2716:
1040:
896:
159:
decisions, and are shielded against public scrutiny and protected from legal repercussions. However judicial accountability can reinforce judicial independence as it could show that judges have proper reasons and rationales for arriving at a particular decision. Warren opines that while unelected judges are not democratically accountable to the people, the key is for judges to achieve equilibrium between accountability and independence to ensure that justice is upheld. Judicial supremacy could potentially promote an elitist autocracy, but this can be balanced through
842:
4472:
Change, 2005 Pub L 806. For accounts of the main players, see Lord Woolf, The
Pursuit of Justice 161–74 (Oxford 2008); Lord Phillips, Constitutional Reform: One Year On, The Judicial Studies Board Annual Lecture (Mar 22, 2007); Lord Woolf, The Rule of Law and a Change in the Constitution, 2004 Camb L J 317; Tom Bingham, The Business of Judging: Selected Essays and Speeches 55–68 (Oxford 2000). All three authors served as lord chief justice in these formative years. Lord Woolf was active in the shaping of the legislation and Lord Phillips succeeded him
446:
3076:
2644:
3346:
1094:
644:
3112:
806:
1688:
2878:
3238:
572:
1022:
1166:
2518:
3364:
2572:
2390:
2282:
3382:
3220:
1436:
3292:
2932:
2806:
2734:
716:
2968:
2372:
2300:
1148:
932:
338:
2950:
3418:
3202:
3130:
2914:
2788:
2192:
2102:
1832:
1760:
950:
824:
518:
482:
3184:
2228:
1994:
1976:
3004:
2481:
2462:
2318:
1958:
3454:
2824:
2120:
1580:
1508:
1400:
410:
536:
3544:
2860:
2536:
2174:
2030:
1490:
1238:
770:
698:
662:
3526:
3166:
3148:
3040:
2842:
2608:
2444:
2048:
1220:
1076:
914:
788:
1274:
3328:
3256:
2354:
2156:
1922:
1706:
1634:
1544:
1526:
1184:
1112:
968:
752:
734:
626:
554:
500:
428:
3472:
3436:
3400:
2896:
2752:
2662:
2246:
2210:
1904:
1886:
1328:
1202:
1058:
464:
374:
356:
3274:
2770:
1868:
1814:
1742:
1652:
1454:
1004:
3508:
3310:
2698:
2500:
2408:
2138:
2012:
1796:
1418:
1382:
608:
392:
3022:
1472:
1310:
3490:
3094:
2626:
2336:
2264:
2084:
1940:
1778:
1364:
1130:
878:
590:
1346:
2426:
1256:
986:
2554:
2066:
1850:
1616:
1598:
860:
3058:
297:
they cite for the standards include the UN Basic
Principles of Judicial Independence from 1985, the Burgh House Principles of Judicial Independence in International Law (for the international judiciary), Tokyo Law Asia Principles, Council of Europe Statements on judicial independence (particularly the Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the independence, efficiency and role of judges), the
2590:
680:
2680:
1292:
1670:
2986:
1724:
1562:
175:
financial dependence of the judiciary on the executive. It is important to distinguish between two methods of corruption of the judiciary: the state (through budget planning and privileges) being the most dangerous, and private. State corruption of the judiciary can impede the ability of businesses to optimally facilitate the growth and development of a
4081:, whose members had all been appointed by Democratic governors, is seen by many as reinforcing the need for judicial independence, both with regard to the Florida Supreme Court and the US Supreme Court. This case has increased focus and attention on judicial outcomes as opposed to the traditional focus on judicial qualifications.
140:
The effectiveness of the law and the respect that people have for the law and the government which enacts it is dependent upon the judiciary's independence to mete out fair decisions. Furthermore, it is a pillar of economic growth as multinational businesses and investors have confidence to invest in
296:
produced the Mt. Scopus
International Standards of Judicial Independence between 2007 and 2012. These built on the same association's New Delhi Minimum Standards on Judicial independence adopted in 1982 and their Montréal Universal Declaration on the Independence of Justice in 1983. Other influences
158:
An extremely independent judiciary would also lack judicial accountability, which is the duty of a public decision-maker to explain and justify a decision and to make amendments where a decision causes injustice or problems. Judges are not required to give an entire account of their rationale behind
255:
and the hearing of felony charges against peers. The
Constitutional Reform Act established new lines of demarcation between the Lord Chancellor and the judiciary, transferring all the judicial functions to the judiciary and entrusting the Lord Chancellor only with what are considered administrative
4511:
See Treaty on
European Union, art F, 1992 OJ (C 191) 1 (Jul 29, 1992). Paragraph 2 of Article F states, “The Union shall respect fundamental rights, as guaranteed by the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms . . . and as they result from the constitutional
3683:
now recommend judicial salaries in Canada. There are two types of judicial independence: institutional independence and decisional independence. Institutional independence means the judicial branch is independent from the executive and legislative branches. Decisional independence is the idea that
4471:
Constitutional Reform Act (2005), ch 4 (UK). For a detailed analysis of the history of this act, see Lord
Windlesham, The Constitutional Reform Act 2005: The Politics of Constitutional Reform, 2006 Pub L 35; Lord Windlesham, The Constitutional Reform Act 2005: Ministers, Judges and Constitutional
3888:
The pay of judges is determined by an independent pay review body. It makes recommendations to the government after taking evidence from a variety of sources. The government accepts these recommendations and will traditionally implement them fully. As long as judges hold their positions in "good
195:
The development of judicial independence has been argued to involve a cycle of national law having an impact on international law, and international law subsequently impacting national law. This is said to occur in three phases: the first phase is characterized by the domestic development of the
154:
in place to prevent this abuse of power if the judiciary is completely independent. The relationship between the judiciary and the executive is a complex series of dependencies and inter-dependencies which counter-check each other and must be carefully balanced. One can be too independent of the
4195:
The complete independence of the courts of justice is particularly essential in a limited constitution. By a limited constitution I understand one which contains certain specified exceptions to the legislative authority ... Limitations of this kind can be preserved in practice no other way than
155:
other. Furthermore, judicial support of the executive is not as negative as it seems as the executive is the branch of government with the greatest claim to democratic legitimacy. Roger K. Warren writes that if the judiciary and executive are constantly feuding, no government can function well.
3757:, and the Registrar, Deputy Registrar and assistant registrars of the Supreme Court have immunity from civil suits, and are prohibited from hearing and deciding cases in which they are personally interested. The common law provides similar protections and disabilities for Supreme Court judges.
