, practical experiments by re-enactors have suggested that the rider's weight and strength is of more relevance than the size of the mount, and that little of the horse's weight is translated to the lance.

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Throughout the Middle Ages it was customary for people of all classes and background to travel, often widely. The households of the upper classes and royal courts moved between manors and estates; the demands of

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by another handler. The sidesaddle did not become practical for everyday riding until the 16th-century development of the pommel horn that allowed a woman to hook her leg around the saddle and hence use the

1107:(52 to 56 inches, 132 to 142 cm), and capable of drawing a load of 500 to 600 pounds (230 to 270 kg) per horse. Four-wheeled wagons and two-wheeled carts were more common in towns, such as 106:

Significant technological advances in equestrian equipment, often introduced from other cultures, allowed for significant changes in both warfare and agriculture. In particular, improved designs for the

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for human passengers were rare. When roads permitted, early carriages were developed from freight wagons. Carriage travel was made more comfortable in the late 14th century with the introduction of the

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Further evidence for a 14-16 hand (56 to 64 inches (140 to 160 cm)) war horse is that it was a matter of pride to a knight to be able to vault onto his horse in full armour, without touching the

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became the term for quality war horses. However, German literary sources also refer to fine horses from Scandinavia. France also produced good war horses. Some scholars attribute this to the strong

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was largely nominal. Medieval English records from south-east England and East Anglia typically use the term 'stott', while 'affer' is used in documents from across the rest of the country. While

361:. Such a theory would suggest the war horses were crossed once again with "cold blooded" work horses, since war horses, and the destrier in particular, were renowned for their hot-blooded nature. 345:

when this type seems to disappear from record during the 17th century. Many modern draft breeds claim some link to the medieval "great horse," with some historians considering breeds such as the

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also accepted the membership of widows, so they might continue their husband's business. Under this system, some women trained in horse-related trades, and there are records of women working as

1438:

snaffle. Until the late 13th century, bridles generally had a single pair of reins; after this period it became more common for knights to use two sets of reins, similar to that of the modern

1367:, stirrups arrived in Europe, and European riders had adopted them by the 8th century. Among other advantages, stirrups provided greater balance and support to the rider, which allowed the 1581:(or "count of the stable"), who was responsible for protection and the maintenance of order within the household and commanding the military component and, with marshals, might organise 357:

likely descendants of the destrier. However, other historians discount this theory, since the historical record suggests the medieval warhorse was quite a different 'type' to the modern

661:, Leeds, re-created the joust, using specially bred horses and replica armour. Their horses accurately represented the medieval mount, being compactly built and not particularly tall. 2352: 1083:" is derived. Because the hackney had a trotting gait it was not considered a comfortable ride for most purposes. Women sometimes rode rouncies, palfreys or small horses known as 1215:(such as corn mills), and transport crops to market. The change to horse-drawn teams also meant a change in ploughs, as horses were more suited to a wheeled plough, unlike oxen. 1639:

It was not uncommon for a girl to learn her father's trade and for a woman to share her husband's trade, since the entire family often helped run medieval shops and farms. Many

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were used for shorter journeys. In areas with good roads, regular carrier services were established between major towns. However, because medieval roads were generally so poor,

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also retained many quality horses, in part due to the historic reputation of the region as a horse-breeding land, and partially due to the cultural influences related to the

955:

horses were preferred, and most ordinary riding horses were of greater value if they could do one of the smooth but ground-covering four-beat gaits collectively known as an

414:

were generally preferred for hard battle as they were light, fast and strong. They were valuable, but not as costly as the destrier. They were also used frequently for

1382:

The increased use of the stirrup from the 8th century on aided the warrior's stability and security in the saddle when fighting. This may have led to greater use of

1706:

advised aristocratic ladies that they must "know the laws of arms and all things pertaining to warfare, ever prepared to command her men if there is need of it."

1390:

recognized the military potential of the stirrup, and distributed seized lands to his retainers on condition that they serve him by fighting in the new manner.

574:

troops first occurred, but the technique had become widespread by the mid-12th century. The heavy cavalry charge itself was not a common occurrence in warfare.

479:(52 to 56 inches, 132 to 142 cm), developed in Ireland from Spanish or Libyan (Barb) bloodstock. This type of quick and agile horse was popular for 872:

Although a large horse is not required to carry an armoured knight, it is held by some historians that a large horse was desirable to increase the power of a

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to control her own horse. Even then, sidesaddle riding remained a precarious activity until the invention of the second, "leaping horn" in the 19th century.

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was a desirable trait in a palfrey, as the smooth gait allowed the rider to cover long distances quickly in relative comfort. Other horse types included the

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This 13th-century manuscript shows an approximate height of the medieval horse at the time, note the knights' legs extending well below the horses' barrels.

650:

became quite sophisticated. In the process, the pageantry and specialization became less war-like, perhaps because of the knight's changing role in war.

1103:

were smaller than their modern counterparts; pictorial and archaeological evidence suggests that they were stout but short, approximately 13 to 14

301:

As the importance of horse breeding to successful warfare was realized, planned breeding programs increased. Many changes were due to the influence of

1461:

In this depiction of a medieval horse team, the lead pair have breast collars, while the trace pair wear horse collars. Note that one horse is saddled.

2666: 2592: 3941: 838:(60 to 62 inches, 152 to 157 cm). Three centuries later, warhorses were not significantly bigger; the Royal Armouries used a 15.2 1402:

argued, they are not the reason for the switch from infantry to cavalry in Medieval militaries, nor the reason for the emergence of Feudalism.

1181:

For farm work, such as ploughing and harrowing, the draught horses utilized for these purposes were, in England, called 'affers' and 'stotts' (

464:

bloodstock. Their quiet and dependable nature, as well as size, made them popular as riding horses for ladies; however, they were also used as

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land to be ploughed in a day, with an eight ox plough team averaging half of an acre per day, but a horse team averaged a full acre per day.

