1131:). If the traditional discipline makes the tenure decisions, new interdisciplinary faculty will be hesitant to commit themselves fully to interdisciplinary work. Other barriers include the generally disciplinary orientation of most scholarly journals, leading to the perception, if not the fact, that interdisciplinary research is hard to publish. In addition, since traditional budgetary practices at most universities channel resources through the disciplines, it becomes difficult to account for a given scholar or teacher's salary and time. During periods of budgetary contraction, the natural tendency to serve the primary constituency (i.e., students majoring in the traditional discipline) makes resources scarce for teaching and research comparatively far from the center of the discipline as traditionally understood. For these same reasons, the introduction of new interdisciplinary programs is often resisted because it is perceived as a competition for diminishing funds.
1100:
training than others; in turn, colleagues in "softer" disciplines who may associate quantitative approaches with difficulty grasp the broader dimensions of a problem and lower rigor in theoretical and qualitative argumentation. An interdisciplinary program may not succeed if its members remain stuck in their disciplines (and in disciplinary attitudes). Those who lack experience in interdisciplinary collaborations may also not fully appreciate the intellectual contribution of colleagues from those discipline. From the disciplinary perspective, however, much interdisciplinary work may be seen as "soft", lacking in rigor, or ideologically motivated; these beliefs place barriers in the career paths of those who choose interdisciplinary work. For example, interdisciplinary grant applications are often refereed by
38:
1560:"Previously, men could be divided simply into the learned and the ignorant, those more or less the one, and those more or less the other. But your specialist cannot be brought in under either of these two categories. He is not learned, for he is formally ignorant of all that does not enter into his specialty; but neither is he ignorant, because he is 'a scientist,' and 'knows' very well his own tiny portion of the universe. We shall have to say that he is a learned ignoramus, which is a very serious matter, as it implies that he is a person who is ignorant, not in the fashion of the ignorant man, but with all the petulance of one who is learned in his own special line."
1195:
the subject. Others have argued that the very idea of synthesis or integration of disciplines presupposes questionable politico-epistemic commitments. Critics of interdisciplinary programs feel that the ambition is simply unrealistic, given the knowledge and intellectual maturity of all but the exceptional undergraduate; some defenders concede the difficulty, but insist that cultivating interdisciplinarity as a habit of mind, even at that level, is both possible and essential to the education of informed and engaged citizens and leaders capable of analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information from multiple sources in order to render reasoned decisions.
1091:. On some views, however, interdisciplinarity is entirely indebted to those who specialize in one field of study—that is, without specialists, interdisciplinarians would have no information and no leading experts to consult. Others place the focus of interdisciplinarity on the need to transcend disciplines, viewing excessive specialization as problematic both epistemologically and politically. When interdisciplinary collaboration or research results in new solutions to problems, much information is given back to the various disciplines involved. Therefore, both disciplinarians and interdisciplinarians may be seen in complementary relation to one another.
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world. The latter has one US organization, the
Association for Interdisciplinary Studies (founded in 1979), two international organizations, the International Network of Inter- and Transdisciplinarity (founded in 2010) and the Philosophy of/as Interdisciplinarity Network (founded in 2009). The US's research institute devoted to the theory and practice of interdisciplinarity, the Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity at the University of North Texas, was founded in 2008 but is closed as of 1 September 2014, the result of administrative decisions at the University of North Texas.
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discourse, interdisciplinarity typically applies to four realms: knowledge, research, education, and theory. Interdisciplinary knowledge involves familiarity with components of two or more disciplines. Interdisciplinary research combines components of two or more disciplines in the search or creation of new knowledge, operations, or artistic expressions. Interdisciplinary education merges components of two or more disciplines in a single program of instruction. Interdisciplinary theory takes interdisciplinary knowledge, research, or education as its main objects of study.
390:
1151:. These new fields are occasionally referred to as "interdisciplines". On the other hand, even though interdisciplinary activities are now a focus of attention for institutions promoting learning and teaching, as well as organizational and social entities concerned with education, they are practically facing complex barriers, serious challenges and criticism. The most important obstacles and challenges faced by interdisciplinary activities in the past two decades can be divided into "professional", "organizational", and "cultural" obstacles.
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1191:. Researchers at the Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity have made the distinction between philosophy 'of' and 'as' interdisciplinarity, the former identifying a new, discrete area within philosophy that raises epistemological and metaphysical questions about the status of interdisciplinary thinking, with the latter pointing toward a philosophical practice that is sometimes called 'field philosophy'.
