Immigration detention in Australia

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modifications to enable the Malaysia Solution to proceed and instead reverted to expanding onshore processing arrangements. Continued deaths at sea and ongoing boat arrivals kept the issue at the fore of policy debate during the term of the Gillard government, leading to a major Parliamentary debate on the issue in June 2012, as news reports reached Canberra of another fatal sinking off Christmas Island. The government sought changes to the Migration Act, to allow asylum seekers to be processed in Malaysia. The Greens opposed the Bill outright and called for greater opening up of Australia's borders. The Opposition opposed the Bill on human rights grounds and called for restoration of the Howard government's policies. The government allowed the possibility of returning processing to Nauru, on the condition that Malaysia was also permitted.

422:(HREOC) held an inquiry into mandatory detention of children who arrived without a valid visa over the period 1999–2002 (with updates where possible – the report was completed in April 2004) . The vast majority of children arrived and were put into mandatory detention facilities with their families for indefinite periods of time with no real opportunity to argue their case before independent tribunal or court. The inquiry found that between 1 July 1999 and 30 June 2003, 2184 children were detained after arriving in Australia seeking asylum without a visa. Approximately 14% of those children came to Australia alone (unaccompanied children). Most of them came from Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan. Almost 98 percent of the Iraqi children were recognised as refugees; 621: 761:. A feature of the new government's policy was the total secrecy of the operations and treatment of persons intercepted at sea and those in immigration detention in general. The immigration minister stated that no immigrant who arrives in Australia by boat will be granted a visa, regardless of the legitimacy or otherwise of their claim. The Abbott government's policy was apparently successful because no IMAs have arrived in Australia since July 2014. The Abbot government also claimed responsibility for the overall decrease in boat arrivals during 2013 – 2014, however this was primarily due to policy enacted by the 2nd 38: 354:, and asylum seekers were removed to third countries to determine their refugee status, namely at detention camps on small island nations in the Pacific Ocean. Also, a policy of turning back boats where possible was instigated. Howard's policies were often controversial, were criticised by some human rights groups and were the subject of protest both within and without detention centres. Through the final years of the Howard government, Australia's detention facilities were near empty, few boat voyages were being attempted and the practice of detention of children had been ended. 722: 672: 952:. Boochani reported that some men had been approved for a Medevac transfer, and were most likely being targeted. PNG officials said that they continued to encourage non-refugees to depart voluntarily. About 100 men are unable to be deported because their country of citizenship refuses to accept involuntary returns. Ian Rintoul said that many of those being detained are being deemed not to be refugees even though they have never had a refugee determination in PNG. 733:"From now on, any asylum seeker who arrives in Australia by boat will have no chance of being settled in Australia as refugees. Asylum seekers taken to Christmas Island will be sent to Manus and elsewhere in Papua New Guinea for assessment of their refugee status. If they are found to be genuine refugees they will be resettled in Papua New Guinea... If they are found not to be genuine refugees they may be repatriated to their country of origin or be sent to a 784:, into children in Australian detention, both onshore and on Christmas Island, for the period January 2013 to September 2014 — covering the period of Labor and Coalition governments. The report was limited because the HRC was barred from visiting and inquiring as to the condition of children in offshore detention on Manus Island and Nauru. The report was damning of the treatment of children in immigration detention, at least in Australian territories. 1063: 529:, announced a series of measures aimed at achieving what it described as a more "compassionate policy". The Pacific Solution had involved offshore processing, a system of "temporary protection visas" for unauthorised arrivals, and a policy of turning back boats where possible. The Rudd government dismantled all three components, dubbing them "ineffectual and wasteful". Throughout 2009–2010, a flow of boat arrivals re-emerged. 271:

available to those who arrived in Australia without visas in the first place (such as boat arrivals). The government argued that this distinction was justifiable because visa overstayers had already submitted themselves to proper entry processing offshore and were therefore in a different category to those who had not and that boat arrivals had demonstrated a high likelihood of absconding where detention was not in place.

549:" in excised areas will still be subject to mandatory detention and processed offshore, but the Government will move to hasten the process. Boat people will also be able to access legal advice and apply for an independent review of adverse decisions. Each detainee's circumstances and justification for ongoing detention will be scrutinised by the Immigration Ombudsman every six months. A 965:, the government mandatory detention policy has been widely criticised. Protests against government policy continued to take place around Australia including activists disrupting the Australian Open men's tennis final in 2015. Demonstrators in the crowd and on court raised banners and wore t-shirts that read “Australia open for refugees”. 467:

applies throughout Australia’s territory and to all persons subject to Australia’s jurisdiction. We urge Australia, as we have already urged the US government in similar circumstances, to amend its new legislation or at a minimum to implement it in a manner that fully upholds fundamental norms of international human rights and refugee law.

267:, which came into operation on 1 September 1994, which broadened the application of mandatory detention to all who did not hold a valid visa, and removed the 273-day detention limit. The Act also introduced detention charges (detention debts) whereby an unlawful non-citizen was liable for the costs of his or her immigration detention. 929:, intimating that this change in the law would provide the signal that people smugglers to begin operating again. In the days following, Dutton said that because of this change in the law, Australians on waiting lists for hospital treatment and those already in public housing were going to be adversely affected. 969:

reputation as a fair and just nation has been eroded. Timing is also of concern, with many refugees and asylum seekers reporting being detained for several years before receiving status determination from the government. The government often cites deterrence to frame the context in which their policies operate.

993:, director of the Centre, said that in the last 25 years, policy has changed direction, and that offshore processing, boat turnbacks and mandatory detention "not only deny the humanity to people that applied and deflect problems elsewhere, but also violate many of our obligations under international law”. 973:

Particularly worrying was the use of detention centres previously used for adults to house children. Wickman Point, one such Alternative Place of Detention (APOD) was previously deemed only suitable for adults, with reports that children had been brought in to live concurrently with the adult population.