928:

took men to distant countries; priests travelled between churches, monasteries and formed emissaries to Rome; people of all classes went on

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A large number of trades and positions arose to ensure the appropriate management and care of horses. In aristocratic households, the

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There is dispute in medievalist circles over the size of the war horse, with some notable historians claiming a size of 17 to 18

193: 1137: 4081: 3974: 3873: 448:, which could equal a destrier in price, was popular with nobles and highly ranked knights for riding, hunting and ceremonial use. 1111:

and, depending on type of vehicle and weight of the load, were usually pulled by teams of two, three, or four horses harnessed in

3878: 846:

mare as a model for the statues displaying various 15th- and 16th-century horse armours, as her body shape was an excellent fit.

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is vital for any analysis of the medieval horse, researchers also need to consider documentary (both written and pictorial) and

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and had to be built up again over the following centuries. In the west, this may have been due in part to the reliance of the

4172: 1683: 1655:

pilgrimages. When not on foot, women would usually travel on horseback or, if weakened or infirm, be carried in a wagon or a

45:, and were, on average, smaller. They were also more central to society than their modern counterparts, being essential for 4182: 3931: 3883: 1007:

For breeding, war and travel purposes, it was also necessary to be able to transport horses themselves. For this purpose,

60:

Consequently, specific types of horse developed, many of which have no modern equivalent. While an understanding of modern

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and horses, as well as the adoption of larger fields. Particularly after the 12th century, the increased use of both the

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colours and arms. War horses could be equipped with additional covers, blankets and armour collectively referred to as

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monks, who were among those who bred the Spanish Jennet. Because they could read and write, thus kept careful records,

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in England) was also responsible for managing many military matters. Also present within the great households was the

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began to increase their heavy cavalry, which resulted in the seizure of land (for fodder production), and a change in

4023: 3640: 3618: 3604: 3587: 3570: 3553: 3526: 3512: 3495: 3481: 3454: 3440: 3423: 3406: 3392: 3375: 3360: 3346: 3329: 3315: 3280: 3236: 3222: 3201: 3183: 3169: 3147: 3130: 2768: 99:' and 'charger' are used interchangeably (even within one document), and where one epic may speak disparagingly of a 1363:

and in widespread use there by 477 AD. By the 7th century, primarily due to invaders from Central Asia, such as the

951:, most had long fallen into disrepair. Because of the necessity to ride long distances over uncertain roads, smooth- 3075: 900: 285: 3936: 2377:"Saddle, Lance and Stirrup: An Examination of the Mechanics of Shock Combat and the Development of Shock Tactics" 1855: 1161:, which allowed dense and heavy soils to be tilled easily; this technology required the use of larger teams of 1193:

in medieval Latin). These horses were usually smaller and cheaper than the cart horse. The difference between

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is probably the most famous female warrior of the medieval period, but there were many others, including the

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

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began in the 11th century as both a sport and to provide training for battle. Usually taking the form of a

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were rarely differentiated by breed, but rather by use. This led them to be described, for example, as "

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This medieval painting shows a woman in a dress mounted on a war horse, riding astride, not sidesaddle.

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hire, and many formed large establishments on busy roads, often branding their horses to deter theft.

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developed. However, this did not necessarily lead to significantly larger horses. Interpreters at the

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Gawronski, R.S. (2004) "Some Remarks on the Origins and Construction of the Roman Military Saddle."

4071: 3628: 975:, for river and canal travel, were the most common form of long-distance haulage, although wheeled 843: 755: 724: 601: 141: 1589:. The highly skilled marshal made and fitted horseshoes, cared for the hoof, and provided general 1425:

that are still in common use today. However, they often were decorated to a greater degree: the

814:, using literary, pictorial and archaeological sources, supports military horses of 14 to 15 742:

warriors cannot be discounted from literary references. Mares were the preferred war horse of the

376: 4187: 3900: 3558: 1061: 3984: 3916: 2180: 1397:

argues that the advantages in warfare that stemmed from use of the stirrup led to the birth of

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began in 1096, horseshoes were widespread and frequently mentioned in various written sources.

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Arabian Horse Association of Southern California, Revised Collector's Edition, Rich Publishing

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soon afterward; by the 11th century, horseshoes were commonly used in Europe. By the time the

219:. It is also possible that other sources of oriental bloodstock came from what was called the 135: 4111: 3979: 3704: 3411: 2084: 993: 627: 3693:, AHRC funded research project by the University of Exeter and the University of East Anglia 3310:

UK: Grange Books(originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)

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for horses; throughout the Middle Ages, a distinction was drawn between the marshal and the

4197: 4003: 2818: 1803:"The Spanish Mustang: The Origin and Relationships of the Mustang, Barb, and Arabian Horse" 1016: 506: 61: 8: 3758: 3334: 1699: 1234: 1027: 976: 596:(approx 1300-1550), large battles became more common, probably because of the success of 498: 369:

Throughout the period, horses were rarely considered breeds, but instead were defined by

199:

The origins of the medieval war horse are obscure, although it is believed they had some

162: 2691:

Gawronski, "Some Remarks on the Origins and Construction of the Roman Military Saddle",

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This 15th-century battle scene shows the powerfully built horses used in warfare. From

1386:, although a couched lance could be used effectively without stirrups. In particular, 834:

suggests 13th-century destriers were a stocky build, and no more than 15 to 15.2

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and other chivalrous events. Within lower social groupings, the 'marshal' acted as a

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Perhaps one reason for the pervasive belief that the medieval war horse had to be of

553: 529: 429:), which could be kept as a riding horse or trained for war. It was commonly used by 158: 1157:

for horses. Another advance during the Middle Ages was the development of the heavy

806:(60 to 64 inches, 152 to 163 cm), or about the size and build of a modern 3783: 3778: 3428: 3268: 2853: 2593:"The role of demesnes in the trade of agricultural horses in late medieval England" 1660: 1656: 1632: 1344:

or saddle cloths were sometimes worn; these could be decorated or embroidered with

811: 738: 597: 593: 579: 510: 415: 321:. Some of the earliest written pedigrees in recorded European history were kept by 216: 46: 4149: 4123: 4118: 3858: 3788: 3592: 3500: 3192:

translated by Thomas Dunlap, USA: Overlook Duckworth (First published in 1986 as

3079: 2825: 2774: 2383: 2335: 1859: 1809: 1691: 1628: 1476: 1207: 1031: 854: 827: 799: 712: 678: 658: 570:. Historians are uncertain when the use of heavy cavalry in the form of mounted 411: 384:

from horseback. The horses appear to have the body type of palfreys or jennets.