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multiple traditional disciplines. Interdisciplinary education fosters cognitive flexibility and prepares students to tackle complex, real-world problems by integrating knowledge from multiple fields. This approach emphasizes active learning, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, equipping students with the adaptability needed in an increasingly interconnected world. For example, the subject of
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2397:, Wie viel Politik steckt in der Kommunikationswissenschaft? Zum Stellenwert politikwissenschaftlicher Theorien in der Kommunikationswissenschaft. In: Haschke, Josef F./Moser, André M. (eds.): Politik-Deutsch, Deutsch-Politik: Aktuelle Trends und Forschungsergebnisse. Beiträge zur 6. Fachtagung des DFPK (Düsseldorfer Forum Politische Kommunikation, vol. 1;
1353:: Knowledge management discipline exists as a cluster of divergent schools of thought under an overarching knowledge management umbrella by building on works in computer science, economics, human resource management, information systems, organizational behavior, philosophy, psychology, and strategic management.
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is applied within education and training pedagogies to describe studies that use methods and insights of several established disciplines or traditional fields of study. Interdisciplinarity involves researchers, students, and teachers in the goals of connecting and integrating several academic schools
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There are many examples of when a particular idea, almost on the same period, arises in different disciplines. One case is the shift from the approach of focusing on "specialized segments of attention" (adopting one particular perspective), to the idea of "instant sensory awareness of the whole", an
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Perhaps the most common complaint regarding interdisciplinary programs, by supporters and detractors alike, is the lack of synthesis—that is, students are provided with multiple disciplinary perspectives but are not given effective guidance in resolving the conflicts and achieving a coherent view of
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Due to these and other barriers, interdisciplinary research areas are strongly motivated to become disciplines themselves. If they succeed, they can establish their own research funding programs and make their own tenure and promotion decisions. In so doing, they lower the risk of entry. Examples of
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Because most participants in interdisciplinary ventures were trained in traditional disciplines, they must learn to appreciate differences of perspectives and methods. For example, a discipline that places more emphasis on quantitative rigor may produce practitioners who are more scientific in their
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as a research area deals with problems requiring analysis and synthesis across economic, social and environmental spheres; often an integration of multiple social and natural science disciplines. Interdisciplinary research is also key to the study of health sciences, for example in studying optimal
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Since 1998, there has been an ascendancy in the value of interdisciplinary research and teaching and a growth in the number of bachelor's degrees awarded at U.S. universities classified as multi- or interdisciplinary studies. The number of interdisciplinary bachelor's degrees awarded annually rose
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Transport sciences: Transport sciences are a field of science that deals with the relevant problems and events of the world of transport and cooperates with the specialised legal, ecological, technical, psychological or pedagogical disciplines in working out the changes of place of people, goods,
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While much has been written on the philosophy and promise of interdisciplinarity in academic programs and professional practice, social scientists are increasingly interrogating academic discourses on interdisciplinarity, as well as how interdisciplinarity actually works—and does not—in practice.
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and several other disciplines. Any broadminded humanist project involves interdisciplinarity, and history shows a crowd of cases, as seventeenth-century
Leibniz's task to create a system of universal justice, which required linguistics, economics, management, ethics, law philosophy, politics, and
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An initial distinction should be made between interdisciplinary studies, which can be found spread across the academy today, and the study of interdisciplinarity, which involves a much smaller group of researchers. The former is instantiated in thousands of research centers across the US and the
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is most often used in educational circles when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand, including the case of the team-taught course where students are required to understand a given subject in terms of
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To begin with, a discipline can be conveniently defined as any comparatively self-contained and isolated domain of human experience which possesses its own community of experts. Interdisciplinarity is best seen as bringing together distinctive components of two or more disciplines. In academic
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1863:"Research and Development Priorities to Achieve the "Grand Convergence": An Initial Scan of Priority Research Areas for Public Health, Implementation Science and Innovative Financing for Neglected Diseases: Working Paper for the Lancet Commission on Investing in Health"
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of the disciplines in their attempt to recolonize the experimental knowledge production of otherwise marginalized fields of inquiry. This is due to threat perceptions seemingly based on the ascendancy of interdisciplinary studies against traditional academia.
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in an educational setting. Interdisciplinary programs may be founded in order to facilitate the study of subjects which have some coherence, but which cannot be adequately understood from a single disciplinary perspective (for example, women's studies or
1565:"It is the custom among those who are called 'practical' men to condemn any man capable of a wide survey as a visionary: no man is thought worthy of a voice in politics unless he ignores or does not know nine-tenths of the most important relevant facts."