174:
studies issues such as the proper distribution of national wealth including government spending on the judiciary. In transitional and developing countries, spending on the judiciary may be controlled by the executive. This undermines the principle of judicial independence because it creates a
275:
Thus, the United
Kingdom, where judicial independence began over three hundred years ago, illustrates the interaction over time of national and international law and jurisprudence in the area of judicial independence. In this process, concepts and ideas have become enriched as they have been
3603:
since 1901. Immunity from suit for judicial acts, security of tenure, and fixed remuneration are all established parts of judicial independence in
Australia. The appointment of judges remains exclusively at the discretion of the executive which gives rise to concerns expressed that judicial
88:
4415:
Article III of the US Constitution provides that “the judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in
196:
concept of judicial independence, the second by the spread of these concepts internationally and their implementation in international law, and the third by the implementation in national law of these newly formulated international principles of judicial independence.
4383:
S Shetreet, ‘The
Normative Cycle of Shaping Judicial Independence in Domestic and International Law: The Mutual Impact of National and International Jurisprudence and Contemporary Practical and Conceptual Challenges’ (2009) 10 Chicago Journal of International Law
276:
implemented in successive judicial and political systems, as each system has enhanced and deepened the concepts and ideas it actualized. In addition to the UK, similar developments of conceptual cross-fertilization can be seen internationally, for example in
242:
marked a shift, with international law now impacting
British domestic law. The Constitutional Reform Act dramatically reformed government control over the administration of justice in England and Wales; importantly, it discontinued the position of the
141:
the economy of a nation who has a strong and stable judiciary that is independent of interference. The judiciary's role in deciding the validity of presidential and parliamentary elections also necessitates independence of the judiciary.
4425:
Shetreet, Judicial Independence. See also Peter H. Russell, The Judiciary in Canada: The Third Branch of Government (McGraw-Hill Ryerson 1987); John Bell, Judicial Cultures and Judicial Independence, 4 Cambridge YB Eur Legal Studies 47
4196:
through the medium of courts of justice; whose duty it must be to declare all acts contrary to the manifest tenor of the constitution void. Without this, all the reservations of particular rights or privileges would amount to nothing.
79:. This power can be used, for example, by mandating certain action when the judiciary perceives that a branch of government is refusing to perform a constitutional duty or by declaring laws passed by the legislature unconstitutional.
222:
In recent decades the third phase of judicial independence has been evident in the UK, as it has been significantly influenced by judicial independence principles developed by international human rights constitutional documents. The
3877:. In order to try to promote the independence of the judiciary, the selection process is designed to minimize political interference. The process focuses on senior members of the judiciary rather than on politicians. Part 2 of the
3896:
Until 1 January 2010, the legal profession was self-regulating; with responsibility for implementing and enforcing its own professional standards and disciplining its own members. The bodies which performed this function were the
251:; as a member of the executive branch and member of the senior cabinet; and as the head of the judiciary. Historically, the appellate function had a connection with the executive branch due to the types of cases typically heard –
227:(ECtHR) has had a significant impact on the conceptual analysis of judicial independence in England and Scotland. This process began in the 1990s with the ECtHR hearing UK cases and, more significantly, in the application of the
3984:...both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.
3772:. The President must consult the Chief Justice when appointing other judges, and may exercise personal discretion to refuse to make an appointment if he does not concur with the Cabinet's advice. Supreme Court justices enjoy
149:
The disadvantages of having a judiciary that is seemingly too independent include possible abuse of power by judges. Self-interest, ideological dedication and even corruption may influence the decisions of judges without any
247:, one of the country's oldest constitutional offices, who was entrusted with a combination of legislative, executive, and judicial capacities. The Lord Chancellor served as speaker of the Upper House of Parliament, the
3822:; more courts were created and a judicial profession grew. By the fifteenth century, the king's role in this feature of government became small. Nevertheless, kings could still influence courts and dismiss judges. The
203:. The second phase was evident when England's concepts regarding judicial independence spread internationally, and were adopted into the domestic law of other countries; for instance, England served as the model for
3684:
judges should be able to decide cases solely based on the law and facts, without letting the media, politics or other concerns sway their decisions, and without fearing penalty in their careers for their decisions.
3746:
133:. The rule of law means that all authority and power must come from an ultimate source of law. Under an independent judicial system, the courts and its officers are free from inappropriate intervention in the
317:
Judicial independence metrics allow a quantitative analysis of judicial independence for individual countries. One judicial independence metric is the high court independence index in the
3604:
appointments are political and made for political gain. Issues continue to arise in relation to dealing with judicial misconduct not warranting removal and incapacity of judges. In 2013
293:
3600:
3599:
stated that Australians largely took judicial independence for granted and the details were not matters of wide interest. No federal judge and only one supreme court judge has been
3671:
found an unwritten constitutional norm guaranteeing judicial independence to all judges, including civil law inferior court judges. The unwritten norm is said to be implied by the
3696:, independence of the judiciary has been the tradition since the territory became a British crown colony in 1842. After the 1997 transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong to the
3645:
3632:. These include rights to tenure (although the Constitution has since been amended to introduce mandatory retirement at age 75) and the right to a salary determined by the
41:
should not be subject to improper influence from the other branches of government or from private or partisan interests. Judicial independence is important for the idea of
4565:
Pemstein, Daniel, et al. "The V-Dem measurement model: latent variable analysis for cross-national and cross-temporal expert-coded data." V-Dem Working Paper 21 (2018).
5024:
3753:
and for their removal from office for misconduct, and provides that their remuneration may not be reduced during their tenure. By statute, judicial officers of the
199:
A notable example illustrating this cycle is the United Kingdom. The first phase occurred in England with the original conception of judicial independence in the
298:
4789:
4246:
4820:
3611:
identified the way in which judicial and court performance was measured as one of the most substantial risks to the separation of powers in Australia.
3801:
3592:
held in 2004 that all courts capable of exercising federal judicial power must be, and must appear to be, independent and impartial. Writing in 2007
215:
used England as their dominant model in formulating the Constitution's Article III, which is the foundation of American judicial independence. Other
3776:
up to the age of 65 years, after which they cease to hold office. However, the Constitution permits such judges to be re-appointed on a term basis.
108:, published 28 May 1788, Hamilton wrote: "The complete independence of the courts of justice is particularly essential in a limited constitution."
4747:
3942:
4919:
72:, even if those decisions are politically unpopular or opposed by powerful interests. This concept can be traced back to 18th-century England.
3680:
3855:
4667:
5019:
4888:
4885:
3878:
4446:
4232:
As the partisan administration of law erodes rule of law, a central institutional requirement is an independent, accessible judiciary.
261:
4577:
137:'s affairs. With this independence, the judiciary can safeguard people's rights and freedoms which ensure equal protection for all.
4493:
Robert Stevens, Law and Politics: The House of Lords as a Judicial Body, 1800-1976 (University of North Carolina Press, 1978), at 6
3989:
3954:
3650:
272:. The creation of the Supreme Court was important, for it finally separated the highest court of appeal from the House of Lords.
257:
4638:
4852:
3996:; only 13 federal judges have ever been impeached. The phrase "during good behavior" predates the Declaration of Independence.