350: 271: 96: 80: 2328: 1071:. It was relatively small and inexpensive. The best riding horses were known as 775: 683: 616: 18: 3863: 3853: 3848: 3813: 3753: 3748: 3743: 3459: 3118: 1387: 1246: 1162: 1158: 1075:; another breed of horse was developed in the 14th century in England called a 1008: 794:. However, there are practical reasons for this dispute. Analysis of existing 575: 318: 263: 258: 238: 226: 212: 189: 166: 2792: 1475:

A significant development which increased the importance and use of horses in

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had been used in warfare for many centuries, the medieval era saw the rise of

334:, for use as campaign riding horses, or light cavalry; one such breed was the 4166: 4128: 4061: 4053: 3843: 3798: 3469: 3157: 3135: 1802: 1615: 1466: 1439: 1383: 1250: 1242: 1149: 1132: 1076: 861: 732: 563: 559: 541: 484: 461: 389: 354: 290: 246: 204: 146: 65: 27: 2819:

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. World Decade Secretariat.

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placed on top, he had head protection not dissimilar to a modern bicycle or

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kingdom still retained at least one active Roman horse-breeding centre. The

30:

shows a well-bred medieval horse with arched neck, refined head and elegant

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The Genius of China : 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention

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Ornate 16th-century armour for horse and knight, and typical high saddle.

807: 780: 759: 654: 571: 457: 221: 200: 120: 2083:

Chevauchées were the preferred form of warfare for the English during the

1627:

Depiction of a lady riding in an early sidesaddle of a design credited to

1237:, showing curb bits, with ornamental bosses at the sides of the mouthpiece 1229: 822:(58 to 60 inches, 147 to 152 cm), a size verified by studies of 4033: 4028: 4013: 4008: 3994: 3828: 3690: 2856:, "Charles Martel, Mounted Shock Combat, the Stirrup, and Feudalism" in 1687: 1510: 1418: 1410: 1323: 1278: 1274: 1104: 1100: 1001: 839: 835: 819: 815: 803: 791: 787: 708: 692: 545: 476: 472: 434: 401: 358: 331: 314: 275: 185: 174: 108: 88: 76: 69: 50: 23: 3072: 2817:

World Decade for Cultural Development 1988–1997. United Nations Page 31

1249:

and utilisation. The changes in warfare during the Early Middle Ages to

4076: 4043: 3895: 3890: 3823: 3773: 3575: 3380: 3256:

A Medieval Woman's Mirror of Honor: The Treasury of the City of Ladies.

1671: 1610: 1594: 1212: 1174: 952: 944: 929: 802:

indicates the equipment was originally worn by horses of 15 to 16

322: 306: 249:

horses, whatever their breeding, were the most expensive. In fact, in

31: 1457: 1434:

Middle Ages had the lower cheek extended, in the manner of the modern

1405:

There was a variety of headgear used to control horses, predominantly

939:

During much of the Middle Ages, there was no system of interconnected

762:" in 1298. At the other extreme, a 1265 French ordinance ruled that a 521: 513:

and mounted raids, covering 60 to 70 miles (97 to 113 km) a day.

4038: 1852: 1582: 1578: 1430: 1398: 1341: 1295: 1282: 1269: 1262: 1224: 1218: 1096: 921: 631: 346: 335: 116: 92: 1095:

A variety of work horses were used throughout the Middle Ages. The

181:-based warfare, where horses were only used for riding and pursuit. 3322:

The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages.

1664: 1562: 1435: 1426: 1422: 1376: 1345: 1299: 1023: 997: 980: 700: 670: 647: 643: 621: 480: 405: 397: 381: 342: 326: 242: 234: 178: 3273:

Making a Living in the Middle Ages: The People of Britain 850-1520

4101: 4086: 1644: 1586: 1569: 1414: 1356: 1349: 1315: 1291: 1254: 1072: 957: 925: 881: 866: 823: 795: 790:(68 to 72 inches, 173 to 183 cm), as large as a modern 716: 674: 537: 489: 465: 449: 445: 438: 437:

or poorer knights. A wealthy knight would keep rounceys for his

422: 317:

kept extensive pedigrees of their Barb and Arabian horses via an

302: 279: 267: 250: 112: 100: 84: 3194:

Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im holen Mittelalter

3190:

Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages,

1670:

Most medieval women rode astride. Although an early chair-like

646:

grew out of the tournament and, by the 15th century, the art of

3838: 3833: 3104:

de Pisan, Christine, as translated by Willard and Cosman (1989)

2950: 2948: 2946: 1648: 1538: 1526: 1480: 1406: 1368: 1329: 1319: 1311: 1258: 1154: 1112: 1108: 1084: 1068: 885: 763: 747: 728: 704: 696: 639: 567: 453: 430: 208: 3546:

Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience.

3433:

Medieval Women: A Social History of Women in England 450-1500.

3727: 3474:

Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom.

1640: 1492: 1413:. Many of the bits used during the Middle Ages resemble the 1372: 1360: 1334: 1286: 1245:

technology proceeded at a similar pace as the development of

972: 873: 743: 635: 583: 533: 310: 294: 42: 2943: 2237:

Greene, R. and Elffers, J. The 33 Strategies of War, p. 181.

2087:(see, amongst many, Barber, pp. 34-38) and the Scots in the 341:

It is also hard to trace what happened to the bloodlines of

2934: 2925: 2916: 1676: 1505: 1497: 1484: 1445: 1202: 1166: 968: 933: 230: 3206:

Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua B; Cairns, John (2006)

2640: 2638: 1959:

Eustach Deschamps, 1360, quoted by Oakeshott (1998), p. 11

1694:

who, armoured and mounted, led an army against her cousin

493:. Hobbies were used successfully by both sides during the 161:, much of the quality breeding stock developed during the 3696: 3162:

Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World: AD 500-AD 1500

2477: 2475: 1364: 1064:'), by their colouring, or by the name of their breeder. 992:

exceptions: stopping only for a change of horses midway,

3609:

Wagner, Eduard; Drobiná, Zoroslava; Durdik, Jan; (2000)

2793:"The Stirrup and its Effect on Chinese Military History" 1838: 1836: 2635: 1518: 1022:

in 1066 required the transfer of over 2000 horses from

3625:; first published in English in 1958 by Andrew Dakers) 3229:

The Medieval Horse and its Equipment: c. 1150-c. 1450.