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At the same time, many thriving longstanding bachelor's in interdisciplinary studies programs in existence for 30 or more years, have been closed down, in spite of healthy enrollment. Examples include
Arizona International (formerly part of the
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of any two instances of knowledge, research, or education can be ranked by weighing four variables: number of disciplines involved, the "distance" between them, the novelty of any particular combination, and their extent of integration.
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Franks, D.; Dale, P.; Hindmarsh, R.; Fellows, C.; Buckridge, M.; Cybinski, P. (2007). "Interdisciplinary foundations: reflecting on interdisciplinarity and three decades of teaching and research at
Griffith University, Australia".
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attests that "the roots of the concepts lie in a number of ideas that resonate through modern discourse—the ideas of a unified science, general knowledge, synthesis and the integration of knowledge", while Giles Gunn says that
2578:: The Charité Human Remains Project - interdisciplinary research and restitution of human remains. In: Mitteilungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, vol. 33, 2012, pp. 103-108.
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Interdisciplinary programs sometimes arise from a shared conviction that the traditional disciplines are unable or unwilling to address an important problem. For example, social science disciplines such as
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from 7,000 in 1973 to 30,000 a year by 2005 according to data from the
National Center of Educational Statistics (NECS). In addition, educational leaders from the Boyer Commission to Carnegie's President
1116:, it is likely that some of the evaluators will lack commitment to interdisciplinarity. They may fear that making a commitment to interdisciplinary research will increase the risk of being denied tenure.
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research: Interdisciplinary research comes into play when clarifying the path of artworks into public and private art collections and also in relation to human remains in natural history collections.
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Interdisciplinarians may help breach communication gaps in the modern academy, thereby helping to mobilize its enormous intellectual resources in the cause of greater social rationality and justice.
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Thorbecke, Eric. (2006) "The
Evolution of the Development Doctrine, 1950–2005". UNU-WIDER Research Paper No. 2006/155. United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research
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attention to the "total field", a "sense of the whole pattern, of form and function as a unity", an "integral idea of structure and configuration". This has happened in painting (with
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attempts to provide a simple, common-sense, definition of interdisciplinarity, bypassing the difficulties of defining that concept and obviating the need for such related concepts as
1180:). More rarely, and at a more advanced level, interdisciplinarity may itself become the focus of study, in a critique of institutionalized disciplines' ways of segmenting knowledge.
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have advocated for interdisciplinary rather than disciplinary approaches to problem-solving in the 21st century. This has been echoed by federal funding agencies, particularly the
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has no disciplinary departments and emphasizes interdisciplinary concentrations in the
Humanities, Social and Behavioral Sciences, International Studies, and Environmental Studies.
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Some have shown, for example, that some interdisciplinary enterprises that aim to serve society can produce deleterious outcomes for which no one can be held to account.
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or ethnic area studies. Interdisciplinarity can likewise be applied to complex subjects that can only be understood by combining the perspectives of two or more fields.
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Siskin, L.S. & Little, J.W. (1995). The
Subjects in Question. Teachers College Press. about the departmental organization of high schools and efforts to change that.
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may be applied where the subject is felt to have been neglected or even misrepresented in the traditional disciplinary structure of research institutions, for example,
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1381:: A holistic design science that provides a framework for making design decisions in any sphere of human endeavor, but especially in land use and resource security.
1543:"The modern mind divides, specializes, thinks in categories: the Greek instinct was the opposite, to take the widest view, to see things as an organic whole . The
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into one activity (e.g., a research project). It draws knowledge from several fields like sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, etc. It is related to an
1331:. Faculty members of environmental programs often collaborate in interdisciplinary teams to solve complex global environmental problems. Those who study areas of
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1555:, if you won this, you were a man. Needless to say, the Marathon race was never heard of until modern times: the Greeks would have regarded it as a monstrosity."
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Although "interdisciplinary" and "interdisciplinarity" are frequently viewed as twentieth century terms, the concept has historical antecedents, most notably
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1108:; interdisciplinary researchers may experience difficulty getting funding for their research. In addition, untenured researchers know that, when they seek
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Interdisciplinary programs may also fail if they are not given sufficient autonomy. For example, interdisciplinary faculty are usually recruited to a
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1228:, who has advocated that grant proposals be framed more as interdisciplinary collaborative projects than single-researcher, single-discipline ones.
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raise to self-consciousness questions about how interdisciplinarity works, the nature and history of disciplinarity, and the future of knowledge in
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or other project requires the melding of several specialties. However, the term "interdisciplinary" is sometimes confined to academic settings.