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announced that detention would now be restricted to unlawful non-citizens who pose a threat to the community, those who refuse to comply with visa conditions, or those who need to be detained for the period of conducting health, identity and security checks. By 29 June 2011, the Australian Government

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category for asylum seekers whose claims for refugee status had been accepted. These visas were granted only to unauthorised arrivals and were criticised because they left the refugee in limbo indefinitely. These people did not have rights to work, to family reunion, a right to return to Australia if

976:

Re-detention occurs when those being detained by the immigration program are released on Temporary Protection Visas (TPVs) while their refugee status is being determined, or who have succeeded in obtaining refugee status and subsequently re-detained for often minor violations, sometimes with lack of

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In addition, the Abbott government has been more prepared to cancel visas on character grounds for people who have been lawfully present in Australia for some time, bringing them within the scope of the mandatory detention rules. Also, the Abbott government has passed legislation to strip Australian

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Mandatory detention was introduced to "support the integrity of Australia's immigration program" and "management of Australian borders" and to distinguish between those who have submitted themselves to offshore entry processes prior to arrival and those who have not. Under the policy, asylum seekers

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The inquiry found that children detained for long periods of time were at a high risk of suffering mental illness. Mental health professionals had repeatedly recommended that children and their parents be removed from immigration detention. The inquiry found that the Australian government's refusal

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Mandatory detention of asylum seekers was popular with sections of the Australian electorate. Some commentators argue that it helped Howard win the 2001 federal election. While the Australian Labor Party supported the policy as Opposition, in June 2005 a small backbench revolt in Howard's party led

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e are a generous open-hearted people taking more refugees on a per capita basis than any nation except Canada. We have a proud record of welcoming people from 140 different nations. But we will decide who comes to this country and the circumstances in which they come... We will be compassionate, we

1040:. In October 2005, the Commonwealth Ombudsman revealed that more than half of those cases were held for a week or less and 23 people were held for more than a year and two of them were detained for more than five years. Australia's longest-serving detainee in immigration detention was at the time, 806:

The time asylum seekers spent in Australian detention centres as stated by the Department of Immigration and Border Protection show that in December 2015 people in onshore immigration detention had been there for an average 445 days. The average detention period has increased since May 2014. There

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Non-citizens in Australia without a valid visa were to be considered unlawful and would have to be held in detention, though those who met certain criteria and were not considered flight or security risks could secure lawful status by means of a bridging visa – but bridging visas would not be made

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as a turning point in Labor Party policy, after having had almost identical asylum seeker policies as the Coalition for the past five years. He also points out the numerous obstacles any potential people smuggler or asylum seeker would have to face, because the deterrent aspects of the policy are

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The key recommendations of the Inquiry were that children with their parents be released immediately into the community and that detention laws should be amended to comply with the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The Howard government released the children and introduced limited changes to

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The Refugee Council viewed the immigration detention program as detrimental to Australia's interests in three ways: the people subjected to the detention programs endure inhumane conditions; those working in the detention centres often subjected to emotionally jarring situations; and Australia's

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that the agreement to transfer refugees from Australia to Malaysia was invalid, and ordered that it not proceed on the basis that it contravened human rights protections established under existing laws. The Government was unable to secure the support of the Greens or Opposition in the Senate for

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In a press conference, Prime Minister Gillard told media "when we came to government we issued detention values about not having children in high security, behind razor wire, and obviously we have worked to deliver on those detention values." She went on to say, "obviously we want to see kids in

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While the immigration detention program draws some support from the Australian public, the program's treatment of children in detention has been widely criticised. There has been great concern about the adverse impact detention centres have on the health, well-being and development of children.

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On 30 November 2015 there were 3,906 people in Australia's immigration detention, including people in immigration detention facilities in Australia and in Australian-run facilities in other countries. 585 of these were in community detention (a form of detention separate from actual immigration

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The actions taken by the Rudd government from July 2013 were the primary cause for the major reduction seen in boat arrivals over the 2013 – 2014 period, according to research conducted by former Immigration Department chief John Menadue and Australian National University migration expert Peter

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until a decision is made by the immigration authorities to grant a visa and release them into the community, or to repatriate them to their country of origin/passport. Persons in immigration detention may at any time opt to voluntarily leave Australia for their country of origin, or they may be

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The recent legislation seriously contravenes Australia’s obligations to non-citizens, refugees and asylum seekers under international human rights and refugee law. As provided for in Article 2 of the ICCPR, the obligation to respect and ensure rights to all persons, including all non-citizens,

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Mandatory detention rules also apply to persons whose visa has been cancelled by the Minister, for example on character grounds, allowing such persons to be detained in immigration detention and deported, some after living in Australia for a long period. Furthermore, if a person has Australian

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had created a regime of administrative detention of unlawful boat arrivals. Although officers were obligated to arrest and detain anyone suspected of being an ‘illegal entrant’, detention was discretionary. Between November 1989 and January 1994, there was a "second wave" of unauthorised boat

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The approval of two doctors is required, but approval may still be overridden by the home affairs minister in one of three areas. Human rights advocates hailed the decision, with one calling it a “tipping point as a country”, with the weight of public opinion believing that sick people need

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as at 31 January 2012. The number of people in immigration detention who arrived unlawfully by air or boat as at 31 January 2012 was 6,031, representing about 94 per cent of the total immigration detention population. There were also 344 people (about five per cent of the total immigration

600:

announced that, with immediate effect, no new applications for people from Afghanistan would be processed for six months; and for Sri Lankans, three months. Senator Evans was quoted as saying that this change would result in a higher rate of refusal of claims based on circumstances in these

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in international waters within the Indonesian sea rescue zone. Those rescued were due to be landed in Indonesia, for transfer to an Australia-funded immigration detention centre on the Indonesian island of Bintan. However, the asylum seekers refused to disembark until 18 November, following

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provided the government with the power to remove any ship in the territorial waters of Australia, use reasonable force to do so, provide that any person who was on the ship be forcibly returned to the ship, and guaranteed that no asylum applications may be made by people on board the ship.

496:

Throughout the controversy, Prime Minister John Howard and successive immigration ministers maintained that their actions were justified in the interests of protecting Australia's borders and ensuring that immigration law was enforced. A 2004 Liberal Party election policy document stated:

896:). Further amendments followed negotiations between the Opposition and the House of Reps cross-bench members, before the Senate considered and agreed to the amendments to its original amendments on the following day, 13 February. The proposed amendments would affect three laws, being the 701: 960:

Recent global developments highlight the growing polarisation of the Australian public in relation to their government's policies. From late 2009, the increase in arrivals by boat fuelled a divide in public perception of people seeking asylum between sympathy and apathy. Following

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In July 2008, the Australian government announced it was ending its policy of automatic detention for asylum seekers who arrive in the country without visas. While it remained committed to the policy of mandatory detention as an "essential component of strong border control", the

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Immigration Department figures in October 2009 showed no improvement in the speed of processing claims since the change of government. As a proportion of the immigration intake, Australia accepted fewer refugees in 2009 than it did at any time under the Howard government.