2472: 1738: 1736: 1561:– gave its name to the highest concept of knighthood: 826:

horseshoes as well as the depictions of horses on the

653:

Horses were specially bred for the joust, and heavier

3385:

The Medieval Warhorse From Byzantium to the Crusades.

1833: 1375:

more efficiently without falling, especially against

1294:

during the 9th and 10th centuries, and had spread to

810:

or ordinary riding horse. Research undertaken at the

719:. (A common generic name for medieval war horses was 578:

were avoided if at all possible, with most offensive

396:

One of the best-known of the medieval horses was the

184:

However, there were exceptions; in the 7th century a

1686:

to ride war horses, and take their part in warfare.

723:

which was interchangeable with the other terms). In

338:, which had similar ancestry to the Friesian horse. 3691:

Warhorse: the archaeology of a medieval revolution?

2329:"Endurance Rider's Handbook, Chapter 3, Section IV" 1908: 1906: 1904: 1902: 1733: 1253:both precipitated and relied on the arrival of the 3623:Kroje, zbroj a zbrane doby predhusitské a husitské 3563:Border Fury: England and Scotland at War 1296-1568 3490:repub. 2006 UK: Pen & Sword Military Classics 2353:"Medieval Horse 476 - c. 1450: Knight versus Moor" 1219:Equestrian equipment and technological innovations 1026:. Similarly, when travelling to France in 1285–6, 41:differed in size, build and breed from the modern 3267: 2725: 2453: 2451: 1504:used in earlier times. The yoke was designed for 4164: 3613:, trans. by Jean Layton, NY: Dover Publications 3176:Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship. 1899: 1853:"History of the British Percheron Horse Society" 1783: 1781: 1779: 1777: 1775: 1355:The solid tree allowed for effective use of the 1277:teams. Though the Romans had developed an iron " 3258:trans & ed. by C Willard and M Cosman, 1989 1532: 943:. Though parts of Europe still had remnants of 123:were significant advances in medieval society. 3654:Barton, P. G., "The Medieval Powys Warhorse", 3597:A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century. 3416:Medieval Travellers: The Rich and the Restless 3215:Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations. 2448: 2029: 2027: 1999: 1997: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1537:The elite horseman of the Middle Ages was the 3712: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2613: 1772: 1702:in the 12th century. The 15th-century writer 1067:The most typical riding horse was known as a 501:trying to gain advantage by preventing Irish 475:was a lightweight horse, about 13 to 14 2661: 2659: 2577: 2575: 2573: 2571: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2517:Oakeshott (1998), p. 14 and Prestwich, p. 31 2465: 2463: 2441: 2439: 2437: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1442:, and often at least one set was decorated. 707:into war. However, most knights and mounted 582:in the early Middle Ages taking the form of 3353:The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation 3160:; Dickie, Iain; Jestice, Phyllis G. (2005) 2900: 2898: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2858:Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History 2425: 2264:study by Ann Hyland, quoted by Clark, p. 23 2177:"Craft Court, Tiltyard and Menagerie Court" 2117: 2115: 2052: 2050: 2048: 2024: 1994: 1962: 1921:See e.g.: Clark, p. 23 and Prestwich, p. 30 1188: 1182: 1046:A 13th-century depiction of a riding horse. 1034:to provide the royal party with transport. 103:, another praises its skill and swiftness. 3719: 3705: 2984: 2610: 2559: 2550: 2525: 2523: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2365: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1826: 1824: 1822: 1797: 1795: 1793: 1090: 305:culture through both the Crusades and the 2966: 2957: 2656: 2647: 2568: 2532: 2460: 2434: 2418: 2416: 2414: 1754: 456:, a small horse first bred in Spain from 194:Islamic conquest of the Iberian peninsula 3874:Equestrian events at the Summer Olympics 3275:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 2907: 2895: 2877: 2863: 2734: 2716: 2707: 2590: 2222: 2204: 2112: 2045: 1622: 1614: 1456: 1228: 1122: 1041: 910: 899: 848: 774: 682: 615: 520: 375: 284: 134: 17: 3665: 2520: 2362: 1933: 1819: 1790: 1557:. The French word for horse-mastery – 4165: 3447:A Natural Approach to Horse Management 3263:The Cavalry Manual of Horse Management 2811: 2758: 2752: 2502: 2411: 2327:American Endurance Riders Conference, 1883: 1881: 1138:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry 3700: 3633:Medieval Technology and Social Change 3538:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 3370:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 3291:The Arabian: War Horse to Show Horse. 3178:Amigo Publications Inc; 1st edition. 3140:The Tournament in England: 1100-1400. 1452: 1233:Detail from 15th-century painting by 1011:were adapted and built to be used as 770: 758:rode a horse "valued at one thousand 664: 421:A more general-purpose horse was the 111:saddle as well as the arrival of the 3668:Horse Breeding in the Medieval World 3611:Medieval Costume, Armour and Weapons 2698: 2340:American Endurance Riders Conference 1305: 1030:ferried over 1000 horses across the 638:, the participants used the horses, 516: 196:between the 8th and 15th centuries. 