469:
418:
declines. In this way, aspects of medical practice and medical industries can produce social harm in which society members ultimately become less healthy or excessively dependent on institutional care. He argued that medical education of physicians contributes to medicalization of society because they are trained predominantly for diagnosing and treating illness, therefore they focus on disease rather than on health. Iatrogenic poverty (above) can be considered a specific manifestation of social iatrogenesis.
340:
pathological nomenclature is rarely a benign process and can easily rise to the level of emotional iatrogenesis, especially when no alternatives outside of the diagnostic naming process have been considered. Many former patients come to the conclusion that their difficulties are largely the result of the power relationships inherent in psychiatric treatment, which has led to the rise of the
227:
Another situation may involve negligence where patients are brushed off and not given proper care due to providers holding prejudice for reasons such as sexual orientation, ethnicity, religion, immigration status, etc. This can cause mistrust between patients and providers, leading to patients to not
377:
is increasing, and the supply side does not stay behind and develops very fast. But the regulatory and protective capacity in those countries is often lagging behind. Patients easily fall into a vicious cycle of illness, ineffective therapies, consumption of savings, indebtedness, sale of productive
417:
of life in which medical professionals, pharmaceutical companies, and medical device companies have a vested interest in sponsoring sickness by creating unrealistic health demands that require more treatments or treating non-diseases that are part of the normal human experience, such as age-related
339:
The degree of association of any particular condition with iatrogenesis is unclear and in some cases controversial. The over-diagnosis of psychiatric conditions (with the assignment of mental illness terminology) may relate primarily to clinician dependence on subjective criteria. The assignment of
421:
Third, cultural iatrogenesis refers to the destruction of traditional ways of dealing with, and making sense of, death, suffering, and sickness. In this way the medicalization of life leads to cultural harm as society members lose their autonomous coping skills. It is worth noting that in these
212:
is fatal in most cases; the survival rate for treatment of a ruptured aortic aneurysm is under 25%. Patients who die during or after an operation will still be considered iatrogenic deaths, but the procedure itself remains a better bet than the probability of death if left untreated.
352:
Meessen et al. used the term "iatrogenic poverty" to describe impoverishment induced by medical care. Impoverishment is described for households exposed to catastrophic health expenditure or to hardship financing. Every year, worldwide, over 100,000 households fall into
476:
in 1823 Vienna (left vertical line) correlated with incidence of fatal childbed fever. The onset of chlorine handwash in 1847 is noted (right vertical line). For comparison, rates for Dublin maternity hospital, which had no pathological anatomy
63:, can evade recognition. In a 2013 estimate, about 20 million negative effects from treatment had occurred globally. In 2013, an estimated 142,000 persons died from adverse effects of medical treatment, up from an estimated 94,000 in 1990.
898:"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013"
42:
is the causation of a disease, a harmful complication, or other ill effect by any medical activity, including diagnosis, intervention, error, or negligence. First used in this sense in 1924, the term was introduced to
1671:"Standards and Guidelines for the Interpretation of Sequence Variants: A Joint Consensus Recommendation of the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the Association for Molecular Pathology"
431:
Globally it is estimated that 142,000 people died in 2013 from adverse effects of medical treatment, an increase of 51 percent from 94,000 in 1990. In the United States, estimated deaths per year include:
1669:
Richards, Sue; Aziz, Nazneen; Bale, Sherri; Bick, David; Das, Soma; Gastier-Foster, Julie; Grody, Wayne W.; Hegde, Madhuri; Lyon, Elaine; Spector, Elaine; Voelkerding, Karl; Rehm, Heidi L. (May 2015).
293:
Adverse effects can appear mechanically. The design of some surgical instruments may be decades old, hence certain adverse effects (such as tissue trauma) may never have been properly characterized.
478:
325:
is hypothesized to be prone to iatrogenic complications based on treatment modality. Certain antipsychotics have been shown to reduce brain volumes in animals and in humans over long-term use.