4356:
4225:
4212:(2004), "Rule of Law within a Non-liberal 'Communitarian' Democracy: The Singapore Experience", in Randall Peerenboom (ed.),
4188:
3660:
it was found these rights are limited. They do, however, involve tenure, financial security and some administrative control.
95:
17:
4615:
309:
In recent years, the principle of judicial independence has been described as one of the core values of the justice system.
48:
Different countries deal with the idea of judicial independence through different means of judicial selection, or choosing
4214:
Asian Discourses of Rule of Law: Theories and Implementation of Rule of Law in Twelve Asian Countries, France and the U.S.
3636:(as opposed to the executive). In 1982 a measure of judicial independence was extended to inferior courts specializing in
117:
Judicial independence serves as a safeguard for the rights and privileges provided by a limited constitution and prevents
4021:, whose Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary rates each nominee "Well Qualified", "Qualified" or "Not Qualified".
265:
228:
4912:
3965:
3851:
3725:
3571:
238:
Where British national law had previously impacted the international development of judicial independence, the British
4745:"The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China"- Chapter 4, Section 4
5014:
5009:
5004:
4534:. International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace - International Project of judicial independence
4057:
3585:
182:
In some countries, the constitution also prohibits the legislative branch from reducing salaries of sitting judges.
4252:
3902:
3859:
1045:
269:
4256:
3914:
3754:
4130:
4032:
deal with independence of the judiciary in many ways, and several forms of judicial selection are used for both
4692:
Blackshield, A (1990). "The Appointment and Removal of Federal Judges". In Opeskin, B & Wheeler, F (eds.).
4150:
3969:
3874:
3790:
3701:
239:
224:
151:
4002:
5101:
4905:
4552:
Shimon Shetreet, Fundamental Values of the Justice System, 23 THE EUROPEAN BUSINESS LAW REVIEW 61-76, (2012).
4095:
3697:
2721:
219:
countries, including Canada, Australia, and India, also adopted the British model of judicial independence.
4729:"The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China"- Chapter 1
4135:
3950:
301:
of Judicial Conduct 2002, and the American Bar Association's revision of its ethical standards for judges.
5091:
4772:
4029:
3961:
3905:. However, this self-regulation came to an end when approved regulators came under the regulation of the
3668:
4100:
5106:
3946:
3761:
3743:
3593:
4744:
4532:"Mt. Scopus Approved Revised International Standards of Judicial Independence Approved March 19, 2008"
3626:, awarding superior court justices various guarantees to independence under sections 96 to 100 of the
256:
and executive matters. In addition, the Constitutional Reform Act replaced the Lord Chancellor by the
4978:
4180:
4125:
4090:
4017:
The President is free to appoint any person to the federal bench, yet typically he consults with the
3731:
75:
In some countries, the ability of the judiciary to check the legislature is enhanced by the power of
4973:
4610:
4053:
4018:
847:
281:
171:
5096:
4776:
4624:
3910:
3863:
3750:
3664:
3589:
3581:
4942:
4403:
4105:
4049:
4011:
3993:
3839:
3835:
3765:
3713:
3641:
3628:
3623:
649:
200:
118:
4711:
4564:
4174:
4078:
3827:
2649:
232:
4728:
5111:
5086:
5045:
4928:
4606:
4450:
4145:
3977:
3906:
3890:
3882:
3867:
3769:
3656:
3633:
3605:
3351:
208:
42:
4502:
Anthony Seldon, Ed., Blair's Britain, 1997-2007 (Cambridge University Press: 2007), at 113
4484:
Anthony Seldon, Ed., Blair's Britain, 1997-2007 (Cambridge University Press: 2007), at 294
321:, where higher values indicate higher independence, shown below for individual countries.
8:
4983:
4581:
4120:
4041:
3922:
3862:
does not comment on the cases which are before the court. The second is the principle of
3831:
3819:
3243:
1639:
69:
252:
4847:
4170:
3973:
3811:
3773:
3577:
2486:
2467:
1099:
277:
91:
4891:
4352:
4221:
4184:
4110:
4070:
3734:, statutes such as the State Courts Act and Supreme Court of Judicature Act, and the
1333:
1171:
104:
5040:
4988:
4768:
4344:
4069:, in which a majority of the Supreme Court, including some appointees of President
3834:
of 1688, some advocated guarding against royal manipulation of the judiciary. King
3739:
2523:
284:
countries such as Austria, and in other common law jurisdictions including Canada.
4531:
5055:
4751:
4115:
4037:
2883:
2395:
318:
244:
212:
76:
4512:
traditions common to the Member States, as general principles of Community law.”
4371:
Peter Barenboim, Defining the rules, The European Lawyer, Issue 90, October 2009
4074:
4010:
published on 11 January 1773, a phrase that first appeared in section 3 of the
4007:
3823:
3705:
3596:
3369:
1027:
248:
176:
4326:
Franck, Thomas M., Democracy, Legitimacy and the Rule of Law: Linkages (1999).
3889:
order", they remain in post until they wish to retire or until they reach the
5080:
5065:
4968:
3387:
1441:
4842:
5060:
4707:
4065:
3637:
3608:
3297:
2937:
2811:
2739:
721:
4348:
4947:
4325:
4209:
4140:
4033:
3898:
3815:
3807:
3081:
2973:
2955:
2577:
2377:
2305:
2287:
1693:
1153:
343:
204:
126:
122:
65:
61:
53:
4338:
4897:
4273:
4045:
3997:
3870:
are protected from prosecution in certain circumstances by the courts.
3735:
3709:
3423:
3207:
3189:
3135:
2919:
2793:
2233:
2197:
2107:
1999:
1981:
1837:
1765:
955:
829:
523:
487:
216:
57:
4048:, judges are elected (sometime on a partisan ballot, other times on a
3842:, which established tenure for judges unless Parliament removed them.
3818:
held judicial power. Judicial independence began to emerge during the
3663:
The year 1997 saw a major shift towards judicial independence, as the
37:
should be independent from the other branches of government. That is,
4952:
4277:
4217:
3926:
3918:
3712:, has been enshrined in the territory's constitutional document, the
3693:
3459:
3009:
2829:
2323:
2125:
1963:
1585:
1513:
1405:
451:
415:
160:
134:
130:
34:
3873:
Furthermore, the independence of the judiciary is guaranteed by the
3858:
which help to preserve judicial independence. The first is that the
3708:, independence of the judiciary, along with continuation of English
3672:
3549:
3531:
3171:
3153:
3045:
2865:
2847:
2613:
2541:
2449:
2179:
2053:
2035:
1495:
1243:
1225:
1081:
919:
793:
775:
703:
667:
541:
3742:
lays down special procedures to be followed before the conduct of
294:
International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace
125:
encroachment upon those rights. It serves as a foundation for the
4810:
Justice Gerard La Forest, Provincial Judges Reference, para. 306.