3231:Rev. 2nd Ed, UK: The Boydell Press 2351:International Museum of the Horse, 1878: 1716:Horse transports in the Middle Ages 1604: 1491:. The horse collar was invented in 274:in 732. Following this battle, the 13: 3653: 3647: 3521:Rev. 2nd Ed. USA: Dufour Editions 3026:Leyser, pp. 162-165 and Power, p. 996:once managed the 70 miles between 746:. They also were preferred by the 14: 4209: 4024:Mountain and moorland pony breeds 3684: 3582:London: Laurence King Publishing 3548:New Haven: Yale University Press 3507:Rev. 2nd Ed. USA:Dufour Editions 3339:English Medieval Knight 1300-1400 3196:by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag) 2357:International Museum of the Horse 2179:. Royal Armouries. Archived from 1851:British Percheron Horse Society. 947:built before the collapse of the 895: 691:The most well-known horse of the 642:and weapons of war. The sport of 364: 4145: 4144: 3418:, republished 2005 UK: Phoenix, 3125:, 2nd Ed. UK: The Boydell Press 3098: 3089: 3065: 3056: 3047: 3038: 3029: 3020: 3011: 3002: 2993: 2975: 2091:(see Prestwich, pp. 10, 198-200) 1037: 620:A later print of a 15th-century 586:, or swift mounted raids called 2931:Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 322. 2922:Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 317. 2886: 2839: 2830: 2802: 2785: 2743: 2685: 2676: 2626: 2584: 2511: 2493: 2484: 2402: 2393: 2345: 2321: 2312: 2303: 2294: 2285: 2276: 2267: 2258: 2249: 2240: 2231: 2213: 2195: 2169: 2160: 2151: 2142: 2133: 2124: 2103: 2094: 2077: 2068: 2059: 2036: 2015: 2006: 1985: 1976: 1953: 1924: 1915: 1890: 1864:British Percheron Horse Society 1597:, whose work was more limited. 1359:. The stirrup was developed in 282:payment from cattle to horses. 22:This 15th-century depiction of 3355:. Cambridge University Press. 3261:Devereux, Frederick L. (1941) 3208:Warfare in the Medieval World. 2954:Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 312 2940:Needham, Volume 4, part 2, 305 2591:Claridge, Jordan (June 2017). 1869: 1845: 1745: 1268:The development of the nailed 1118: 1079:, from which the modern term " 988:, which had strap suspension. 842:(62 inches, 157 cm) 611: 1: 4142:Lists of horse-related topics 3565:, UK: Pearson Education Ltd, 3366:Hope, Lt. Col. C.E.G. (1972) 3308:Daily Life in Medieval Times. 3289:Edwards, Gladys Brown (1973) 3213:Chamberlin, J. Edward (2006) 3111: 2632:Gies & Gies, pp. 128, 147 2318:Oakeshott (1998), pp. 104-105 2042:Hyland (1998), pp. 32, 14, 37 1395:The Great Stirrup Controversy 971:trains, for land travel, and 961:rather than the more jarring 711:rode smaller horses known as 495:Wars of Scottish Independence 211:, a forerunner to the modern 165:was lost due to uncontrolled 4173:Transport in the Middle Ages 3809:Glossary of equestrian terms 3621:(first published in 1956 as 3341:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing 3324:London: victor Gollancz Ltd 3210:UK: Pen & Sword Military 2667:"Who Invented Horseshoeing?" 2665:Heymering, Henry, RJF, CJF, 1533:Horse trades and professions 1127:This horse is fitted with a 904:A bird on a man on a horse, 566:, particularly the European 505:of the horses to Scotland. 380:Medieval people engaging in 7: 4183:Horse history and evolution 3656:Montgomeryshire Collections 3635:. Oxford University Press. 3599:New York: Ballantine Books 3304:Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph 2600:Agricultural History Review 2201:Oakeshott (1998), pp. 11-14 2157:Oakeshott (1998), pp. 79–83 1709: 509:employed the hobby for his 155:Decline of the Roman Empire 130: 10: 4214: 4178:Warfare of the Middle Ages 3932:Ancient and Imperial China 3726: 3466:. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. 3095:Gies & Gies, pp. 45-46 2673:, Retrieved on 2011-11-06. 1721:Domestication of the horse 1608: 1464: 1309: 1222: 1131:to bear the weight of the 668: 551: 483:, and was often ridden by 207:blood through the Spanish 4137: 4052: 3993: 3955: 3909: 3819:List of equestrian sports 3797: 3734: 3666:Gladitz, Charles (1997), 3298:Archeologia (Archaeology) 2850:English Historical Review 2693:Archeologia (Archaeology) 1409:with assorted designs of 39:Horses in the Middle Ages 3517:Oakeshott, Ewart (1999) 3351:Hobson, John M. (2004). 3248:London:Thames and Hudson 3227:Clark, John (Ed) (2004) 2291:Hyland (1994), pp. 85-86 2282:Hyland (1994), pp. 58-59 1875:Bennet et al., pp. 71-72 1858:23 February 2020 at the 1751:Bennet et al., pp. 19-21 1726: 1436:half-cheek or full cheek 855:Royal Armoury, Stockholm 844:Lithuanian Heavy Draught 142:The Battle of San Romano 3519:A Knight and His Armour 3505:A Knight and His Horse. 3476:UK: Brockhampton Press 3399:The Warhorse 1250-1600. 3086:. Retrieved 2011-11-06. 2883:Oakeshott (1998), p. 39 2874:Oakeshott (1998), p. 38 2808:Bennet et al., pp. 73-4 2799:, Retrieved 2008-08-14. 2759:Temple, Robert (2007). 2713:Oakeshott (1998), p. 40 2644:Gies & Gies, p. 273 2399:Oakeshott (1999), p. 92 2390:. Retrieved 2007-03-08. 2342:, Retrieved 2008-08-14. 2033:Oakeshott (1998), p. 14 2003:Oakeshott (1998), p. 12 1973:Oakeshott (1998), p. 11 1866:. Retrieved 2008-08-14. 1816:. Retrieved 2008-08-14. 1682:It was not unknown for 1091:Harness and pack horses 779:Wooden horse figurine, 468:horses by the Spanish. 3580:Medieval Civilisation. 3412:Labarge, Margaret Wade 3401:UK: Sutton Publishing 3246:The Medieval Warhorse. 