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There is no maximum time limit for detaining a person in Australia under immigration laws. The length of immigrant detention has steadily increased in the past decade, and as of May 2020, the average period of time for people held in detention facilities was 553 days. The

810:

On 26 April 2016, the Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea ruled that detention of asylum seekers on Manus Island was breaching their constitutional right to freedom and thus illegal, and ordered the Australian-run detention centre to close. However, Immigration Minister

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Department of Immigration and Citizenship statistics reflect that there were 4,783 people in immigration detention facilities and alternative places of detention, including 3,951 in immigration detention on the mainland and 832 in immigration detention on

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announced that changes would be made to Australia's mandatory detention policy, and that more children and families would be moved out of immigration detention centres into community-based accommodation, such as centres run by churches and charities.

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school. I understand that in some particular cases the minister will work through this case by case, there may be some reasons why this may not always be possible, but in the ordinary course of things I want to see kids getting a good education."

655:– a centre in Northam, 80 kilometres north-east of Perth, and an alternative place of detention in Inverbrackie, 37 kilometres north of Adelaide. Northam will house up to 1,500 single men and Inverbrackie will house up to 400 family members. 852:

Morrison, with Dutton still in place as Minister for Home Affairs, continued the policies of the previous Coalition governments towards asylum seekers, although they did promise to ensure that all children would be off Nauru by the end of 2018.

70:, while their claim to remain in Australia is processed and security and health checks undertaken. Also, at the same time, the law was changed to permit indefinite detention, from the previous limit of 273 days. The policy was instituted by the 1047:

In 2006, the federal government made a $ 400,000 compensation payout to an 11-year-old Iranian boy, Shayan Badraie, for the psychological harm he suffered while being detained in Woomera and Villawood detention centres between 2000 and 2002.

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The Government is determined that a clear signal be sent that migration to Australia may not be achieved by simply arriving in this country and expecting to be allowed into the community ... this legislation is only intended to be an interim

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to consider options. The Houston Report found that "onshore processing encourages people to jump into boats" and called for the re-opening of offshore processing at Nauru and Manus Island. Gillard endorsed the plan in August 2012.

502:

The Coalition government's tough stance on people smuggling stems from the core belief that Australia has the right to decide who comes to this country and the circumstances in which they come. Deterrence has been achieved through

2432:"Home Affairs Legislation Amendment(Miscellaneous Measures) Bill 2019. No. 2019A: Bill for an Act to amend the law relating to migration,custom sand passenger movement charge, and for related purposes (as passed by both houses)" 472:

The system of mandatory detention has been the subject of controversy. Opposition to the system on humanitarian grounds came from a range of religious, community and political groups including the National Council of Churches,

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at the time of publishing. In 2002–2003, the man was captured by the Sri Lankan Army and tortured, after which he fled the country. He was recognised as a refugee by Australia, but received an adverse security assessment from

937:

still firmly in place, and the new legislation applies only to the approximately 1000 people still on Nauru and Manus (of whom only a relatively small number will be allowed to access the urgent medical attention they need).

572:, Liberal Senator Judith Troeth and at the last minute Steve Fielding. This act abolished the Keating-era policy whereby the government attempted to reclaim the costs of immigration detention from the detainee upon release. 867:

On 12 February 2019, the Morrison government suffered the first substantive defeat on the floor of the House of Representatives since 1929, after the Labor Party and several cross-benchers supported amendments to the

729:

On 19 July 2013 in a joint press conference with PNG Prime Minister Peter O'Neill and Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd detailed the Regional Resettlement Arrangement (RRA) between Australia and Papua New Guinea:

1032:, who was forcibly deported to the Philippines and who subsequently went missing. As of May, it was not known how many actually spent time in an immigration detention facility. By late May, Immigration Minister 910: 2121: 152:. Ghader has a daughter, born in 2015, whom he has not seen since she was a baby. In February 2019, Imasi made a legal challenge to the High Court of Australia, attempting to overturn the landmark 1005:

in Nauru Regional Processing Centre to protest how he was being treated. Several more people have committed suicide after release, due to mental health issues connected with their being detained.

829:

In November 2017, the last refugees in the Manus Island Regional Processing Centre were forcibly removed to West Lorengau Haus, Hillside Haus and East Lorengau Refugee Transit Center in Lorengau.

545:

will be released more quickly. They would only be detained for lengthier time periods if they are deemed to pose a risk to the wider community or have repeatedly breached their visa conditions. "

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which held that unsuccessful asylum seekers who could not be removed to another country, despite their wish to leave Australia, could continue to be held in immigration detention indefinitely.

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at the University of New South Wales published a paper citing seven principles which should be key to Australia's refugee policy, supported by law and evidence-based research. Professor

2789: 393:. More than 80 percent of these were found to be refugees by the Immigration Department, with some decisions taking more than 8 months. Few asylum seekers were able to be repatriated. 66:

or given a bridging or temporary visa. In 1992, Australia adopted a mandatory detention policy obliging the government to detain all persons entering or being in the country without a

1185: 232:

By June 1992, there were 478 people in immigration detention of whom 421 were boat arrivals (including 306 Cambodians), compared to five in immigration detention in January 1985. The

948:

In August 2019, PNG’s immigration department transferred more than 50 men deemed to be non-refugees to the Bomana Immigration Centre, a detention centre next to the Bomana Prison in

212:

are mandatorily detained while they "undergo an assessment process, including security and health checking, to establish if they have a legitimate reason for staying in Australia".

330:

arose during the election campaign. Following the election, the Howard government made significant changes to Australia's immigration policy. It put in place a policy known as the

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population) who arrived in Australia lawfully and were subsequently taken into immigration detention for either overstaying their visa conditions, resulting in visa cancellation.