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programs, which are typically staffed by scholars drawn from numerous disciplines. They may also arise from new research developments, such as
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More so than narrow disciplinarians, interdisciplinarians often treat themselves to the intellectual equivalent of traveling in new lands.
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and movement in cooperation with a number of other sciences, such as sociology, ethics, biology, medicine, biomechanics or pedagogy.
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former interdisciplinary research areas that have become disciplines, many of them named for their parent disciplines, include
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At another level, interdisciplinarity is seen as a remedy to the harmful effects of excessive specialization and isolation in
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3208:"Disciplinary hegemony meets interdisciplinary ascendancy: Can interdisciplinary/integrative studies survive, and if so how?"
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Sumner, A and M. Tribe (2008) International
Development Studies: Theories and Methods in Research and Practice, London: Sage
1347:, may also seek knowledge in the environmental sciences to better develop their expertise and understanding in their fields.
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solutions to diseases. Some institutions of higher education offer accredited degree programs in
Interdisciplinary Studies.
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National Science Foundation Workshop Report: Interdisciplinary Collaboration in Innovative Science and Engineering Fields
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that deals with the conscious entering into and experiencing of borderline situations. For this purpose, the findings of
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throughout most of the twentieth century. As a result, many social scientists with interests in technology have joined
1900:"Does increased interdisciplinary contact among hard and social scientists help or hinder interdisciplinary research?"
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1995:"Association for Interdisciplinary Studies Homepage - Association for Interdisciplinary Studies - Oakland University"
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of thought, professions, or technologies—along with their specific perspectives—in the pursuit of a common task. The
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2439:", Department of Environmental Sciences - College and Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Virginia.
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1469:, which brought sequentiality, to the era shaped by the instant speed of electricity, which brought simultaneity.
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Nissani, M. (1997). "Ten cheers for interdisciplinarity: The Case for Interdisciplinary Knowledge and Research".
2002:
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2480:"A Structured Literature Review of Scientometric Research of the Knowledge Management Discipline: A 2021 Update"
1966:
1393:: Sport science is an interdisciplinary science that researches the problems and manifestations in the field of
37:
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Schuurman, F.J. (2000). "Paradigms Lost, paradigms regained? Development studies in the twenty-first century".
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By bridging fragmented disciplines, interdisciplinarians might play a role in the defense of academic freedom."
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Disciplinarians often commit errors which can be best detected by people familiar with two or more disciplines.
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3437:. Eds. Thorsten Philipp und Tobias Schmohl, 195-204. Bielefeld: transcript. doi: 10.14361/9783839463475-021.
1273:: Communication studies takes up theories, models, concepts, etc. of other, independent disciplines such as
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Frodeman, R.; Mitcham, C. (Fall 2007). "New Directions in Interdisciplinarity: Broad, Deep, and Critical".
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Qual–quant: qualitative and quantitative poverty appraisal - complementaries, tensions, and the way forward
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José Andrés-Gallego (2015). "Are Humanism and Mixed Methods Related? Leibniz's Universal (Chinese) Dream".
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College for Interdisciplinary Studies, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
1059:, which cannot be addressed without combining the approaches of two or more disciplines. Examples include
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2961:(2001), "Qualitative approaches: self-criticism and what can be gained from quantitative approaches", in
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Commons and borderlands: working papers on interdisciplinarity, accountability and the flow of knowledge
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Gerhard Medicus: Being Human – Bridging the Gap between the Sciences of Body and Mind, Berlin 2017 VWB]
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Ravallion, Martin (2003), "Can qualitative methods help quantitative poverty", in Kanbur, Ravi (ed.),
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Frodeman, Robert; Briggle, Adam; Holbrook, J. Britt (2012). "Philosophy in the Age of Neoliberalism".
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2182:"What is interdisciplinary communication? Reflections on the very idea of disciplinary integration"
1728:"College Student Motivation: An Interdisciplinary Approach to an Integrated Learning Systems Model"
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A multi-method analysis of the social and technical conditions for interdisciplinary collaboration
2354:"Accountability and the academy: producing knowledge about the human dimensions of climate change"
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Nissani, M. (1995). "Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working definition of Interdisciplinarity".
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Harriss, John (2002). "The Case for Cross-Disciplinary Approaches in International Development".
2871:(1995). "Unitary Versus Collective Models of the Household: Time to Shift the Burden of Proof?".
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1363:. It covers the design, discovery and application of new materials by incorporating elements of
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White, Howard (2002). "Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in Poverty Analysis".