3188:Bumke, Joachim (2000) 3164:, London: Amber Books 3142:UK: The Boydell Press 3078:3 October 2011 at the 3071:Georgia Ladies Aside, 3062:Gies & Gies, p. 42 2704:Hope, Chapters 1 and 2 2481:Gies & Gies, p. 56 2382:23 August 2012 at the 2359:, Retrieved 2012-05-24 2300:Hyland (1994), pp. 146 2219:Hyland (1998), pp. 1-2 1842:Gies & Gies, p. 88 1636: 1620: 1462: 1238: 1189: 1183: 1141: 1047: 916: 908: 857: 783: 688: 624: 549: 393: 298: 241:brought back from the 225:(possibly akin to the 150: 35: 3670:, Four Courts Press, 3486:Norman, Vesey (1971) 3445:McBane, Susan (1992) 3368:The Horseman's Manual 3123:The Reign of Chivalry 2408:Labarge, pp. xiii-xiv 2130:Bennet et al., p. 123 2074:Bennet et al., p. 121 2021:Hyland (1998), p. 222 1991:Hyland (1998), p. 221 1698:, and Stephen's wife 1626: 1618: 1460: 1265:from other cultures. 1232: 1148:had used a two-field 1126: 1045: 1017:William of Normandy's 994:Richard II of England 914: 903: 852: 778: 703:, known for carrying 686: 619: 524: 379: 288: 138: 21: 3488:The Medieval Soldier 3335:Gravett, Christopher 3320:Gimpel, Jean (1977) 3174:Bennett, Deb (1998) 3084:Georgia Ladies Aside 3073:"Sidesaddle History" 2913:Wagner et al., p. 66 2904:Wagner et al., p. 67 2824:7 April 2012 at the 2763:. Inner Traditions. 2722:Wagner et al., p. 65 2499:Hyland (1994), p. 99 2309:Hyland (1998), p. 10 2183:on 27 September 2007 2089:Wars of Independence 2056:Bennet et al., p. 74 1930:Carey et al., p. 113 1896:Hyland (1998), p. 15 1801:Bennett, Deb (2004) 1742:Carey et al., p. 112 1340:Beneath the saddle, 977:horse-drawn vehicles 3942:Indian subcontinent 3397:Hyland, Ann (1998) 3252:de Pisan, Christine 2854:Bernard S. Bachrach 2797:Silkroad Foundation 2334:15 May 2008 at the 1700:Matilda of Boulogne 1479:, particularly for 1281:" that resembled a 1241:The development of 1235:Gentile da Fabriano 1028:Edward I of England 1020:invasion of England 499:Edward I of England 87:" (riding horses), 3975:American Civil War 3735:Equine science and 3593:Tuchman, Barbara W 3542:Prestwich, Michael 3449:, London: Methuen 3435:UK: Phoenix Press 2375:Alvarez, Richard. 2085:Hundred Years' War 1808:6 May 2008 at the 1704:Christine de Pizan 1637: 1621: 1463: 1453:Harness technology 1393:A theory known as 1337:more effectively. 1239: 1142: 1048: 917: 909: 858: 784: 771:Size of war horses 689: 665:Types of war horse 625: 550: 394: 299: 237:, another type of 151: 36: 4158: 4157: 3429:Leyser, Henrietta 3387:UK: Grange Books 3269:Dyer, Christopher 3152:Bennet, Matthew; 2999:Norman, pp. 132–3 2731:Barker, pp. 175-6 2682:Slocum, pp. 143-4 2671:Science of Motion 2653:McBane, pp. 57-60 2565:Slocum, pp. 141-2 2556:Slocum, pp. 140-1 2388:Classical Fencing 2065:Prestwich, p. 325 2012:Prestwich, p. 318 1306:Riding technology 1159:mouldboard plough 941:roads and bridges 890:equestrian helmet 554:Horses in warfare 517:Horses in warfare 307:Moorish invasions 266:over the Islamic 159:Early Middle Ages 83:" (war horses), " 4205: 4193:Medieval society 4148: 4147: 3721: 3714: 3707: 3698: 3697: 3680: 3662: 3501:Oakeshott, Ewart 3286: 3105: 3102: 3096: 3093: 3087: 3069: 3063: 3060: 3054: 3051: 3045: 3042: 3036: 3033: 3027: 3024: 3018: 3015: 3009: 3008:Clark, pp. 14–15 3006: 3000: 2997: 2991: 2988: 2982: 2979: 2973: 2970: 2964: 2961: 2955: 2952: 2941: 2938: 2932: 2929: 2923: 2920: 2914: 2911: 2905: 2902: 2893: 2890: 2884: 2881: 2875: 2872: 2861: 2848:D. A. Bullough, 2843: 2837: 2834: 2828: 2815: 2809: 2806: 2800: 2789: 2783: 2782: 2756: 2750: 2747: 2741: 2738: 2732: 2729: 2723: 2720: 2714: 2711: 2705: 2702: 2696: 2689: 2683: 2680: 2674: 2663: 2654: 2651: 2645: 2642: 2633: 2630: 2624: 2621: 2608: 2607: 2597: 2588: 2582: 2579: 2566: 2563: 2557: 2554: 2548: 2541: 2530: 2529:Clark, pp. 27-28 2527: 2518: 2515: 2509: 2506: 2500: 2497: 2491: 2488: 2482: 2479: 2470: 2467: 2458: 2455: 2446: 2443: 2432: 2431:Labarge, p. xiii 2429: 2423: 2420: 2409: 2406: 2400: 2397: 2391: 2373: 2360: 2349: 2343: 2325: 2319: 2316: 2310: 2307: 2301: 2298: 2292: 2289: 2283: 2280: 2274: 2271: 2265: 2262: 2256: 2253: 2247: 2244: 2238: 2235: 2229: 2226: 2220: 2217: 2211: 2208: 2202: 2199: 2193: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2173: 2167: 2164: 2158: 2155: 2149: 2148:Barker, pp. 4-15 2146: 2140: 2137: 2131: 2128: 2122: 2119: 2110: 2107: 2101: 2098: 2092: 2081: 2075: 2072: 2066: 2063: 2057: 2054: 2043: 2040: 2034: 2031: 2022: 2019: 2013: 2010: 2004: 2001: 1992: 1989: 1983: 1980: 1974: 1971: 1960: 1957: 1951: 1948: 1931: 1928: 1922: 1919: 1913: 1912:Prestwich, p. 30 1910: 1897: 1894: 1888: 1885: 1876: 1873: 1867: 1849: 1843: 1840: 1831: 1828: 1817: 1799: 1788: 1785: 1770: 1767: 1752: 1749: 1743: 1740: 1696:Stephen of Blois 1633:Gerard Horenbout 1605:Women and horses 1192: 1186: 1173:and use of iron 1013:horse transports 986:chariot branlant 832:horse transports 812:Museum of London 598:infantry tactics 594:Late Middle Ages 511:guerilla warfare 270:invaders at the 217:Andalusian horse 163:classical period 4213: 4212: 4208: 4207: 4206: 4204: 4203: 4202: 4163: 4162: 4159: 4154: 4133: 4048: 3989: 3970:Napoleonic Wars 3951: 3905: 3801: 3793: 3736: 3730: 3725: 3687: 3678: 3650: 3648:Further reading 3645: 3629:White Jr., Lynn 3536:Medieval Women. 