564:

with several Liberal MPs threatening to 'cross the floor' and vote with Labor, and then passed into law on 8 September when the Senate passed the bill with the support of Senator

826:, to manage the new centers at Lorengau. The closed-tender process of awarding of the contract, as well as Paladin's past record, attracted widespread criticism and controversy. 3645: 2004: 986: 914:. The amended legislation, which had become known as "the Medevac Bill", passed in the House by 75 votes to 74 and passed in the Senate by 36 votes to 34, being passed as the 3219: 1972: 777:

citizenship of dual nationals in some circumstances, rendering such persons non-citizens and subject to immigration detention for not holding a valid visa, and deportation.

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reinforced the practice of mandatory detention, providing for the indefinite detention of asylum seekers. The policy was implemented by then Australian Immigration Minister

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other than Australia. These arrangements are contained within the Regional Resettlement Arrangement signed by myself and the Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea just now."

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undertook a series of adjustments to Australia's system of mandatory detention amid a growing stream of unauthorised boat arrivals. Julia Gillard and immigration minister

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which came into operation on 1 September 1994. It was originally intended as an interim measure. Controls on unauthorised arrivals were tightened under the subsequent

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From 2000–2018, there have been dozens of deaths in Australia's immigration detention facilities, as many as 20 of those were suicide. In one case, a man died after

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were "finalising" an arrangement to exchange asylum seekers for processed refugees (the plan was dubbed the "Malaysia Solution"). On 31 August, the High Court

773:. While this claim was incorrect, it was easy to effectively communicate as boat arrivals did decrease around the time of the Abbott government taking power. 2128: 200:

policy, contributing to a sharp decline in boat arrivals and, consequently, to numbers of people being detained. The Pacific Solution was dismantled by the

521:, Indonesian boats carrying asylum seekers to Australia had virtually ceased and Australia's offshore detention centres were near empty. The newly elected 1869: 640:

mooted various regional options for asylum seeker processing – notably East Timor and Malaysia – before reverting to Nauru and Manus Island in late 2012.

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resulted in some concessions to humanitarian concerns, including the promised release of long-term detainees and review of future cases by an ombudsman.

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In 2021, the Australian government was ordered to pay an Iraqi asylum seeker $ 350,000 in damages for unlawfully detaining him for more than two years.

662:

According to the Immigration Department, as of February 2011, there are currently 5,061 men, 571 women and 1,027 children under 18 living in detention.

489:, whose Quarterly Essay "Sending Them Home: Refugees and the New Politics of Indifference" (2004) called for an end to both mandatory detention and the 404:

and held that the harsh conditions of detention did not render the detention unlawful. On the same day, the High Court also handed down its decision in

2660: 1842: 1591: 1325: 904: 2168: 2083: 1357: 461:. The new act further strengthened the practice of mandatory detention, allowing for indefinite detention of unauthorised arrivals. The letter said: 3214: 2412: 2096: 794:

The condition of detainees in Nauru was reported in the Moss Review. The final report was produced 6 February 2015, and released on 20 March 2015.

3245: 844:, to be responsible for national security, law enforcement, emergency management, transport security, border control, and immigration functions. 1378: 1295: 3393: 2909: 2883: 1789: 807:

were 1792 people in onshore detention, including 91 children, and most were from Iran, New Zealand, Sri Lanka, China, Vietnam and Afghanistan.

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who was detained for almost 7 years before being released in 2005 on a bridging visa. However there has since been prisoners held for longer.

419: 390: 173: 2501: 2431: 2236: 1388: 1270: 2210: 3183: 3081: 2839: 2631: 1086: 652: 50: 29: 2604: 2153: 1709: 2556: 2449: 2342: 3044: 2311: 1959: 1017:, had been held in immigration detention as an unauthorised immigrant for 11 months, after identifying herself as a backpacker from 753:

the Coalition parties led by Tony Abbott strongly campaigned on a "stop the boats" slogan. Following the election the newly elected

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confirmed the constitutionality of indefinite mandatory detention of non-citizens. However, this interpretation was overturned in a

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access to legal advice. Unaccompanied children have been removed from care in the community and re-detained in closed communities.

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Unable to secure passage of the Bill through Parliament following the emotional debate, the government convened a panel chaired by

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As of 29 March 2010, 100 asylum seeker boats had been intercepted within Australian waters during the life of the Rudd government.

940:

However, the 2018 ruling was overturned in December 2019, after 37 votes to 35 supported the government's move to repeal the law.

1617: 1476: 3250: 2957: 625: 167:

had been held in detention for 9 years. The man, who was blind, as well as mentally and physically disabled, was being held in

3650: 3398: 1933: 787:

In January 2015, the first refugees were moved out of Manus Island Regional Processing Center to a new detention center near

696:

Following an extended period of increasing boat arrivals and deaths at sea, in May 2011 Gillard announced that Australia and

609: 538:

had delivered on its commitment to move the majority of children in immigration detention into community–based arrangements.

430: 130: 1910: 3286: 426:

to implement these recommendations amounted to "..cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment of those children in detention".

3012: 3475: 3372: 3270: 803:

detention facilities) in Australia proper. 70 were children in offshore immigration detention facilities, such as Nauru.

597: 561: 526: 1733: 1521: 1446: 612:

found Australia guilty of 138 counts of illegal detention, lack of judicial remedy, or inhumane or degrading treatment.

3255: 3229: 3224: 3152: 2745: 1387:(Report). The report of Select Committee for an inquiry into a certain maritime incident, tabled 23 October 2002: (see 620: 605: 1897: 1631: 862: 3625: 3604: 2367: 1566: 1222: 926: 3599: 3589: 3306: 3096: 962: 893: 885: 819: 770: 750: 651:

To accommodate the reduction in detainees, the federal government announced that they would open two new detention

304: 288: 23: 815:

iterated that the 850 asylum seekers were the responsibility of Papua New Guinea and would not come to Australia.