949:"Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013"
1995:
552:(also known as "childbed fever") at maternity institutions in the 19th century, was a major iatrogenic catastrophe of the era. The infection mechanism was first identified by
22:
398:
First, clinical iatrogenesis is the injury done to patients by ineffective, unsafe, and erroneous treatments as described above. In this regard, he described the need for
313:
for another disorder, especially in pediatric patients considered to have major depressive disorder and prescribed stimulants or antidepressants. Other conditions such as
321:
was historically viewed as a psychiatric/somatoform condition, and the now-outdated treatment of Graded
Exercise Therapy is known to have caused iatrogenic harm.
1330:
545:. Iatrogenic illness or death caused purposefully or by avoidable error or negligence on the healer's part became a punishable offense in many civilizations.
2410:
2135:
Lazarou J, Pomeranz BH, Corey PN (April 1998). "Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: a meta-analysis of prospective studies".
755:"John O. Barr & Timothy L. Kauffman, "Iatrogenesis in older adults", in Timothy L. Kauffman, Ron Scott, John O. Barr & Michael L. Moran, eds.,
318:
336:
is considered by a minority of theorists to be a wholly iatrogenic disorder with the bulk of diagnoses arising from a tiny fraction of practitioners.
627:
456:
Based on these figures, iatrogenesis may cause as many as 225,000 deaths per year in the United States (excluding recognizable error). An earlier
55:
life. Iatrogenesis may thus include mental suffering via medical beliefs or a practitioner's statements. Some iatrogenic events are obvious, like
827:
1274:"Graded exercise therapy for myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome is not effective and unsafe. Re-analysis of a Cochrane review"
2362:
633:
549:
1382:
422:
critiques "Illich does not reject all benefits of modern society but rejects those that involve unwarranted dependency and exploitation."
1523:
Moos, R.H. (2005). "Iatrogenic effects of psychosocial interventions for substance use disorders: prevalence, predictors, prevention".
645:
2026:
2471:
1809:
651:
197:, infertility, etc. The loss of function resulting from the required removal of a diseased organ is iatrogenic, as in the case of
2415:
523:
328:
Some populations may be at risk of underdiagnosis or misdiagnosis of psychiatric disorders, including those identified as having
2275:
2179:
509:
2508:
2092:
Phillips DP, Christenfeld N, Glynn LM (February 1998). "Increase in US medication-error deaths between 1983 and 1993".
251:
is iatrogenic as well. Bacterial strains resistant to antibiotics have evolved in response to the over prescription of
1162:
Abbey, S.E. (1993). "Somatization, Illness
Attribution and the Sociocultural Psychiatry of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome".
1891:
1645:
1179:
1100:
258:
Certain drugs and vaccines are toxic in their own right in therapeutic doses because of their mechanism of action.
362:
259:
333:
322:
2405:
2498:
1435:
Ho, Beng-Choon; Andreasen, Nancy C.; Ziebell, Steven; Pierson, Ronald; Magnotta, Vincent (February 2011).
2441:
2436:
1033:"Antimicrobial resistance: risk associated with antibiotic overuse and initiatives to reduce the problem"
880:
639:
563:
in the 20th century, it could be expected that iatrogenic illness or death might be more easily avoided.
129:
2268:
535:, people have recognized the potentially damaging effects of medical intervention. "First do no harm" (
1493:
799:
274:
in its own right, with potential to lead to the development of secondary tumors. In a similar manner,
329:
158:
2195:
Hanninen, O; Farago, M.; Monos, E. (1983). "Ignaz
Philipp Semmelweis, the prophet of bacteriology".
1421:
1383:"Evaluation of the Iatrogenic Effects of Studying Persons Recently Exposed to a Mass Urban Disaster"
1209:
884:
785:
2388:
1860:
490:
2493:
2316:
1224:
734:
576:
399:
2503:
2383:
1389:
876:
706:
169:—necessarily aggressive for therapeutic effect – frequently produce such iatrogenic effects as
2170:
Jason A Wolf; Heather Hanson; Mark J Moir; Len
Friedman; Grant T Savage, eds. (12 July 2011).
2431:
2399:
2261:
1408:
856:
772:
701:
666:
600:
457:
357:
due to health care expenses. A study reported that in the United States in 2001, illness and
244:
84:
44:
1331:"BMJ: NICE backtracks on graded exercise therapy and CBT in draft revision to CFS guidance"
676:
548:
The transfer of pathogens from the autopsy room to maternity patients, leading to shocking
473:
108:
8:
2301:
1880:
1767:
Xu; Evans, DB; Carrin, G; Aguilar-Rivera, AM; Musgrove, P; Evans, T; et al. (2007).