3460:Needham, Joseph 3283: 3119:Barber, Richard 3114: 3109: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3094: 3090: 3080:Wayback Machine 3070: 3066: 3061: 3057: 3052: 3048: 3044:Labarge, p. xiv 3043: 3039: 3034: 3030: 3025: 3021: 3017:Clark, pp 15–16 3016: 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4200: 4195: 4190: 4188:Types of horse 4185: 4180: 4175: 4156: 4155: 4153: 4152: 4138: 4135: 4134: 4132: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4115: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4058: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4047: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4000: 3998: 3991: 3990: 3988: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3961: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3950: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3913: 3911: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3887: 3886: 3881: 3871: 3866: 3864:Horse training 3861: 3856: 3854:Western riding 3851: 3849:English riding 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3814:Horse industry 3811: 3805: 3803: 3795: 3794: 3792: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3740: 3738: 3732: 3731: 3724: 3723: 3716: 3709: 3701: 3695: 3694: 3686: 3685:External links 3683: 3682: 3681: 3677:978-1851822706 3676: 3663: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3643: 3626: 3607: 3590: 3573: 3556: 3539: 3529: 3515: 3498: 3484: 3470:Nicolle, David 3467: 3457: 3443: 3426: 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p. 59 1932: 1923: 1914: 1898: 1889: 1877: 1868: 1844: 1832: 1818: 1789: 1787:Bennett (1998) 1771: 1753: 1744: 1731: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1724: 1723: 1718: 1711: 1708: 1631:(1366-1394) – 1606: 1603: 1534: 1531: 1487:work, was the 1454: 1451: 1388:Charles Martel 1307: 1304: 1257:, solid-treed 1247:horse breeding 1220: 1217: 1120: 1117: 1101:draught horses 1092: 1089: 1039: 1036: 915:A horse litter 897: 896:Transportation 894: 830:. Analysis of 772: 769: 731:was used as a 666: 663: 613: 610: 518: 515: 444:The well-bred 366: 365:Types of horse 363: 319:oral tradition 264:Charles Martel 259:Feudal society 239:oriental horse 227:Turkoman horse 132: 129: 75:Horses in the 70:archaeological 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4210: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4170: 4168: 4161: 4151: 4143: 4140: 4139: 4136: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4084: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4055: 4051: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4019:Gaited horses 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3992: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3954: 3948: 3947:North America 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3922:Domestication 3920: 3918: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 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3092: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3074: 3068: 3059: 3053:Tuchman, p 57 3050: 3041: 3032: 3023: 3014: 3005: 2996: 2987: 2978: 2972:Gimpel, p. 32 2969: 2963:Gimpel, p. 34 2960: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2937: 2928: 2919: 2910: 2901: 2899: 2892:Barber, p. 16 2889: 2880: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2842: 2833: 2827: 2823: 2820: 2814: 2805: 2798: 2794: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2770:9781594772177 2766: 2762: 2755: 2746: 2740:Bumke, p. 176 2737: 2728: 2719: 2710: 2701: 2694: 2688: 2679: 2672: 2668: 2662: 2660: 2650: 2641: 2639: 2629: 2620: 2618: 2616: 2614: 2605: 2601: 2594: 2587: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2572: 2562: 2553: 2546: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2526: 2524: 2514: 2505: 2496: 2487: 2478: 2476: 2466: 2464: 2454: 2452: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2428: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2405: 2396: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2378: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2358: 2354: 2348: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2330: 2324: 2315: 2306: 2297: 2288: 2279: 2270: 2261: 2252: 2243: 2234: 2228:Bumke, p. 177 2225: 2216: 2210:Bumke, p. 175 2207: 2198: 2182: 2178: 2172: 2166:Barber, p. 42 2163: 2154: 2145: 2139:Sadler, p. 45 2136: 2127: 2121:Sadler, p. 32 2118: 2116: 2106: 2100:Barber, p. 33 2097: 2090: 2086: 2080: 2071: 2062: 2053: 2051: 2049: 2039: 2030: 2028: 2018: 2009: 2000: 1998: 1988: 1979: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1956: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1927: 1918: 1909: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1893: 1884: 1882: 1872: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1854: 1848: 1839: 1837: 1830:Bumke, p. 178 1827: 1825: 1823: 1815: 1814:Frank Hopkins 1811: 1807: 1804: 1798: 1796: 1794: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1778: 1776: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1748: 1739: 1737: 1732: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1713: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1680: 1678: 1673: 1668: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1634: 1630: 1625: 1617: 1612: 1602: 1598: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1545:, the French 1544: 1540: 1530: 1528: 1522: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1507: 1503: 1502:breastcollars 1499: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1472: 1468: 1467:Horse harness 1459: 1450: 1447: 1443: 1441: 1440:double bridle 1437: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1403: 1400: 1396: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1384:shock tactics 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1338: 1336: 1331: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1303: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1275:draught horse 1271: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1251:heavy cavalry 1248: 1244: 1236: 1231: 1226: 1216: 1214: 1209: 1206:11th-century 1204: 1200: 1196: 1191: 1185: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1151: 1150:crop rotation 1147: 1140: 1139: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1054: 1044: 1038:Riding horses 1035: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1005: 1003: 999: 995: 989: 