3439: 112: 2475: 876:) proposed by the Senate. The proposed amendments would give greater weight to medical opinion in allowing the 1767: 3362: 3347: 3101: 3037: 2984:"Australian government ordered to pay Iraqi asylum seeker $ 350,000 for over two years of unlawful detention" 1988: 1106: 1013:

In February 2005, it was revealed that a mentally ill German citizen holding Australian permanent residency,

102:. The policy is regarded as controversial and has been criticised by a number of organisations. In 2004, the 2689: 1603: 3640: 2719: 184:

Mandatory detention of asylum seekers (so called, "unlawful arrivals") in Australia was established by the

2720:"State of the Nation 2017: Refugees and people seeking asylum in Australia – Refugee Council of Australia" 679:

oversaw a restoration of offshore processing of asylum seekers following the closure of the system by the

3635: 3511: 3388: 2429: 2267: 1116: 823: 758: 377:

Many of those detained in Australia's detention centres between 1999–2006 have been asylum seekers from

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will save lives, we will care for people but we will decide, and nobody else, who comes to this country.

1599: 1426: 1036:

announced that more than 200 cases of possible wrongful immigration detention had been referred to the

841: 168: 1885: 1670: 541:

The Government announced that aspects of the original detention system in Australia would remain, but

485:

and Rural Australians for Refugees. Among the intellectual opponents of the system has been Professor

343:

Migration Legislation Amendment (Excision from the Migration Zone) (Consequential Provisions) Act 2001

3496: 3455: 3173: 1091: 837: 664: 490: 351: 296: 1722:"Liberal senator crosses the floor for asylum seekers" Australian Associated Press, 8 September 2009 1419: 1201:"Australian government deporting life-long residents over minor offences – World Socialist Web Site" 3491: 3091: 3030: 1651: 67: 3357: 3311: 3265: 3178: 2315: 1383: 830: 397: 103: 46: 3022: 3321: 1161:. Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 17 June 2024. 1076: 762: 2430:

The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia. House of Representatives (13 February 2019).

240:, which set up a regime of mandatory detention, with bipartisan support. Immigration Minister 3342: 3260: 3210:

Behrooz v Secretary of the Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs

1132: 1101: 680: 534: 522: 474: 280: 201: 79: 58: 1683: 1200: 3630: 2936: 2861: 1509: 1492: 1404: 1029: 478: 54: 1543: 1243: 116:, in 2023, with the High Court concluding the practice was unlawful and unconstitutional. 8: 3071: 3057: 2413:"'Shorten can't be trusted on borders': Morrison's fury after losing asylum medivac vote" 2319: 1081: 925:

In response to the bill passing into law, Scott Morrison announced the re-opening of the

721: 99: 95: 91: 37: 19: 2528:"Grattan on Friday: What does "reopening" Christmas Island actually mean and why do it?" 303:

Australia's immigration policies towards asylum seekers were a significant issue in the

136:

In some cases, people have been held in detention for over 10 years, such as Ghader, an

3526: 3506: 3204: 3168: 1636: 1551: 1489:

Behrooz v Secretary, Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs

898: 877: 734: 676: 633: 450: 438: 402:

Behrooz v Secretary, Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs

336: 233: 205: 185: 83: 71: 1696: 1544:"Australia: Letter to Prime Minister Howard on Recent Amendments to the Migration Act" 459:

Migration Amendment (Excision from Migration Zone) (Consequential Provisions) Act 2001

53:

non-citizens not holding a valid visa, suspected of visa violations, illegal entry or

3199: 3142: 3132: 3013:

HREOC Report – A Last Resort? – Australia's Immigration Detention Policy and Practice

2147: 1504: 1171: 818:

In September 2017, the Department of Immigration awarded a $ 423 million contract to

766: 754: 581: 569: 518: 482: 406: 292: 193: 153: 107: 87: 75: 2790:"Kaldor Centre principles for Australian refugee policy: Summary and key priorities" 2084:

The Forgotten Children: National Inquiry into Children in Immigration Detention 2014

2030:

Chart of the day: What does it mean when the Government says the boats have stopped?

3516: 3429: 3414: 3137: 3127: 2580:"Medevac repeal bill passes after Jacqui Lambie makes 'secret deal' with Coalition" 2307: 1121: 1068: 689: 386: 331: 197: 2395:"Scott Morrison suffers historic defeat as Labor and crossbench pass medevac bill" 1652:

New Directions in Detention, Restoring Integrity to Australia's Immigration System

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citizenship and another citizenship, their Australian citizenship can be revoked.

3501: 3316: 1658: 1033: 1002: 258: 3017: 2097:"Manus Island: first refugees moved out of detention as hunger strike continues" 263: 3573: 3568: 3542: 3424: 2772:"Australia must use past success to reset future asylum policy, professor says" 2237:"Manus Island detention: PNG responsible for asylum seekers, Peter Dutton says" 1037: 1024:

An audit in May 2005 revealed 33 cases of people wrongfully detained under the

586: 542: 367: 347: 149: 2937:"More Australian citizens illegally held in detention: Commonwealth Ombudsman" 2198:

Asylum seeker detention times blow out to record levels under Malcolm Turnbull

2056:"Law to strip dual nationals of Australian citizenship set to pass parliament" 3619: 3291: 3117: 2290:"Manus Island: MSF denied access to refugees as thousands rally in Australia" 2260: 709: 644: 565: 145: 2502:"Explainer: how will the 'medevac' bill actually affect ill asylum seekers?" 2476:"Australia to Allow Medical Evacuation for Nauru and Manus Island Detainees" 1381:. Select Committee for an inquiry into a certain maritime incident. Report. 504: 3563: 3558: 3521: 3460: 3326: 1014: 949: 933: 889: 812: 486: 327: 226: 160: 1973:

Labor to act quickly to reopen Nauru, PNG asylum-seeker processing centres

671: 553:

to make these amendments, was introduced but lapsed without being passed.

413: 3434: 3419: 3147: 1041: 990: 637: 546: 454: 382: 371: 318: 284: 63: 1989:

Regional Resettlement Arrangement Between Australia And Papua New Guinea

1962:. ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 26 July 2013. 1686:. ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 26 July 2013. 1522:"A last resort? National Inquiry into Children in Immigration Detention" 757:

toughened policies to stop asylum seekers arriving by boat and launched

2368:"Home Affairs Legislation Amendment (Miscellaneous Measures) Bill 2018" 2343:"Government defeat in the House of Representatives on 12 February 2019" 2263:"Cashing in on refugees, duo make $ 20 million a month at Manus Island" 1900:. Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Retrieved 23 January 2012. 590:

assurances of fast-tracked processing of their cases for resettlement.