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Sportwissenschaft interdisziplinär - Geschichte, Struktur und Gegenstand der Sportwissenschaft
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Some worthwhile topics of research fall in the interstices among the traditional disciplines.
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Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities: An Online Open Access E-Journal
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Interdisciplinary knowledge and research serve to remind us of the unity-of-knowledge ideal.
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3637:- A guide to on-line resources on integration and trans- and inter-disciplinary approaches.
3625:(2002) Globalisation and its Discontents, United States of America, W.W. Norton and Company
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2591:. Geschichte, Struktur und Gegenstand der Sportwissenschaft. Feldhaus Verlag, Hamburg 2001.
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Tackling Your Inner 5-Year-Old: Saving the world requires an interdisciplinary perspective
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3374:(2003), "Q-squared?: a commentry on qualitative and quantitative poverty appraisal", in
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1359:: Field that combines the scientific and engineering aspects of materials, particularly
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Interdisciplinary Studies Project, Harvard University School of Education, Project Zero
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3021:. Centre for the Study of Higher Education, The University of Melbourne. Archived from
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Many intellectual, social, and practical problems require interdisciplinary approaches.
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Higher Education at the Crossroads of Disruption: the University of the 21st Century
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Managing Development: Decentralisation, Geographical Socialism And Urban Replication
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3543:, Delhi Bangalore: Permanent Black Distributed by Orient Longman, pp. 58–67,
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Lipton, Michael (1970). "Interdisciplinary Studies in Less Developed Countries".
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3382:, Delhi Bangalore: Permanent Black Distributed by Orient Longman, pp. 2–27,
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Q-squared, combining qualitative and quantitative methods in poverty appraisal
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Q-squared, combining qualitative and quantitative methods in poverty appraisal
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may appear differently when examined by different disciplines, for instance,
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3016:"Interdisciplinary Higher Education: Implications for Teaching and Learning"
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Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in the Arts (University of Manchester)
2739:"Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working Definition of Interdisciplinarity"
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which is an organizational unit that crosses traditional boundaries between
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Crossing Boundaries: Knowledge, Disciplinarities, and Interdisciplinarities
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Rethinking Interdisciplinarity across the Social Sciences and Neurosciences
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of the whole man, not a merely specialized skill . The great event was the
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135:
3676:
University Experiments in Interdisciplinarity: Obstacles and Opportunities
2884:
2530:
4221:
3833:
3598:
3375:
3371:
3332:
2979:
Chubin, D. E. (1976). "The conceptualization of scientific specialties".
2962:
1631:
1372:
1177:
1140:
1101:
1019:
939:
requires understanding of diverse disciplines to solve complex problems.
908:
707:
653:
553:
508:
194:
182:
172:
113:
4498:
2900:
2894:
Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies
2436:
1759:
Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies
1743:
1712:
1407:: Venture research is an interdisciplinary research area located in the
4236:
3721:
3506:
2535:. Hugh Shercliff, David Cebon. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
2418:", Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences.
1968:
Interdisciplinary Higher Education; Criticism, Challenges and Obstacles
1552:
1384:
1048:
1015:
1007:
1003:
761:
665:
633:
605:
523:
513:
503:
297:
147:
3363:
2380:
1994:
1256:, have been cut back. Stuart Henry has seen this trend as part of the
1123:, with responsibilities in both an interdisciplinary program (such as
310:
4530:
4047:
2952:
2460:", University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability.
1898:
Urbanska, Karolina; Huet, Sylvie; Guimond, Serge (4 September 2019).
1368:
1316:
1304:
1282:
1274:
1044:
1031:
1023:
975:
971:
967:
951:
702:
287:
167:
3523:
Cents and Sensibility: What Economics Can Learn from the Humanities.
3500:
4571:
4561:
4419:
3149:
3131:"Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness"
2823:
Lives in the Balance: the Cold War and American Politics, 1945-1991
1636:
1436:
1257:
1011:
979:
959:
932:
628:
426:
421:
381:
292:
199:
152:
3232:
3563:
1524:
Interdisciplinarians enjoy greater flexibility in their research.
1509:
Immigrants often make important contributions to their new field.
1364:
1324:
1320:
1312:
1128:
963:
24:
16:
Combination of two or more academic disciplines into one activity
3564:
School of Social Ecology at the University of California, Irvine
3004:
2862:
2661:. Tyrolia Publishing House. Munich-Innsbruck-Bolzano. P. 96-111.