1558:
Braun, B.G. (1989). "Iatrophilia and
Iatrophobia in the diagnosis and treatment of MPD".
656:
579:
560:
314:
240:
to drugs, even when unexpected by pharmacotherapists, are also classified as iatrogenic.
2069:
2052:
2357:
2228:
2212:
2117:
1973:
1930:
1726:
Meessen, B.; Zhenzhong, Z.; Van Damme, W.; Devadasan, N.; Criel, B.; Bloom, G. (2003).
1703:
1670:
1611:
1586:
1469:
1452:
1436:
1306:
1273:
1197:
1137:
1065:
1032:
973:
948:
922:
897:
764:
606:
370:
366:
208:
The incidence of iatrogenesis may be misleading in some cases. For example, a ruptured
178:
52:
2105:
1925:
1908:
1640:. Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Anne Lovell. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 11.
1585:
Aboraya, Ahmed; Rankin, Eric; France, Cheryl; El-Missiry, Ahmed; John, Collin (2006).
964:
913:
2446:
2393:
2220:
2175:
2152:
2109:
2074:
2018:
1977:
1965:
1887:
1842:
1790:
1749:
1744:
1727:
1708:
1690:
1651:
1641:
1616:
1598:
1540:
1536:
1474:
1456:
1311:
1293:
1254:
1246:
1185:
1175:
1141:
1133:
1096:
1070:
1052:
1013:
978:
927:
537:
287:
162:
2232:
2121:
1225:"NICE guideline on ME/CFS: robust advice based on a thorough review of the evidence"
2204:
2144:
2101:
2064:
2010:
1957:
1934:
1920:
1832:
1824:
1780:
1739:
1698:
1682:
1606:
1567:
1532:
1464:
1448:
1301:
1285:
1236:
1167:
1129:
1117:
1060:
1044:
1005:
968:
960:
917:
909:
871:
835:
760:
553:
528:, "origin"); as such, in its earlier forms, it could refer to good or bad effects.
482:
468:
310:
306:
174:
95:
60:
1810:"Borrowing And Selling To Pay For Health Care in Low- And Middle-Income Countries"
1725:
2352:
2174:. Advances in Health Care Management Series #10. Emerald Group Pub. p. 292.
2169:
742:
341:
283:
221:
209:
2172:
Organization
Development in Healthcare: Conversations on Research and Strategies
1223:
Barry, Peter Walter; Kelley, Kate; Tan, Toni; Finlay, Ilora (28 February 2024).
996:
Finland M (1979). "Emergence of antibiotic resistance in hospitals, 1935–1975".
2467:
2321:
2311:
1171:
711:
696:
681:
661:
622:
583:
498:
414:
77:
2208:
1961:
1828:
2487:
2326:
2306:
2148:
1785:
1768:
1694:
1602:
1460:
1297:
1289:
1250:
1241:
1056:
1048:
852:
354:
302:
146:
1655:
1118:"Recent Advances in Prepubertal Mood Disorders: Phenomenology and Treatment"
1009:
2451:
2378:
2347:
2022:
2014:
1969:
1846:
1794:
1753:
1712:
1620:
1544:
1478:
1355:
1315:
1258:
1074:
982:
931:
691:
617:
358:
317:
are theorized to have significant sociocultural and iatrogenic components.
271:
190:
166:
32:
2224:
2156:
2113:
2078:
1189:
309:). An example of a potentially iatrogenic circumstance is misdiagnosis of
2331:
1837:
1635:
532:
387:
374:
279:
112:
48:
2216:
1686:
1017:
572:
568:
564:
446:
267:
263:
252:
217:
194:
154:
124:
56:
1093:
Multiple
Identities & False Memories: A Sociocognitive Perspective
1571:
612:
542:
515:
501:
266:, which is more harmful to cancer cells than regular cells. However,
170:
26:
153:, or the prescription or dispensing of the wrong therapy, such as a
868:
Paul F. Lazarsfeld, "Working with Merton", in Lewis A. Cosar, ed.,
248:
202:
198:
182:
88:
51:, alleging that industrialized societies impair quality of life by
1948:
Barnet, Robert (2003). "Ivan Illich and the
Nemesis of Medicine".