241: 1344:"A blind refugee has been held in Australian detention for nine years" 225:

arrivals comprising eighteen boats carrying 735 people (predominantly

3367: 1271:"Immigration Detention and Community Statistics Summary: 31 May 2020" 870:

Home Affairs Legislation Amendment (Miscellaneous Measures) Bill 2018

257:

did impose a 273-day limit on detention, but specifically disallowed

164: 2746:"The Intolerable Cruelty of Australia's Refugee Deterrence Strategy" 2005:"Did Tony Abbott stop the boats? New analysis casts doubt on claims" 1673:. Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Retrieved 26 July 2013. 916:

Home Affairs Legislation Amendment (Miscellaneous Measures) Act 2019

3594: 2348:. Flagpost: Information and research from the Parliamentary Library 1444: 1379:"Chapter 10: Pacific Solution: Negotiations and Agreements (10.73)" 788: 697: 208:

in response to increased boat arrivals and reported deaths at sea.

2261:

Angus Grigg, Jonathon Shapiro and Lisa Murray (10 February 2019).

1732:

Murdoch, Lindsay; Davis, Mark; Coorey, Phillip (23 October 2009).

668:

reports that 382 of those under 18 arrived without their parents.

300:

they left, and their status was to be reviewed every three years.

3465: 3122: 3052: 2211:"Australia Ordered to Shut Papua New Guinea Immigration Compound" 1326:"Refugee diaries: 10 years in immigration detention in Australia" 3470: 3352: 1018: 987:

Andrew & Renata Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law

137: 1960:

As it happened: Another sinking brings asylum debate to a head

1524:. Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Commission. 13 May 2004 585:

was involved in an emergency operation rescuing 78 Sri Lankan

429:

The inquiry also found that many basic rights outlined in the

3301: 3220:

Plaintiff M70/2011 v Minister for Immigration and Citizenship

2605:"Migration Amendment (Repairing Medical Transfers) Bill 2019" 881: 604:

Following a complaint lodged in 2011 regarding the resulting

41:

Fencing surrounding the detention centre on Christmas Island.

2042:

Tony Abbott says his government stopped the boats in 50 days

1710:

Migration Amendment (Immigration Detention Reform) Bill 2009

1127:

List of Sri Lankan Tamil Asylum Seeker Suicides in Australia

551:

Migration Amendment (Immigration Detention Reform) Bill 2009

507:, boat returns, offshore processing and mandatory detention. 378: 141: 1817:"Oceanic Viking asylum-seekers to land tomorrow – reports" 1008: 963:

election victory by the Liberal/National coalition in 2013

28:

For the detention facilities housing such immigrants, see

3296: 2661:"Mapping Social Cohesion: The Scanlon Foundation surveys" 1567:"Hazara asylum seekers hunger strike on Nauru, 2003–2004" 847: 780:

In 2014, the Human Rights Commission published a report,

596:

On 9 April 2010, former Minister for Immigration Senator

433:

were denied to children living in immigration detention.

2815:"Kaldor Centre principles for Australian refugee policy" 2500:

Procter, Nicholas; Kenny, Mary Anne (13 February 2019).

1028:. This included the case of a woman, Australian citizen 955: 558:

Migration Amendment (Abolishing Detention Debt) Act 2009

350:. Under this policy, many islands were excised from the 1713:. Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 23 January 2012. 1477:

Boats will keep coming until someone waves the red flag

1268: 980: 863:

Morrison government § Medical transfer of refugees

414:

National Inquiry into Children in Immigration Detention

3646:

Immigration detention centres and prisons of Australia

1158:(20 March 2013) Janet Phillips & Harriet Spinks. 418:

Dr Sev Ozdowski OAM Human Rights Commissioner of the

1445:

Peter Hartcher & Phillip Coorey (30 June 2012).

1058: 512: 389:

under Australia's obligations to the United Nations

144:

who has been detained since 2010, and Said Imasi, a

3087:

List of Australian immigration detention facilities

1276:. Australian Government. Department of Home Affairs 1112:

List of Australian immigration detention facilities

2393:Murphy, Katharine; Karp, Paul (13 February 2019). 1731: 833:was denied access to asylum seekers and refugees. 797: 791:on Manus Island, in the midst of a hunger strike. 725:Protesters outside ALP caucus meeting in July 2013 236:'s interim measures in 1992 were contained in the 57:, and those subject to deportation and removal in 2632:"Asylum seekers moved to a prison complex in PNG" 2306: 2053: 1684:Sweeping changes to mandatory detention announced 1620:. ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 1618:Sweeping changes to mandatory detention announced 1479:. The Sydney Institute. Retrieved 26 August 2013. 1300:Australian Government. Department of Home Affairs 943: 615: 215: 179: 3617: 3215:Minister for Immigration and Citizenship v SZMDS 2235:Keany, Francis; Yaxley, Louise (29 April 2016). 1843:"Rudd Government marks 100th asylum seeker boat" 836:On 20 December 2017, Peter Dutton was appointed 744: 716: 274: 3246:Department of Immigration and Border Protection 2690:"Australian Actions at the Point of Assumption" 1632:"Australia Announces Changes on Asylum Seekers" 1337: 1335: 133:provides updated monthly detention statistics. 3394:Minister for Immigration and Border Protection 2450:"Nine facts about the medical evacuation bill" 1931: 1198: 244:told Parliament in his Second Reading Speech: 3038: 2910:"Wrongful detention: 200 cases go to inquiry" 1999: 1997: 1323: 911:Passenger Movement Charge Collection Act 1978 675:Chris Bowen, Minister for Immigration in the 420:Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 391:Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 174:Australian Security Intelligence Organisation 2499: 2192: 2190: 1629: 1332: 334:, which was enacted via an amendment to the 3184:Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees 3082:Australian immigration detention facilities 2763: 2550: 2548: 2234: 2094: 1814: 1757: 1371: 1087:Australian League of Immigration Volunteers 453:sent a letter to Australian Prime Minister 307:. Howard said in a campaign policy speech: 30:Australian immigration detention facilities 3045: 3031: 2392: 2360: 1994: 1341: 74:in 1992, and was varied by the subsequent 49:has a policy and practice of detaining in 2934: 2884:"Govt says 33 have been wrongly detained" 2187: 1815:Fitzpatrick, Stephen (17 November 2009). 1319: 1317: 2769: 2687: 2629: 2545: 2169:"Immigration detention and human rights" 1911:"High Court scuttles Malaysia swap deal" 720: 670: 619: 400:handed down its decision in the case of 261:. The final scheme was contained in the 222:Migration Legislation Amendment Act 1989 36: 1979:. News Limited. Retrieved 26 July 2013. 1758:Megalogenis, George (24 October 2009). 1440: 1438: 1436: 1269:Australian Border Force (31 May 2020). 1220: 1009:Cases of wrongful immigration detention 287:defeated the Keating government in the 3618: 2946:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2832: 2658: 2577: 2340: 2208: 2166: 2152:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2054:Shalailah Medhora (10 November 2015). 1934:"The Malaysia solution is shipwrecked" 1870:UN finds Australia guilty in 150 cases 1471: 1469: 1467: 1314: 1154: 1152: 1150: 996: 848:Morrison government (August 2018–2022) 626:Villawood Immigration Detention Centre 123: 3026: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2654: 2652: 2554: 2160: 1888:. Christian Taylor. Australian Times. 1840: 1734:"Labor all at sea on asylum promises" 956:Criticism of government policy: 2010s 610:United Nations Human Rights Committee 431:Convention on the Rights of the Child 159:In June 2019, it was revealed that a 131:Australian Department of Home Affairs 3287:Australasian Correctional Management 2473: 2341:Sloane, Michael (20 February 2019). 2254: 2175:. Australian Human Rights Commission 1790:"Towing boats back is humane – Rudd" 1671:Fact Sheet 83a – Community Detention 1564: 1433: 1358:"Immigration detention in Australia" 1097:Boat arrivals in Australia 1976–2013 981:2019: Report urges changes to policy 880:of asylum seekers to Australia from 3476:2010 Christmas Island boat disaster 3373:United Nations Human Rights Council 3271:Maritime Border Command (Australia) 2935:Robertson, Dana (26 October 2005). 2842:. Monash University. September 2018 2840:"Australian Border Deaths Database" 2525: 2474:Kwai, Isabella (12 February 2019). 1932:Michael Gordon (1 September 2011). 1602:. 27 September 2004. Archived from 1475:(14 August 2012) Gerard Henderson. 1464: 1223:"Syria visit costs man Aussie visa" 1199:Oscar Grenfell (12 November 2015). 1147: 562:Australian House of Representatives 13: 3256:Australian Human Rights Commission 3230:Plaintiff M61/2010E v Commonwealth 3225:Plaintiff S157/2002 v Commonwealth 3153:Indefinite detention without trial 3077:Immigration detention in Australia 2707: 2649: 2630:Davidson, Helen (12 August 2019). 2559:. No. 242. The Saturday Paper 2447: 1760:"Labor in hold on refugee numbers" 1296:"Immigration detention statistics" 1021:under the name of Anna Brotmeyer. 14: 3662: 3605:Christmas Island Detention Centre 3006: 2862:"Secrecy blamed for Rau's ordeal" 2694:The Commons Social Change Library 2578:Martin, Sarah (4 December 2019). 2167:Dillon, Sarah (8 November 2013). 1571:The Commons Social Change Library 1565:King, Hanna (30 September 2021). 927:Christmas Island detention centre 840:, in charge of the newly-created 513:First Rudd government (2007–2010) 204:and partially restored under the 3600:Nauru Regional Processing Centre 3590:Manus Regional Processing Centre 3097:Illegal immigration to Australia 2688:McIntyre, Iain (23 March 2022). 1697:Australia abandons asylum policy 1596:Election Policies – Text Version 1324:Massilia Aili (8 January 2020). 1244:"Australia's detention policies" 1186:NZYQ v. Minister for Immigration 1061: 1003:publicly setting himself on fire 894:Manus Regional Processing Centre 886:Nauru Regional Processing Centre 771:2013 Australian federal election 493:system on humanitarian grounds. 281:Liberal-National Party Coalition 51:immigration detention facilities 24:Immigration history of Australia 2976: 2958:"Immigration pay boy $ 400,000" 2950: 2928: 2902: 2876: 2854: 2807: 2782: 2738: 2681: 2623: 2597: 2571: 2519: 2493: 2467: 2441: 2423: 2405: 2386: 2334: 2300: 2282: 2228: 2202: 2114: 2095:Ben Doherty (21 January 2015). 2088: 2073: 2047: 2035: 2023: 1982: 1965: 1952: 1925: 1903: 1891: 1879: 1862: 1853: 1834: 1808: 1782: 1751: 1725: 1716: 1702: 1689: 1676: 1664: 1644: 1623: 1610: 1584: 1558: 1536: 1514: 1497: 1482: 1350: 856: 798:Turnbull government (2015–2018) 517:For the final few years of the 457:regarding new legislation, the 113:NZYQ v Minister for Immigration 2770:Remeikis, Amy (13 June 2019). 2555:Manne, Robert (2 March 2018). 1971:(13 August 2012) Ben Packham. 1859:The Australian. 10 April 2010. 1288: 1262: 1236: 1214: 1192: 1178: 1164: 1136:, a 2020 television miniseries 944:Move into detention (Aug 2019) 624:Protesters on the roof of the 616:Gillard government (2010–2013) 216:Keating government (1992–1996) 180:History of mandatory detention 1: 3348:Asylum Seeker Resource Centre 3102:Immigrant health in Australia 2209:Taylor, Rob (27 April 2016). 