3477:
3441:
3405:
3333:
3261:
2901:
2757:
2667:
2359:
2251:
2215:
2161:
1927:
1909:
1891:
1711:
1549:
1531:
1351:
1279:
1207:
1189:
1117:
1063:
973:
937:
757:
739:
631:
577:
559:
505:
469:
433:
379:
361:
87:
4272:
Constitution, Art. 93A, and the Presidential Elections Act (
4044:), varying between states and sometimes within states. In some
3619:
3513:
3315:
3279:
3117:
3063:
2775:
2703:
2685:
2595:
2505:
2413:
2143:
2017:
1873:
1819:
1801:
1747:
1657:
1459:
1423:
1387:
1297:
1009:
811:
685:
613:
397:
3988:
Federal judges vacate office only upon death, resignation, or
56:
or long tenure for judges, which ideally frees them to decide
4444:
Human Rights Act (1998), ch 42 (UK), available online at <
3679:. Consequently, judicial compensation committees such as the
3495:
3099:
3027:
2991:
2631:
2341:
2269:
2089:
1945:
1783:
1729:
1675:
1567:
1477:
1369:
1315:
1135:
901:
883:
595:
49:
38:
4603:
North Australian Aboriginal Legal Aid Service Inc v Bradley
4173:(1982) , "The Federalist No. 78", in Jacob E. Cooke (ed.),
3576:
There was a struggle to establish judicial independence in
3225:
2559:
2431:
2071:
1855:
1621:
1603:
1261:
991:
865:
4521:
See, for example, Valente v The Queen, 2 SCR 673 (Canada)
4248:
The Importance of Judicial Independence and Accountability
190:
52:. One way to promote judicial independence is by granting
3909:, composed of non-lawyers, following the passage of the
4307:
4295:
4283:
4276:), ss. 71–80; and the Parliamentary Elections Act (
3730:
Judicial independence in Singapore is protected by the
3622:
has a level of judicial independence entrenched in its
4480:
4478:
4835:
4712:"Separation of Powers: Reality or Desirable Fiction?"
3826:
used this power frequently in order to overpower the
264:
from the legislative parliament, reforming it as the
4393:
See generally Shimon Shetreet book, Judges on Trial.
3764:
and other Supreme Court judges are appointed by the
4475:
3560:
4169:
3802:History of the constitution of the United Kingdom
260:as head of the judiciary, separated the judicial
5078:
4052:one), while in others they are appointed by the
312:
27:Concept that the judiciary should be independent
4700:
4379:
4377:
4668:"Discipline of judicial officers in Australia"
3704:, an international treaty registered with the
4913:
3681:Judicial Compensation and Benefits Commission
185:
4685:
4630:
4374:
163:. Judges are elected in some jurisdictions.
4691:
4596:
4208:
4131:Political corruption § Judiciary corruption
235:, which came into force in the UK in 2000.
4920:
4906:
4569:
4073:, overruled challenges to the election of
3879:Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007
287:
211:doctrine, and the Founding Fathers of the
4313:
4301:
4289:
4244:
262:Appellate Committee of the House of Lords
4927:
4870:. Boston: Little and Brown. p. 522.
4719:New South Wales Judicial Scholarship 39.
4578:"The struggle for judicial independence"
4560:
4558:
3830:. After the Stuarts were removed in the
86:
4636:
4336:
3651:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
3580:, but by 1901 it was entrenched in the
330:High court independence index for 2021
191:National and international developments
14:
5079:
4758:, 17 March 2008. Retrieved 2016-07-14.
4735:, 17 March 2008. Retrieved 2016-07-14.
4694:The Australian Federal Judicial System
4274:Cap. 204A, 2007 Rev. Ed.
3738:. To safeguard judicial independence,
82:
4901:
4865:
4665:
4555:
4406:(Hafner 1949) (Thomas Nugent, trans).
4278:Cap. 218, 2007 Rev. Ed.
3845:
304:
96:Founding Fathers of the United States
4884:Independence of the judicial system
4706:
3913:. This saw the establishment of the
3784:
3990:impeachment and removal from office
3980:". Once appointed, federal judges:
3810:, under the Norman monarchy of the
229:European Convention on Human Rights
98:, by portraitist Daniel Huntington
24:
4886:Part I. The Independence of Judges
3966:Supreme Court of the United States
3726:Judicial independence in Singapore
3572:Judicial independence in Australia
25:
5123:
4889:Part II - the Prosecution Service
4878:
4639:"Public Confidence in the Courts"
4575:
4220:Curzon, pp. 183–224 at 188,
3937:
3779:
166:
4823:. Courts and Tribunals Judiciary
4792:. Courts and Tribunals Judiciary
4253:National Center for State Courts
4245:Roger K. Warren (January 2003),
3932:
3860:Parliament of the United Kingdom
3561:Judicial independence by country
3542:
3524:
3506:
3488:
3470:
3452:
3434:
3416:
3398:
3380:
3362:
3344:
3326:
3308:
3290:
3272:
3254:
3236:
3218:
3200:
3182:
3164:
3146:
3128:
3110:
3092:
3074:
3056:
3038:
3020:
3002:
2984:
2966:
2948:
2930:
2912:
2894:
2876:
2858:
2840:
2822:
2804:
2786:
2768:
2750:
2732:
2714:
2696:
2678:
2660:
2642:
2624:
2606:
2588:
2570:
2552:
2534:
2516:
2498:
2479:
2460:
2442:
2424:
2406:
2388:
2370:
2352:
2334:
2316:
2298:
2280:
2262:
2244:
2226:
2208:
2190:
2172:
2154:
2136:
2118:
2100:
2082:
2064:
2046:
2028:
2010:
1992:
1974:
1956:
1938:
1920:
1902:
1884:
1866:
1848:
1830:
1812:
1794:
1776:
1758:
1740:
1722:
1704:
1686:
1668:
1650:
1632:
1614:
1596:
1578:
1560:
1542:
1524:
1506:
1488:
1470:
1452:
1434:
1416:
1398:
1380:
1362:
1344:
1326:
1308:
1290:
1272:
1254:
1236:
1218:
1200:
1182:
1164:
1146:
1128:
1110:
1092:
1074:
1056:
1046:Democratic Republic of the Congo
1038:
1020:
1002:
984:
966:
948:
930:
912:
894:
876:
858:
840:
822:
804:
786:
768:
750:
732:
714:
696:
678:
660:
642:
624:
606:
588:
570:
552:
534:
516:
498:
480:
462:
444:
426:
408:
390:
372:
354:
336:
270:Judicial Appointments Commission
144:
4859:
4813:
4804:
4782:
4761:
4738:
4722:
4659:
4546:
4524:
4515:
4505:
4496:
4487:
4465:
4447:"Human Rights Act 1998 (C. 42)"
4438:
4429:
4419:
4409:
4396:
4387:
4365:
4024:
3960:The Constitution provides that
3915:Solicitors Regulation Authority
4868:The Works of John Adams, Vol 3
4637:Gleeson, M (9 February 2007).