686:
586:
continue to be developed to decrease iatrogenic side effects and
275:
237:
150:
121:
Faulty procedures, techniques, information, methods, or equipment
1861:"Medical Bills Leading Cause of Bankruptcy, Harvard Study Finds"
1166:. Novartis Foundation Symposia. Vol. 173. pp. 238–52.
460:
report estimated 230,000 to 284,000 iatrogenic deaths annually.
305:(including diagnosis with a false condition, as was the case of
2253:
759:, 3rd edn. (Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2014)".
671:
390:
broadened the concept of medical iatrogenesis in his 1974 book
186:
1584:
587:
521:
507:
116:
71:
849:
What Dying People Want: Practical Wisdom for the End of Life
2194:
1766:
1637:
Psychiatry inside out: selected writings of Franco
Basaglia
2248:
2091:
1769:"Protecting Households from Catastrophic Health Spending"
1434:
1356:"Chronic fatigue syndrome advice scraps exercise therapy"
21:
1164:
Ciba
Foundation Symposium 173 - Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
1024:
25:
Ancient Greek painting in a vase, showing a physician (
1115:
1437:"Long-term Antipsychotic Treatment and Brain Volumes"
2134:
1668:
1587:"The Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis Revisited"
1222:
413:
Second, at another level social iatrogenesis is the
161:
of a medical treatment are iatrogenic. For example,
1808:Kruk; Goldmann, E.; Galea, S.; et al. (2009).
1229:
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
1090:
452:
106,000 due to non-error, negative effects of drugs
381:
201:consequential to the removal of all or part of the
2411:Political abuse of psychiatry in the United States
1879:
410:itself had been known and followed for centuries).
319:Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Myalgic Encephalomyelitis
1807:
870:The Idea of Social Structure: Papers in Honor of
757:A Comprehensive Guide to Geriatric Rehabilitation
2485:
628:Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals
1272:Vink, Mark; Vink-Niese, Alexandra (July 2018).
228:go in for treatment, resulting in more deaths.
140:
1491:
1271:
2363:Prescription drug prices in the United States
2269:
1380:
1031:Llor, Carl; Bjerrum, Lars (16 October 2014).
800:"Intervention Mistakes and How to Avoid Them"
634:Fatal Care: Survive in the U.S. Health System
550:historical mortality rates of puerperal fever
541:) is a primary Hippocratic mandate in modern
301:In psychiatry, iatrogenesis can occur due to
224:produce handwritten prescriptions for drugs.
1996:"Is US health really the best in the world?"
1989:
1987:
1882:Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health
1877:
1732:Tropical Medicine & International Health
1095:. American Psychological Association (APA).
392:Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health
2197:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology
1993:
1557:
1161:
1030:
439:7,000 due to medication errors in hospitals
270:causes severe side-effects and is actually
145:Iatrogenic conditions need not result from
2276:
2262:
1522:
1116:Pruett Jr, John R.; Luby, Joan L. (2004).
646:Journal of Negative Results in Biomedicine
135:
72:Risk associated with medical interventions
2068:
1984:
1924:
1836:
1784:
1743:
1702:
1610:
1551:
1468:
1374:
1305:
1240:
1155:
1086:
1084:
1064:
995:
972:
943:
941:
921:
16:Causation of harm by any medical activity
1633:
1516:
1494:"Antipsychotics and the Shrinking Brain"
652:List of medicine contamination incidents
467:
83:Overuse of drugs (causing, for example,
59:of the wrong limb, whereas others, like
20:
2416:Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia
2050:
1328:
442:20,000 due to other errors in hospitals
2486:
1947:
1906:
1081:
938:
2257:
1566:(2): 43, 161–2, 165–6, 171–2 passim.
1329:Fleming, Russell (12 November 2020).
472:Evidence demonstrating the advent of
347:
66:
1950:Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy
1492:Donald C. Goff, M. D. (4 May 2011).