1502:
Interdisciplinary knowledge and research are important because:
1244:; others such as the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies at
3740:
2617:
Discussion Papers from the Institute of Economics and Transport
1591:
1450:
1432:
1113:
3802:
3299:"Integrating methodologists into teams of substantive experts"
2642:
Im Rausch der Gefahr. Why more and more people seek the thrill
1799:
Introduction to Scholarship in Modern Language and Literatures
1167:
is an academic program or process seeking to synthesize broad
2655:
Vom Sinn des Wagens. Why people take on dangerous challenges.
2230:
2062:
1548:
1472:
1394:
1360:
3672:
3528:
2532:
Materials : engineering, science, processing and design
1155:
Interdisciplinary studies and studies of interdisciplinarity
1018:) to further understand their own material. The building of
3641:
Truman State University's Interdisciplinary Studies Program
3233:
Interdisciplinary Arts Department, Columbia College Chicago
2819:
1861:
J.S. Edge; S.J. Hoffman; C.L. Ramirez; S.J. Goldie (2013).
3792:
3765:
3083:
3529:
NYU Gallatin School of Individualized Study, New York, NY
2032:
1202:
3501:
Interdisciplinarity: A Nobel Opportunity, November 2018
3444:(2008). "Interdisciplinary studies at the crossroads".
3268:
3054:
2974:, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, pp. 22–25.
2927:
Underdevelopment and Development: The Third World Today
2144:
1506:"Creativity often requires interdisciplinary knowledge.
2287:
1010:
took elements from other realms of knowledge (such as
3793:
SystemsX.ch – The Swiss Initiative in Systems Biology
1240:, and the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies at
3427:
Klein, Julie Thompson and Thorsten Philipp (2023), "
3013:
2351:
2922:"Introduction: Development and The Social Sciences"
2905:
1897:
1825:
1218:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
3635:Trans- & inter-disciplinary science approaches
2920:
2907:
2773:
1801:. New York: Modern Language Association. pp.
1792:
1776:Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory, and Practice
1773:
1761:(2nd ed.). New York: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
3757:, a journal (in French), with a special issue on
4675:
3673:Peter Weingart; Britta Padberg (30 April 2014).
3248:Jackson, Cecile (2002). "Disciplining Gender?".
3121:The Evergreen State College, Olympia, Washington
2918:
1291:: Environmental science is an interdisciplinary
1047:paid little attention to the social analysis of
2891:
2804:
2231:Barry, A.; G. Born & G. Weszkalnys (2008).
3396:
3045:'Interdisciplitarity': The First Half Century"
2358:Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute
1485:, pluridisciplinarity, and multidisciplinary:
1236:), the School of Interdisciplinary Studies at
3818:
3057:Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society
2336:
2085:"Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity"
1465:was due to the passage from an era shaped by
907:, as new needs and professions emerge. Large
859:
348:
3648:"Distrust Opens the Door for Polio in India"
3271:"Interdisciplinarity: A Critical Assessment"
3125:Gram Vikas (2007) Annual Report, p. 19.
2603:Glossary of Transport and Transport Sciences
2290:"Interdisciplinarity: a critical assessment"
1732:Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management
3747:Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity
3337:"Economics, social science and development"
3128:
3113:Frodeman, R., Klein, J.T., and Mitcham, C.
3005:Callard, Felicity; Fitzgerald, Des (2015).
2948:Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity
2863:Alderman, Harold; Chiappori, Pierre Andre;
1171:, knowledge, skills, interconnections, and
3825:
3811:
3770:, publishing articles on a number of areas
3665:Peter Weingart and Nico Stehr, eds. 2000.
1473:Efforts to simplify and defend the concept
1439:are cooperatively processed and evaluated.
1307:, and involves the use of a wide range of
911:teams are usually interdisciplinary, as a
866:
852:
388:
355:
341:
3722:Association for Interdisciplinary Studies
3568:
3538:
3440:
2910:The Political Economy of Underdevelopment
2901:Association for Interdisciplinary Studies
2506:
2379:
2369:
1964:
1941:
1923:
3774:Article about interdisciplinary modeling
3511:Moran, Joe. (2002). Interdisciplinarity.
3458:Interdisciplinarity and Higher Education
3296:
2957:
2405:), Berlin: Frank & Timme, pp. 37-58.
2179:
2113:
1577:Commensurability (philosophy of science)
1127:) and a traditional discipline (such as
797:Library and information science software
3645:
3462:The Pennsylvania State University Press
3418:Resources for interdisciplinary studies
3247:
3184:
2914:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2736:
2709:
2477:
2416:Environmental Science & Engineering
1756:
1725:
1698:
4676:
4605:Electrical and electronics engineering
3754:Labyrinthe. Atelier interdisciplinaire
3474:
3397:Kaplan Andreas (2021). Emerald (ed.).