4343:. Cambridge University Press.
4330:
4319:
4266:
4238:
4202:
4163:
4151:Separation of church and state
3875:Constitutional Reform Act 2005
3791:Judiciary of England and Wales
3702:Sino-British Joint Declaration
240:Constitutional Reform Act 2005
225:European Court of Human Rights
13:
1:
4340:Litigating Judicial Selection
4156:
4096:Civil control of the military
313:Judicial independence metrics
112:
4593:12 Macquarie Law Journal 21.
4462:> (visited Mar 27, 2009).
4136:Rule According to Higher Law
3768:acting on the advice of the
3719:
3687:
3654:, although in the 1986 case
3586:separation of judicial power
3565:
7:
4773:Provincial Judges Reference
4255:, p. 1, archived from
4183:, pp. 521–530 at 524,
4084:
3669:Provincial Judges Reference
231:in British law through the
10:
5128:
4666:Kirby, M (February 2001).
4435:UK Human Rights Act - 1998
4402:See Baron de Montesquieu,
4216:, London; New York, N.Y.:
4101:Civil service independence
3964:, including judges of the
3947:United States Constitution
3854:, there are two important
3799:
3795:
3788:
3723:
3698:People's Republic of China
3594:Chief Justice of Australia
3569:
186:Development of the concept
5033:
4997:
4961:
4935:
4843:"Legal Services Act 2007"
4337:Kritzer, Herbert (2024).
4181:Wesleyan University Press
4126:Parliamentary sovereignty
4091:Central bank independence
4003:quamdiu se bene gesserint
3732:Constitution of Singapore
3614:
4974:Civil service commission
4019:American Bar Association
3388:United States of America
848:Central African Republic
172:Constitutional economics
33:is the concept that the
4821:"Constitutional reform"
4777:Supreme Court of Canada
3968:, are appointed by the
3911:Legal Services Act 2007
3864:parliamentary privilege
3665:Supreme Court of Canada
3590:High Court of Australia
3582:Australian constitution
288:International standards
4404:The Spirit of the Laws
4106:Editorial independence
4012:Act of Settlement 1701
3986:
3840:Act of Settlement 1701
3766:President of Singapore
3677:Constitution Act, 1867
3629:Constitution Act, 1867
3601:removed for misconduct
650:Bosnia and Herzegovina
201:Act of Settlement 1701
109:
5051:Judicial independence
4853:The National Archives
4607:[2004] HCA 31
4349:10.1017/9781009425476
4179:, Middletown, Conn.:
4079:Florida Supreme Court
3982:
3885:among the judiciary.
3868:Members of Parliament
3850:Under the uncodified
3828:Parliament of England
2722:Sao Tome and Principe
2650:Republic of the Congo
233:Human Rights Act 1998
105:The Federalist No. 78
90:
31:Judicial independence
18:Independent judiciary
5102:Separation of powers
5046:Separation of duties
4929:Separation of powers
4866:Adams, John (1851).
4146:Separation of powers
4077:then pending in the
4042:state supreme courts
3907:Legal Services Board
3891:mandatory retirement
3852:British Constitution
3770:Cabinet of Singapore
3749:may be discussed in
3657:Valente v. The Queen
3634:Parliament of Canada
3606:Chief Justice of NSW
3352:United Arab Emirates
299:Bangalore Principles
209:separation of powers
43:separation of powers
4962:Additional branches
4262:on 11 November 2018
4121:Judiciary in Russia
4006:in a letter to the
3923:Bar Standards Board
3832:Glorious Revolution
3820:early modern period
3814:, the king and his
3244:Trinidad and Tobago
152:checks and balances
83:Theory of evolution
70:judicial discretion
5092:Constitutional law
4848:legislation.gov.uk
4750:2014-12-30 at the
4171:Alexander Hamilton
3974:advice and consent
3955:federal government
3846:Contemporary usage
3812:Kingdom of England
3774:security of tenure
3578:colonial Australia
1100:Dominican Republic
305:The justice system
278:European Union law
258:Lord Chief Justice
110:
92:Alexander Hamilton
5107:Philosophy of law
5074:
5073:
4892:Venice Commission
4696:. pp. 427–8.
4358:978-1-009-42547-6
4227:978-0-415-32613-1
4190:978-0-819-53016-5
4111:Independent media
4071:George H. W. Bush
4063:The 2000 case of
4058:state legislature
3972:"by and with the
3881:aims to increase
3785:England and Wales
3558:
3557:
1172:Equatorial Guinea
268:, and creating a
64:according to the
16:(Redirected from
5119:
5041:Fusion of powers
4936:Typical branches
4922:
4915:
4908:
4899:
4898:
4872:
4871:
4863:
4857:
4856:
4839:
4833:
4832:
4830:
4828:
4817:
4811:
4808:
4802:
4801:
4799:
4797:
4786:
4780:
4769:Gerard La Forest
4765:
4759:
4742:
4736:
4726:
4720:
4718:
4716:
4704:
4698:
4697:
4689:
4683:
4682:
4680:
4678:
4663:
4657:
4656:
4654:
4652:
4643:
4634:
4628:
4627:
4622:
4617:Judgment summary
4600:
4594:
4592:
4590:
4589:
4580:. Archived from
4573:
4567:
4562:
4553:
4550:
4544:
4543:
4541:
4539:
4528:
4522:
4519:
4513:
4509:
4503:
4500:
4494:
4491:
4485:
4482:
4473:
4469:
4463:
4461:
4459:
4458:
4449:. Archived from
4442:
4436:
4433:
4427:
4423:
4417:
4413:
4407:
4400:
4394:
4391:
4385:
4381:
4372:
4369:
4363:
4362:
4334:
4328:
4323:
4317:
4311:
4305:
4299:
4293:
4287:
4281:
4270:
4264:
4263:
4261:
4242:
4236:
4234:
4206:
4200:
4198:
4167:
4038:appellate courts
4000:equated it with
3949:establishes the
3700:pursuant to the
3584:, including the
3547:
3546:
3545:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3511:
3510:
3509:
3493:
3492:
3491:
3475:
3474:
3473:
3457:
3456:
3455:
3439:
3438:
3437:
3421:
3420:
3419:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3367:
3366:
3365:
3349:
3348:
3347:
3331:
3330:
3329:
3313:
3312:
3311:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3259:
3258:
3257:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3187:
3186:
3185:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3133:
3132:
3131:
3115:
3114:
3113:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3061:
3060:
3059:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3007:
3006:
3005:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2935:
2934:
2933:
2917:
2916:
2915:
2899:
2898:
2897:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2845:
2844:
2843:
2827:
2826:
2825:
2809:
2808:
2807:
2791:
2790:
2789:
2773:
2772:
2771:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2539:
2538:
2537:
2524:Papua New Guinea
2521:
2520:
2519:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2447:
2446:
2445:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2411:
2410:
2409:
2393:
2392:
2391:
2375:
2374:
2373:
2357:
2356:
2355:
2339:
2338:
2337:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2303:
2302:
2301:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2213:
2212:
2211:
2195:
2194:
2193:
2177:
2176:
2175:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2141:
2140:
2139:
2123:
2122:
2121:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2051:
2050:
2049:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2015:
2014:
2013:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1961:
1960:
1959:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1781:
1780:
1779:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1745:
1744:
1743:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1637:
1636:
1635:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1565:
1564:
1563:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1529:
1528:
1527:
1511:
1510:
1509:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1385:
1384:
1383:
1367:
1366:
1365:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1331:
1330:
1329:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1295:
1294:
1293:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1133:
1132:
1131:
1115:
1114:
1113:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1007:
1006:
1005:
989:
988:
987:
971:
970:
969:
953:
952:
951:
935:
934:
933:
917:
916:
915:
899:
898:
897:
881:
880:
879:
863:
862:
861:
845:
844:
843:
827:
826:
825:
809:
808:
807:
791:
790:
789:
773:
772:
771:
755:
754:
753:
737:
736:
735:
719:
718:
717:
701:
700:
699:
683:
682:
681:
665:
664:
663:
647:
646:
645:
629:
628:
627:
611:
610:
609:
593:
592:
591:
575:
574:
573:
557:
556:
555:
539:
538:
537:
521:
520:
519:
503:
502:
501:
485:
484:
483:
467:
466:
465:
449:
448:
447:
431:
430:
429:
413:
412:
411:
395:
394:
393:
377:
376:
375:
359:
358:
357:
341:
340:
339:
324:
323:
21:
5127:
5126:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5118:
5117:
5116:
5077:
5076:
5075:
5070:
5056:Judicial review
5029:
4993:
4957:
4931:
4926:
4881:
4876:
4875:
4864:
4860:
4841:
4840:
4836:
4826:
4824:
4819:
4818:
4814:
4809:
4805:
4795:
4793:
4788:
4787:
4783:
4766:
4762:
4756:basiclaw.gov.HK
4752:Wayback Machine
4743:
4739:
4733:basiclaw.gov.HK
4727:
4723:
4714:
4705:
4701:
4690:
4686:
4676:
4674:
4664:
4660:
4650:
4648:
4641:
4635:
4631:
4620:
4614:
4601:
4597:
4587:
4585:
4574:
4570:
4563:
4556:
4551:
4547:
4537:
4535:
4530:
4529:
4525:
4520:
4516:
4510:
4506:
4501:
4497:
4492:
4488:
4483:
4476:
4470:
4466:
4456:
4454:
4445:
4443:
4439:
4434:
4430:
4424:
4420:
4414:
4410:
4401:
4397:
4392:
4388:
4382:
4375:
4370:
4366:
4359:
4335:
4331:
4324:
4320:
4316:, pp. 4–5.
4312:
4308:
4304:, pp. 3–5.
4300:
4296:
4292:, pp. 2–3.
4288:
4284:
4271:
4267:
4259:
4243:
4239:
4228:
4207:
4203:
4191:
4168:
4164:
4159:
4116:Judicial reform
4087:
4027:
3953:as part of the
3940:
3935:
3848:
3804:
3798:
3793:
3787:
3782:
3728:
3722:
3690:
3617:
3574:
3568:
3563:
3543:
3541:
3525:
3523:
3507:
3505:
3489:
3487:
3471:
3469:
3453:
3451:
3435:
3433:
3417:
3415:
3399:
3397:
3381:
3379:
3363:
3361:
3345:
3343:
3327:
3325:
3309:
3307:
3291:
3289:
3273:
3271:
3255:
3253:
3237:
3235:
3219:
3217:
3201:
3199:
3183:
3181:
3165:
3163:
3147:
3145:
3129:
3127:
3111:
3109:
3093:
3091:
3075:
3073:
3057:
3055:
3039:
3037:
3021:
3019:
3003:
3001:
2985:
2983:
2967:
2965:
2949:
2947:
2931:
2929:
2913:
2911:
2895:
2893:
2884:Solomon Islands
2877:
2875:
2859:
2857:
2841:
2839:
2823:
2821:
2805:
2803:
2787:
2785:
2769:
2767:
2751:
2749:
2733:
2731:
2715:
2713:
2697:
2695:
2679:
2677:
2661:
2659:
2643:
2641:
2625:
2623:
2607:
2605:
2589:
2587:
2571:
2569:
2553:
2551:
2535:
2533:
2517:
2515:
2499:
2497:
2480:
2478:
2461:
2459:
2443:
2441:
2425:
2423:
2407:
2405:
2396:North Macedonia
2389:
2387:
2371:
2369:
2353:
2351:
2335:
2333:
2317:
2315:
2299:
2297:
2281:
2279:
2263:
2261:
2245:
2243:
2227:
2225:
2209:
2207:
2191:
2189:
2173:
2171:
2155:
2153:
2137:
2135:
2119:
2117:
2101:
2099:
2083:
2081:
2065:
2063:
2047:
2045:
2029:
2027:
2011:
2009:
1993:
1991:
1975:
1973:
1957:
1955:
1939:
1937:
1921:
1919:
1903:
1901:
1885:
1883:
1867:
1865:
1849:
1847:
1831:
1829:
1813:
1811:
1795:
1793:
1777:
1775:
1759:
1757:
1741:
1739:
1723:
1721:
1705:
1703:
1687:
1685:
1669:
1667:
1651:
1649:
1633:
1631:
1615:
1613:
1597:
1595:
1579:
1577:
1561:
1559:
1543:
1541:
1525:
1523:
1507:
1505:
1489:
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1641:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1623:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1605:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1587:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1569:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1551:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1533:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1515:
1504:
1503:
1499:
1497:
1486:
1485:
1481:
1479:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1461:
1450:
1449:
1445:
1443:
1442:Guinea-Bissau
1432:
1431:
1427:
1425:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1407:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1389:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1371:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1353:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1335:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1317:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1299:
1288:
1287:
1283:
1281:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1263:
1252:
1251:
1247:
1245:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1227:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1209:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1191:
1180:
1179:
1175:
1173:
1162:
1161:
1157:
1155:
1144:
1143:
1139:
1137:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1119:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1101:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1083:
1072:
1071:
1067:
1065:
1054:
1053:
1049:
1047:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1029:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1011:
1000:
999:
995:
993:
982:
981:
977:
975:
964:
963:
959:
957:
946:
945:
941:
939:
928:
927:
923:
921:
910:
909:
905:
903:
892:
891:
887:
885:
874:
873:
869:
867:
856:
855:
851:
849:
838:
837:
833:
831:
820:
819:
815:
813:
802:
801:
797:
795:
784:
783:
779:
777:
766:
765:
761:
759:
748:
747:
743:
741:
730:
729:
725:
723:
712:
711:
707:
705:
694:
693:
689:
687:
676:
675:
671:
669:
658:
657:
653:
651:
640:
639:
635:
633:
622:
621:
617:
615:
604:
603:
599:
597:
586:
585:
581:
579:
568:
567:
563:
561:
550:
549:
545:
543:
532:
531:
527:
525:
514:
513:
509:
507:
496:
495:
491:
489:
478:
477:
473:
471:
460:
459:
455:
453:
442:
441:
437:
435:
424:
423:
419:
417:
406:
405:
401:
399:
388:
387:
383:
381:
370:
369:
365:
363:
352:
351:
347:
345:
334:
333:
329:
326:
325:
322:
320:
319:V-Dem Dataset
310:
302:
300:
295:
285:
283:
279:
273:
271:
267:
266:Supreme Court
263:
259:
254:
250:
246:
241:
236:
234:
230:
226:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
197:
183:
180:
178:
173:
164:
162:
156:
153:
145:Disadvantages
142:
138:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
107:
106:
101:
97:
94:, one of the
93:
89:
80:
78:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
46:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
5061:Dual mandate
5050:
4867:
4861:
4855:, 2007 c. 29
4846:
4837:
4825:. Retrieved
4815:
4806:
4794:. Retrieved
4784:
4779:, para. 305.