823:
821:
729:
727:
332:. At the other end of the spectrum,
216:Other situations may involve actual
2070:10.1146/annurev.pu.13.050192.002051
1037:Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety
220:or faulty procedures, such as when
157:. In fact, intrinsic and sometimes
13:
1453:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.199
959:(9963): 117–71. 17 December 2014.
765:10.1016/B978-0-7020-4588-2.00056-5
231:
14:
2520:
2242:
1500:. Psychiatric Times Vol 28 No 4.
908:(9995): 743–800. 22 August 2015.
818:
724:
436:12,000 due to unnecessary surgery
101:
80:of prescription drugs or vaccines
2283:
1745:10.1046/j.1365-3156.2003.01081.x
1537:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01073.x
1134:10.1097/00001504-200401000-00006
1043:(6). SAGE Publication: 229–241.
394:by defining it at three levels.
382:Social and cultural iatrogenesis
378:assets, and eventually poverty.
260:Alkylating antineoplastic agents
2341:Economic and financial concerns
2188:
2163:
2128:
2085:
2044:
1941:
1900:
1886:. London: Calder & Boyars.
1871:
1853:
1801:
1760:
1719:
1662:
1627:
1578:
1485:
1428:
1348:
1322:
1265:
1216:
1109:
426:
386:The 20th-century social critic
2057:Annual Review of Public Health
1441:Archives of General Psychiatry
989:
890:
862:
841:
792:
748:
575:, better surgical techniques,
334:dissociative identity disorder
323:Post-traumatic stress disorder
1:
2406:Political abuse of psychiatry
2106:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)24009-8
1926:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12233-7
1122:Current Opinion in Psychiatry
965:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2
914:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60692-4
745:, Inc., accessed 27 Jun 2020.
718:
365:. Especially in countries in
296:
1091:Spanos, Nicholas P. (1996).
516:
502:
361:caused half of all personal
141:Medical error and negligence
130:Hospital-acquired infections
27:
7:
2509:Social problems in medicine
2442:Hospital-acquired infection
2437:Hospital-acquired pneumonia
2249:Patient Safety Network (US)
640:Hospital-acquired infection
593:
531:Since at least the time of
236:Adverse reactions, such as
149:, such as mistakes made in
111:, perhaps due to illegible
10:
2525:
1172:10.1002/9780470514382.ch14
522:
508:
463:
2460:
2424:
2371:
2340:
2289:
2209:10.1017/S0195941700059762
1994:Starfield B (July 2000).
1829:10.1377/hlthaff.28.4.1056
1634:Basaglia, Franco (1987).
881:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
832:A Dictionary of Sociology
495:brought forth by a healer
330:substance abuse disorders
2389:Compulsory sterilization
2149:10.1001/jama.279.15.1200
1786:10.1377/hlthaff.26.4.972
1290:10.1177/2055102918805187
1242:10.1136/jnnp-2023-332731
1049:10.1177/2042098614554919
559:With the development of
278:-based medications like
2317:Unnecessary health care
1962:10.1023/a:1025991708888
1909:"Obituary: Ivan Illich"
1907:Pearce, Wright (2003).
885:indexing "iatrogenesis"
449:infections in hospitals
400:evidence-based medicine
136:Causes and consequences
2384:Sluggish schizophrenia
2015:10.1001/jama.284.4.483
1416:Cite journal requires
1381:Boscarino, JA (2004).
1284:(2): 205510291880518.
1278:Health Psychology Open
877:Transaction Publishers
838:. updated 31 May 2020.
780:Cite journal requires
486:
36:
2461:Records and histories
2432:Adverse drug reaction
2400:The Protest Psychosis
2053:"Unnecessary Surgery"
1878:Illich, Ivan (1974).
1010:10.1093/clinids/1.1.4
702:Quaternary prevention
667:Nassim Nicholas Taleb
601:Adverse drug reaction
471:
458:Institute of Medicine
262:, for example, cause
245:antibiotic resistance
85:antibiotic resistance
24:
2051:Leape L (May 1992).