3370:
3331:
3180:Hang Seng Centre for Cognitive Studies
3115:Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity
2978:
2820:Bertrand Russell; Nissani, M. (1992).
2288:Jacobs, J.A. & S. Frickel (2009).
1965:Khorsandi, Ali Taskoh (18 July 2011).
1750:
1453:), physics, poetry, communication and
1443:
792:Geographic information system software
3806:
3693:
3605:. New York: Oxford University Press.
3205:
2771:
2705:
2703:
2657:In: German Alpine Association (ed.):
2528:
2126:from the original on 28 December 2018
2114:Frodeman, Robert (23 November 2010).
1975:from the original on 15 November 2011
1771:
1203:Politics of interdisciplinary studies
885:involves the combination of multiple
4638:
3776:(in French with an English abstract)
3456:Kockelmans, Joseph J. editor (1979)
2352:Hall, E.F. & T. Sanders (2015).
2341:. Wantage: Sean Kingston Publishing.
1790:
1672:Periodic table of human sciences in
4648:
3597:
3434:Handbook Transdisciplinary Learning
2929:. Harmondsworth: Penguin. pp.
2518:from the original on 12 March 2023.
2269:from the original on 22 August 2016
13:
3269:Jacobs, J.A.; Frickel, S. (2009).
3009:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
2993:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1976.tb01715.x
2856:
2700:
2005:from the original on 7 August 2006
1780:. Detroit: Wayne State University.
1726:Debnath, Sukumar C. (1 May 2005).
1701:The Journal of Educational Thought
1285:and thus decisively develops them.
14:
4720:
3715:
3290:10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115954
3138:The American Journal of Sociology
2809:. New York: New American Library.
2458:Environmental Policy and Planning
2309:10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115954
2116:"Experiments of Field Psychology"
1872:. London, England. Archived from
1828:Journal of Mixed Methods Research
4689:Academic discipline interactions
4657:
4647:
4637:
4628:
4627:
4497:
3749:at the University of North Texas
3117:. Oxford University Press, 2010.
2557:from the original on 31 May 2024
1401:messages that characterise them.
324:
309:
36:
3832:
3238:Interdisciplinarity and tenure/
3049:Issues in Integrative Studies 6
3014:Davies. M.; Devlin, M. (2007).
2813:
2798:
2780:. Middlesex: Penguin. pp.
2765:
2730:
2664:
2647:
2634:
2594:
2581:
2569:
2522:
2487:Journal of Knowledge Management
2471:
2450:
2429:
2408:
2388:
2345:
2330:
2281:
2233:"Logics of interdisciplinarity"
2224:
2173:
2138:
2107:
2077:
2047:
2017:
1987:
1053:science, technology and society
3783:, an interdisciplinary project
3735:Rethinking Interdisciplinarity
3667:Practicing Interdisciplinarity
3477:Journal of Development Studies
3416:Klein, Julie Thompson (2006) "
3413:(University Press of Virginia)
2805:Ortega y Gasset, José (1932).
2743:Journal of Educational Thought
2682:"McLuhan: Understanding Media"
2621:Technische Universität Dresden
2600:Hendrik Ammoser, Mirko Hoppe:
1958:
1891:
1854:
1819:
1784:
1772:Klein, Julie Thompson (1990).
1765:
1719:
1692:
1652:Science and technology studies
1185:studies of interdisciplinarity
1061:quantum information processing
985:
1:
3708:10.1016/s0305-750x(01)00114-0
3669:(University of Toronto Press)
3407:Klein, Julie Thompson (1996)
3356:10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00117-6
3262:10.1016/s0305-750x(01)00113-9
3215:Issues in Integrative Studies
3199:10.1016/s0305-750x(01)00115-2
2724:10.1016/S0362-3319(97)90051-3
1685:
1537:
1222:National Institutes of Health
3855:List of engineering branches
3525:(Princeton University Press)
2925:. In Henry Bernstein (ed.).
2906:Bagchi, Amiya Kumar (1982).
2873:World Bank Research Observer
2749:(2): 119–126. Archived from
2159:10.1080/02691728.2012.722701
1925:10.1371/journal.pone.0221907
1246:Appalachian State University
1022:required men who understood
7:
3087:Studies in Higher Education
2478:Serenko, Alexander (2021).
2180:Holbrook, J. Britt (2013).