4763:
4755:
4740:
4732:
4724:
4702:
4693:
4687:
4675:. Retrieved
4671:
4661:
4649:. Retrieved
4645:
4632:
4616:
4602:
4598:
4586:. Retrieved
4582:the original
4571:
4548:
4536:. Retrieved
4526:
4517:
4507:
4498:
4489:
4467:
4455:. Retrieved
4451:the original
4440:
4431:
4421:
4411:
4398:
4389:
4367:
4339:
4332:
4321:
4309:
4297:
4285:
4268:
4257:the original
4247:
4240:
4231:
4213:
4204:
4194:
4175:
4165:
4066:Bush v. Gore
4064:
4062:
4034:trial courts
4030:State courts
4028:
4025:State courts
4016:
4014:in England.
4001:
3987:
3983:
3959:
3941:
3925:to regulate
3917:to regulate
3895:
3887:
3872:
3849:
3805:
3759:
3755:State Courts
3729:
3691:
3676:
3662:
3655:
3649:
3638:criminal law
3627:
3624:Constitution
3618:
3609:Tom Bathurst
3575:
3298:Turkmenistan
2938:South Africa
2812:Sierra Leone
2740:Saudi Arabia
722:Burkina Faso
316:
308:
291:
274:
237:
221:
198:
194:
181:
170:
157:
148:
139:
116:
103:
99:
74:
47:
30:
29:
5112:Sovereignty
5087:Judiciaries
4989:Prosecutory
4948:Legislature
4651:13 November
4210:Li-ann Thio
4141:Rule of law
4050:nonpartisan
4040:(including
3943:Article III
3903:Law Society
3899:Bar Council
3893:age of 70.
3856:conventions
3836:William III
3816:Curia Regis
3808:Middle Ages
3806:During the
3208:Timor-Leste
3082:Switzerland
2974:South Sudan
2956:South Korea
2578:Philippines
2489:(West Bank)
2378:North Korea
2306:New Zealand
2288:Netherlands
1694:Ivory Coast
1154:El Salvador
344:Afghanistan
253:impeachment
205:Montesquieu
127:rule of law
123:legislative
66:rule of law
54:life tenure
5081:Categories
4998:By country
4827:9 November
4796:9 November
4672:High Court
4646:High Court
4625:High Court
4588:2019-01-07
4576:Clark, D.
4538:11 October
4457:2013-01-02
4157:References
3998:John Adams
3927:barristers
3919:solicitors
3800:See also:
3751:Parliament
3736:common law
3710:common law
3646:section 11
3424:Uzbekistan
3190:The Gambia
3136:Tajikistan
2920:Somaliland
2794:Seychelles
2234:Mozambique
2198:Montenegro
2108:Mauritania
2000:Madagascar
1982:Luxembourg
1838:Kyrgyzstan
1766:Kazakhstan
956:Costa Rica
830:Cape Verde
524:Bangladesh
488:Azerbaijan
217:common law
113:Importance
5015:Singapore
5010:Hong Kong
5005:Australia
4984:Electoral
4953:Judiciary
4943:Executive
4677:7 January
4218:Routledge
3970:President
3883:diversity
3720:Singapore
3714:Basic Law
3694:Hong Kong
3688:Hong Kong
3642:civil law
3640:(but not
3566:Australia
3460:Venezuela
3010:Sri Lanka
2830:Singapore
2487:Palestine
2468:Palestine
2324:Nicaragua
2126:Mauritius
1964:Lithuania
1586:Indonesia
1514:Hong Kong
1406:Guatemala
452:Australia
416:Argentina
282:civil law
161:democracy
135:judiciary
131:democracy
119:executive
102:1865. In
60:and make
35:judiciary
5034:See also
4979:Auditory
4767:Justice
4748:Archived
4416:office.”
4085:See also
4054:governor
3994:Congress
3921:and the
3901:and the
3673:preamble
3550:Zimbabwe
3532:Zanzibar
3172:Thailand
3154:Tanzania
3046:Suriname
2866:Slovenia
2848:Slovakia
2614:Portugal
2542:Paraguay
2450:Pakistan
2180:Mongolia
2054:Maldives
2036:Malaysia
1496:Honduras
1244:Ethiopia
1226:Eswatini
1082:Djibouti
920:Colombia
794:Cameroon
776:Cambodia
704:Bulgaria
668:Botswana
542:Barbados
4426:(2001).