1728:"Iatrogenic poverty"
1675:Genetics in Medicine
1591:Psychiatry (Edgmont)
875:(New Brunswick, NJ:
677:Paradoxical reaction
474:pathological anatomy
402:20 years before the
2499:Health care quality
2302:Medical malpractice
2032:on 24 December 2010
1687:10.1038/gim.2015.30
887:, esp. pp. 328–329.
879:, 2012 / New York:
739:Merriam-Webster.com
657:Medical malpractice
561:scientific medicine
367:economic transition
315:somatoform disorder
2358:Financial toxicity
1867:. 3 February 2005.
1335:The ME Association
806:. 11 December 2014
707:Risk–benefit ratio
487:
371:willingness to pay
348:Iatrogenic poverty
238:allergic reactions
222:pharmacotherapists
179:diabetes insipidus
67:Iatrogenic avenues
37:
2481:
2480:
2447:Iatrogenic anemia
2394:Physician gag law
2181:978-0-85724-709-4
1498:Psychiatric Times
1362:. 28 October 2021
538:primum non nocere
288:arsenic poisoning
243:The evolution of
163:radiation therapy
61:drug interactions
2516:
2425:Related concerns
2278:
2271:
2264:
2255:
2254:
2237:
2236:
2192:
2186:
2185:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2072:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2031:
2025:. Archived from
2000:
1991:
1982:
1981:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1928:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1885:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1840:
1814:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1788:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1747:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1706:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1614:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1555:
1549:
1548:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1472:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1419:
1414:
1412:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1394:
1388:. Archived from
1387:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1309:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1244:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1207:
1203:
1201:
1193:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1088:
1079:
1078:
1068:
1028:
1022:
1021:
998:Rev. Infect. Dis
993:
987:
986:
976:
945:
936:
935:
925:
894:
888:
872:Robert K. Merton
866:
860:
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1560:Dissociation
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756:
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692:Polypharmacy
644:
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618:Bloodletting
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491:iatrogenesis
488:
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427:Epidemiology
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363:bankruptcies
359:medical debt
351:
338:
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303:misdiagnosis
300:
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286:, can cause
272:carcinogenic
257:
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215:
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191:brain damage
167:chemotherapy
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115:or computer
109:prescription
40:Iatrogenesis
39:
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2332:Never event
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1004:(1): 4–22.
851:(New York:
607:Antifragile
573:antibiotics
565:Antiseptics
533:Hippocrates
497:, from the
388:Ivan Illich
375:health care
280:melarsoprol
113:handwriting
49:Ivan Illich
47:in 1976 by
2488:Categories
2036:20 January
1913:The Lancet
810:3 February
735:Iatrogenic
719:References
569:anesthesia
489:The term "
483:Semmelweis
479:view rates
447:nosocomial
344:movement.
297:Psychiatry
268:alkylation
264:DNA damage
253:antibiotic
218:negligence
195:lymphedema
125:Negligence
107:Incorrect
57:amputation
1978:151359050
1695:1098-3600
1603:1550-5952
1572:1794/1425
1525:Addiction
1461:0003-990X
1298:2055-1029
1251:0022-3050
1208:ignored (
1198:cite book
1142:145069868
1057:2042-0986
883:, 1975),
855:, 2002),
613:Bioethics
588:mortality
580:protocols
171:hair loss
45:sociology
35:a patient
2290:Concepts
2233:25830725
2217:30142576
2122:10122133
2023:10904513
1970:14620464
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1795:17630440
1754:12828538
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1479:21300943
1360:BBC News
1316:30305916
1259:38418217
1075:25436105
983:25530442
932:26063472
594:See also
493:" means
249:bacteria
203:pancreas
199:diabetes
183:vomiting
89:bacteria
33:bleeding
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687:Placebo
524:γένεσις
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355:poverty
276:arsenic
255:drugs.
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369:, the
187:nausea
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2229:S2CID
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2118:S2CID
2030:(PDF)
1999:(PDF)
1974:S2CID
1931:S2CID
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1399:4 May
1393:(PDF)
1386:(PDF)
1366:2 May
1340:2 May
1147:4 May
1138:S2CID
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499:Greek
485:1861.
117:typos
2472:List
2221:PMID
2176:ISBN
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2137:JAMA
2110:PMID
2075:PMID
2038:2020
2019:PMID
2003:JAMA
1966:PMID
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