1886:Families freed from detention 1630:Tim Johnston (30 July 2008). 1140: 1107:Immigrant health in Australia 745:Abbott government (2013–2015) 717:Second Rudd government (2013) 525:, under Immigration Minister 275:Howard government (1996–2007) 3651:Right of asylum in Australia 3583:Offshore detention locations 2724:Refugee Council of Australia 2557:"The myth of the great wave" 2080:Medical Journal of Australia 1841:Kelly, Joe (29 March 2010). 1796:. Australia. 22 October 2009 1592:"Stronger Border Protection" 1248:Refugee Council of Australia 444: 255:Migration Amendment Act 1992 238:Migration Amendment Act 1992 7: 3512:Operation Sovereign Borders 3389:Prime Minister of Australia 2864:. ABC News. 7 February 2005 2268:Australian Financial Review 1766:. p. 4. Archived from 1650:(29 July 2008) Tony Burke. 1117:Operation Sovereign Borders 1054: 824:private military contractor 759:Operation Sovereign Borders 441:as a result of the report. 10: 3667: 3552:Wrongfully detained people 3536:Investigations and reports 3251:Department of Home Affairs 2312:"Ministerial Arrangements" 2196:The Age, 12 January 2016: 1913:. ABC News. 31 August 2011 1600:Liberal Party of Australia 1342:Nick Baker (5 June 2020). 860: 842:Department of Home Affairs 169:Villawood Detention Centre 27: 17: 3582: 3551: 3535: 3497:Temporary protection visa 3484: 3456:Children Overboard affair 3448: 3407: 3399:Minister for Home Affairs 3381: 3335: 3279: 3238: 3192: 3174:Australian migration zone 3161: 3110: 3064: 3018:Migration Act 1958 (Cwth) 2962:The Sydney Morning Herald 2914:The Sydney Morning Herald 1991:. Retrieved 26 July 2013. 1874:The Sydney Morning Herald 1738:The Sydney Morning Herald 1451:The Sydney Morning Herald 1092:Australian migration zone 838:Minister for Home Affairs 665:The Sydney Morning Herald 491:temporary protection visa 385:who sought protection or 352:Australian migration zone 297:temporary protection visa 264:Migration Reform Act 1992 190:Migration Reform Act 1992 3626:Australian migration law 3492:Visa policy of Australia 3363:Médecins Sans Frontières 3239:Government organisations 3092:Immigration to Australia 3358:Human Rights Law Centre 3312:Canstruct International 3266:Australian Border Force 3179:1951 Refugee Convention 2890:. Melbourne. 2 May 2005 2659:Markus, Andrew (2016). 2609:Parliament of Australia 2372:Parliament of Australia 2316:Government of Australia 2215:The Wall Street Journal 1898:Statistics – Facilities 1384:Parliament of Australia 831:Doctors Without Borders 398:High Court of Australia 104:High Court of Australia 3408:Notable asylum seekers 3322:Surveillance Australia 2173:www.humanrights.gov.au 1764:The Weekend Australian 1447:"So many hopes dashed" 1077:Ads Up Refugee Network 782:The Forgotten Children 763:Rudd government (2013) 726: 684: 629: 396:On 6 August 2004, the 359:Border Protection Bill 324: 251: 196:, including under the 42: 3343:Amnesty International 3261:Royal Australian Navy 3054:Immigration detention 2820:. UNSW Law. June 2019 2795:. UNSW Law. June 2019 2668:scanlonfoundation.org 1657:3 August 2013 at the 1606:on 18 September 2006. 1510:[2004] HCA 37 1493:[2004] HCA 36 1102:Immigration detention 751:2013 federal election 724: 674: 623: 579:In October 2009, the 475:Amnesty International 309: 305:2001 federal election 289:1996 federal election 246: 59:immigration detention 47:Australian government 40: 3382:Government officials 2310:(19 December 2017). 1508:(2004) 219 CLR 562; 1491:(2004) 219 CLR 486; 1030:Vivian Alvarez Solon 643:On 18 October 2010, 606:indefinite detention 479:Australian Democrats 100:Albanese Governments 55:unauthorised arrival 3641:Morrison government 3336:Other organisations 3072:Asylum in Australia 3058:asylum in Australia 2526:Grattan, Michelle. 2448:Murphy, Katharine. 2419:. 13 February 2019. 2134:on 10 November 2015 2011:. 25 September 2015 1794:The Daily Telegraph 1425:CS1 maint: others ( 1082:Asylum in Australia 997:Deaths in detention 765:shortly before the 124:Length of detention 20:Asylum in Australia 3636:Keating government 3527:Malaysian Solution 3507:Operation Resolute 3205:Ruddock v Vadarlis 3169:Migration Act 1958 2726:. 22 February 2017 2611:. 14 December 2010 2296:. 9 November 2017. 2044:accessed 11.3.2017 1770:on 29 October 2009 1637:The New York Times 1554:. 31 October 2001. 1552:Human Rights Watch 1391:). 23 October 2002 1175:(2004) 219 CLR 562 1026:Migration Act 1958 899:Migration Act 1958 878:medical evacuation 769:took power in the 735:safe third country 727: 685: 677:Gillard government 634:Gillard government 630: 560:was passed by the 451:Human Rights Watch 439:Migration Act 1958 357:Also in 2001, the 337:Migration Act 1958 234:Keating government 206:Gillard government 186:Keating government 72:Keating government 43: 3613: 3612: 3440:Murugappan family 3280:Private companies 3200:Al-Kateb v Godwin 3143:Human trafficking 3133:Illegal immigrant 2314:(Press release). 2308:Turnbull, Malcolm 2032:accessed 2.7.2019 1548:Human Rights News 1505:Al-Kateb v Godwin 1412:External link in 1172:Al-Kateb v Godwin 932:This was seen by 874:Home Affairs Bill 822:, a little-known 767:Abbott government 755:Abbott government 582:MV Oceanic Viking 570:Australian Greens 519:Howard government 483:Australian Greens 449:In October 2001, 407:Al-Kateb v Godwin 321:, 28 October 2001 293:Howard government 220:Before 1992, the 194:Howard government 154:Al Kateb v Godwin 108:landmark decision 3658: 3517:Pacific Solution 3430:Dina Ali Lasloom 3415:Behrouz Boochani 3138:People smuggling 3128:Stateless person 3047: 3040: 3033: 3024: 3023: 3000: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2941: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2858: 2852: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2836: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2819: 2811: 2805: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2794: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2767: 2761: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2742: 2736: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2716: 2705: 2704: 2702: 2700: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2665: 2656: 2647: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2627: 2621: 2620: 2618: 2616: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2592: 2590: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2552: 2543: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2532:The Conversation 2523: 2517: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2506:The Conversation 2497: 2491: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2471: 2465: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2445: 2439: 2438: 2436: 2427: 2421: 2420: 2409: 2403: 2402: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2364: 2358: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2347: 2338: 2332: 2331: 2329: 2327: 2318:. 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