4384:275-332
3976:of the
3945:of the
3866:: that
3796:History
3675:to the
3667:in the
3648:of the
3554:-0.189
3500:-1.138
3482:-1.605
3478:Vietnam
3464:-2.258
3442:Vanuatu
3428:-1.901
3406:Uruguay
3338:-0.207
3334:Ukraine
3302:-2.673
3284:-0.609
3262:Tunisia
3230:-1.037
3140:-1.729
3104:-1.039
2978:-1.627
2924:-0.318
2906:-1.512
2902:Somalia
2834:-0.193
2758:Senegal
2744:-1.086
2690:-2.498
2668:Romania
2654:-0.903
2636:-0.688
2510:-0.027
2473:-0.566
2436:-0.047
2400:-0.439
2382:-3.279
2360:Nigeria
2328:-3.156
2252:Namibia
2216:Morocco
2162:Moldova
2112:-0.287
2004:-1.707
1928:Liberia
1910:Lesotho
1892:Lebanon
1842:-1.393
1770:-1.355
1752:-0.022
1712:Jamaica
1640:Ireland
1608:-1.093
1550:Iceland
1532:Hungary
1518:-0.327
1482:-0.583
1352:Germany
1338:-0.413
1334:Georgia
1320:-0.811
1280:Finland
1266:-0.131
1248:-0.015
1230:-0.818
1208:Estonia
1194:-2.162
1190:Eritrea
1176:-2.554
1158:-1.714
1118:Ecuador
1086:-0.045
1064:Denmark
1050:-0.459
996:-0.469
974:Croatia
942:-0.236
938:Comoros
906:-1.862
870:-1.542
852:-0.783
798:-1.646
780:-1.127
762:-1.064
758:Burundi
744:-0.897
740:Myanmar
636:-0.446
632:Bolivia
578:Belgium
564:-2.183
560:Belarus
528:-1.607
506:Bahrain
492:-1.822
470:Austria
434:Armenia
402:-0.294
384:-1.353
380:Algeria
362:Albania
348:-2.317
327:Country
62:rulings
4894:, 2010
4355:
4224:
4187:
4046:states
3978:Senate
3747:judges
3620:Canada
3615:Canada
3548:
3536:-0.13
3530:
3518:0.401
3514:Zambia
3512:
3494:
3476:
3458:
3446:1.444
3440:
3422:
3410:1.804
3404:
3392:1.889
3386:
3374:1.943
3368:
3356:-0.93
3350:
3332:
3320:0.301
3316:Uganda
3314:
3296:
3280:Turkey
3278:
3266:2.193
3260:
3248:1.512
3242:
3224:
3212:1.039
3206:
3194:1.249
3188:
3176:-0.25
3170:
3158:1.333
3152:
3134:
3122:0.963
3118:Taiwan
3116:
3098:
3086:3.108
3080:
3064:Sweden
3062:
3050:1.455
3044:
3026:
3014:1.528
3008:
2996:2.426
2990:
2972:
2960:1.727
2954:
2942:1.487
2936:
2918:
2900:
2888:1.606
2882:
2870:2.189
2864:
2852:0.911
2846:
2828:
2816:0.953
2810:
2798:1.934
2792:
2780:0.424
2776:Serbia
2774:
2756:
2738:
2726:1.058
2720:
2708:-0.25
2704:Rwanda
2702:
2686:Russia
2684:
2672:1.497
2666:
2648:
2630:
2618:1.736
2612:
2600:1.027
2596:Poland
2594:
2582:0.144
2576:
2564:1.608
2558:
2546:1.794
2540:
2528:1.425
2522:
2506:Panama
2504:
2492:0.185
2485:
2470:(Gaza)
2466:
2454:-0.07
2448:
2430:
2418:2.819
2414:Norway
2412:
2394:
2376:
2364:0.779
2358:
2346:0.592
2340:
2322:
2310:2.979
2304:
2292:2.497
2286:
2274:0.853
2268:
2256:1.429
2250:
2238:0.063
2232:
2220:1.745
2214:
2202:0.114
2196:
2184:0.697
2178:
2166:1.519
2160:
2148:0.143
2144:Mexico
2142:
2130:0.934
2124:
2106:
2094:1.629
2088:
2076:1.087
2070:
2058:0.712
2052:
2040:0.556
2034:
2022:1.185
2018:Malawi
2016:
1998:
1986:1.887
1980:
1968:2.162
1962:
1950:0.185
1944:
1932:1.208
1926:
1914:1.821
1908:
1896:0.972
1890:
1878:2.073
1874:Latvia
1872:
1860:1.496
1854:
1836:
1820:Kuwait
1818:
1806:0.591
1802:Kosovo
1800:
1782:
1764:
1748:Jordan
1746:
1734:0.274
1728:
1710:
1698:-0.04
1692:
1680:1.593
1674:
1662:1.238
1658:Israel
1656:
1644:2.271
1638:
1626:0.142
1620:
1602:
1590:0.458
1584:
1572:0.939
1566:
1554:1.996
1548:
1536:1.082
1530:
1512:
1500:0.144
1494:
1476:
1460:Guyana
1458:
1446:0.139
1440:
1428:0.077
1424:Guinea
1422:
1410:1.104
1404:
1392:1.388
1388:Greece
1386:
1374:1.149
1368:
1356:1.948
1350:
1332:
1314:
1302:1.679
1298:France
1296:
1284:2.248
1278:
1260:
1242:
1224:
1212:2.404
1206:
1188:
1170:
1152:
1140:0.208
1134:
1122:0.715
1116:
1104:0.846
1098:
1080:
1062:
1044:
1032:1.884
1026:
1014:1.204
1010:Cyprus
1008:
990:
978:1.305
972:
960:1.595
954:
936:
924:1.539
918:
900:
888:3.091
882:
864:
846:
834:1.091
828:
816:2.145
812:Canada
810:
792:
774:
756:
738:
726:0.555
720:
708:0.903
702:
690:1.936
686:Brazil
684:
672:1.226
666:
654:0.706
648:
630:
618:1.586
614:Bhutan
612:
600:0.319
594:
582:2.497
576:
558:
546:2.071
540:
522:
510:-2.57
504:
486:
474:2.736
468:
456:2.873
450:
438:0.739
432:
420:0.298
414:
398:Angola
396:
378:
366:0.655
360:
342:
50:judges
39:courts
4715:(PDF)
4642:(PDF)
4621:(PDF)
4613:146.
4605:
4260:(PDF)
3644:) by
3496:Yemen
3100:Syria
3032:0.14
3028:Sudan
2992:Spain
2762:0.81
2632:Qatar
2342:Niger
2270:Nepal
2090:Malta
1946:Libya
1824:0.39
1788:2.32
1784:Kenya
1730:Japan
1716:1.85
1676:Italy
1568:India
1478:Haiti
1464:1.32
1370:Ghana
1316:Gabon
1136:Egypt
1068:3.21
902:China
884:Chile
596:Benin
280:, in
58:cases
4829:2014
4798:2014
4679:2019
4653:2018
4540:2014
4353:ISBN
4222:ISBN
4185:ISBN
4036:and
3760:The
3226:Togo
3068:2.8
2560:Peru
2432:Oman
2072:Mali
1856:Laos
1622:Iraq
1604:Iran
1262:Fiji
992:Cuba
866:Chad
292:The
129:and
121:and
68:and
4611:CLR
4345:doi
4056:or
3992:by
3692:In
207:'s
5083::
4851:,
4845:,
4775:,
4771:,
4754:,
4731:,
4710:.
4670:.
4644:.
4623:,
4557:^
4477:^
4376:^
4351:.
4251:,
4230:,
4193:,
4060:.
3957:.
3929:.
3716:.
179:.
100:c.
45:.
4921:e
4914:t
4907:v
4831:.
4800:.
4717:.
4681:.
4655:.
4591:.
4542:.
4460:.
4361:.
4347::
4235:.
4199:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