987: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 964: 960: 959: 954: 950: 946: 942: 937: 935: 931: 927: 923: 913: 907: 902: 893: 891: 887: 883: 878: 875: 870: 868: 863: 862:draught horse 856: 851: 847: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 782: 777: 768: 765: 761: 757: 751: 749: 745: 740: 736: 734: 733:light cavalry 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 685: 680: 676: 672: 662: 660: 656: 651: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 629: 623: 618: 609: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 590: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 564:heavy cavalry 561: 560:light cavalry 555: 548:, 8th century 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 528:warrior on a 527: 523: 514: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 491: 486: 485:light cavalry 482: 478: 474: 469: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 442: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 419: 417: 413: 409: 407: 403: 399: 391: 390:Codex Manesse 387: 383: 378: 374: 372: 362: 360: 359:draught horse 356: 355:Suffolk Punch 352: 348: 344: 339: 337: 333: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 296: 292: 287: 283: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 223: 222:Nisaean breed 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 197: 195: 191: 187: 182: 180: 176: 175:Scandinavians 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 148: 147:Paolo Uccello 144: 143: 137: 128: 124: 122: 118: 114: 110: 104: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 73: 71: 67: 66:equestrianism 63: 58: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 33: 29: 28:Pope Adrian I 25: 20: 16: 4160: 4112:Winged horse 4107:White horses 4004:Horse breeds 3995:Horse breeds 3985:World War II 3926: 3869:Horse racing 3759:Conformation 3667: 3659: 3655: 3632: 3622: 3610: 3596: 3579: 3562: 3559:Sadler, John 3545: 3535: 3518: 3504: 3487: 3473: 3463: 3446: 3432: 3415: 3398: 3384: 3367: 3352: 3338: 3321: 3307: 3297: 3290: 3272: 3262: 3255: 3245: 3228: 3214: 3207: 3193: 3189: 3175: 3161: 3139: 3122: 3100: 3091: 3083: 3067: 3058: 3049: 3040: 3031: 3022: 3013: 3004: 2995: 2986: 2977: 2968: 2959: 2936: 2927: 2918: 2909: 2888: 2879: 2857: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2832: 2813: 2804: 2796: 2787: 2760: 2754: 2745: 2736: 2727: 2718: 2709: 2700: 2692: 2687: 2678: 2670: 2649: 2628: 2603: 2599: 2586: 2561: 2552: 2544: 2513: 2504: 2495: 2486: 2427: 2404: 2395: 2387: 2356: 2347: 2339: 2323: 2314: 2305: 2296: 2287: 2278: 2273:Clark, p. 25 2269: 2260: 2251: 2242: 2233: 2224: 2215: 2206: 2197: 2185:. Retrieved 2181:the original 2171: 2162: 2153: 2144: 2135: 2126: 2105: 2096: 2079: 2070: 2061: 2038: 2017: 2008: 1987: 1982:Clark, p. 29 1978: 1955: 1926: 1917: 1892: 1871: 1863: 1847: 1813: 1747: 1681: 1669: 1653: 1638: 1599: 1575:Earl Marshal 1567: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1536: 1523: 1489:horse collar 1474: 1471:Horse collar 1444: 1404: 1392: 1381: 1354: 1339: 1327: 1267: 1240: 1198: 1194: 1180: 1171:horse collar 1143: 1136: 1129:horse collar 1094: 1066: 1052: 1049: 1006: 1004:in a night. 990: 985: 967: 956: 949:Roman Empire 938: 918: 906:Tang dynasty 879: 871: 859: 808:field hunter 796:horse armour 785: 781:Tang dynasty 752: 737: 720: 690: 655:horse armour 652: 626: 605: 587: 557: 538:round shield 507:Robert Bruce 488: 470: 443: 426: 420: 410: 395: 385: 370: 368: 340: 300: 276:Carolingians 254: 220: 198: 183: 152: 140: 125: 121:horse collar 105: 74: 62:horse breeds 59: 38: 37: 15: 4198:Horse trade 4034:Stock horse 4029:Sport horse 4014:Feral horse 4009:Draft horse 3980:World War I 3927:Middle Ages 3576:Slocum, Kay 3381:Hyland, Ann 3300:, Volume 55 3217:Bluebridge 2852:(1970) and 2695:, pp. 31-40 2508:Clark, p. 6 2422:Clark, p. 8 1688:Joan of Arc 1553:and German 1511:breastplate 1419:snaffle bit 1324:Bit (horse) 1279:hipposandal 1175:horse shoes 1135:. October, 1119:Agriculture 1002:Westminster 945:Roman roads 792:Shire horse 709:men-at-arms 628:Tournaments 612:Tournaments 589:chevauchées 546:spangenhelm 526:Carolingian 481:skirmishing 435:men-at-arms 332:Cistercians 186:Merovingian 153:During the 109:solid-treed 89:cart horses 77:Middle Ages 51:agriculture 24:Charlemagne 4167:Categories 4077:Hippomancy 4044:Wild horse 3896:Equitation 3891:Horse show 3824:Horse tack 3779:Management 3764:Coat color 3737:management 3112:References 2623:Chamberlin 1672:sidesaddle 1611:Sidesaddle 1609:See also: 1595:blacksmith 1583:hastiludes 1559:chevalerie 1549:, Spanish 1483:and other 1465:See also: 1342:caparisons 1310:See also: 1243:equestrian 1223:See also: 1165:including 1097:pack horse 930:pilgrimage 924:, war and 669:See also: 632:hastiludes 552:See also: 323:Carthusian 293:nobleman ( 93:packhorses 72:evidence. 4124:Symbolism 4119:Sacrifice 4082:Mythology 4039:Warmblood 3997:and types 3965:East Asia 3917:Evolution 3879:medalists 3802:and sport 3789:Slaughter 3784:Nutrition 3242:Davis, R. 2846:see, e.g. 1579:constable 1551:caballero 1547:chevalier 1543:cavaliere 1481:ploughing 1427:bit rings 1399:feudalism 1371:to use a 1296:Byzantium 1283:hoof boot 1270:horseshoe 1263:horseshoe 1225:Horseshoe 981:carriages 922:diplomacy 756:Wenzel II 739:Stallions 542:chainmail 530:war horse 487:known as 347:Percheron 343:destriers 336:Fell pony 327:monastics 253:the word 247:"Spanish" 117:horseshoe 55:transport 4150:Category 3754:Breeding 3749:Behavior 3631:. 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Horses in the Middle Ages

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