1794:"Interdisciplinary Studies"
1622:Interprofessional education
1569:
1494:In turn, interdisciplinary
1264:
1094:
10:
4725:
3787:Soka University of America
3278:Annual Review of Sociology
3129:Granovetter, Mark (1985).
2981:The Sociological Quarterly
2615:, published in the series
2297:Annual Review of Sociology
1674:Tinbergen's four questions
1617:Interdisciplinary teaching
1547:were designed to test the
4623:
4570:
4554:
4506:
4495:
4270:
4212:
4131:
4056:
3983:
3876:
3863:
3840:
3489:10.1080/00220387008421343
3099:10.1080/03075070701267228
2919:Bernstein, Henry (1973).
2252:10.1080/03085140701760841
2198:10.1007/s11229-012-0179-7
1627:Meta-functional expertise
883:interdisciplinary studies
819:Qualitative data analysis
3069:10.1177/0270467607308284
2892:Augsburg, Tanya (2005).
2807:The Revolt of the Masses
2499:10.1108/JKM-09-2020-0730
1840:10.1177/1558689813515332
1797:. In Gibaldi, J. (ed.).
897:interdisciplinary field,
4709:Philosophy of education
4516:Bachelor of Engineering
4358:Engineering mathematics
3760:La Fin des Disciplines?
3306:Studies in Intelligence
3225:Indiresan, P.V. (1990)
2608:7 December 2022 at the
2371:10.1111/1467-9655.12162
1757:Ausburg, Tanya (2006).
1647:Social ecological model
1642:Science of team science
1429:differential psychology
1250:George Mason University
1224:under the direction of
1189:post-industrial society
1165:interdisciplinary study
1104:drawn from established
1081:Sustainable development
1079:with computer science.
4615:Structural engineering
4610:Mechanical engineering
4353:Engineering management
3603:Development as freedom
3583:10.1080/01436590013198
3206:Henry, Stuart (2005).
2772:Kitto, H.D.F. (1957).
2712:Social Science Journal
2464:28 August 2022 at the
2443:28 August 2022 at the
2422:28 August 2022 at the
2337:Strathern, M. (2004).
1612:Interdisciplinary arts
1567:
1562:
1557:
1492:
1479:Social Science Journal
1309:scientific disciplines
1242:Wayne State University
1149:biomedical engineering
698:Inferential statistics
644:Descriptive statistics
591:Human subject research
4595:Aerospace engineering
4508:Engineering education
3679:. transcript Verlag.
3646:Waldman, Amy (2003).
3571:Third World Quarterly
3424:, (Mark/April). 52–58
2653:Siegbert A. Warwitz:
2529:Ashby, M. F. (2007).
1563:
1558:
1541:
1487:
1417:cultural anthropology
1345:environmental justice
1289:Environmental science
1271:Communication science
1234:University of Arizona
1063:, an amalgamation of
482:Philosophical schools
331:Philosophy portal
263:Science communication
4536:Graduate certificate
3297:Johnston, R (2003).
2737:Nissani, M. (1995).
1999:www.units.muohio.edu
1791:Gunn, Giles (1992).
1602:Integrative learning
1351:Knowledge management
1333:environmental policy
1297:environmental issues
1295:aimed at addressing
996:Julie Thompson Klein
901:academic disciplines
887:academic disciplines
807:Reference management
757:Scientific modelling
499:Critical rationalism
220:Scientific integrity
143:Behavioural sciences
4521:Bachelor of Science
4363:Engineering physics
4347:Engineering drawing
3869:Interdisciplinarity
3739:, organized by the
3556:Rhoten, D. (2003).
3429:Interdisciplinarity
3312:(1). Archived from
2885:10.1093/wbro/10.1.1
2676:Understanding Media
2240:Economy and Society
2212:on 20 November 2015
2147:Social Epistemology
2089:University of Texas
1916:2019PLoSO..1421907U
1744:10.21818/001c.14552
1679:Transdisciplinarity
1658:Synoptic philosophy
1483:transdisciplinarity
1444:Historical examples
1425:behavioral research
1413:evolutionary theory
1254:New Century College
879:Interdisciplinarity
787:Argument technology
4123:Telecommunications
4028:Naval architecture
3781:Unity of Knowledge
3652:The New York Times
3534:Poverty Action Lab
3519:Morton O. Schapiro
3028:on 2 December 2007
2840:on 19 October 2016
2688:on 11 October 2007
2613:(PDF; 1,3 MB)
2587:Klaus Willimczik:
2318:on 22 October 2016
2095:on 1 December 2017
2059:pin-net.gatech.edu
1879:on 22 October 2016
1477:An article in the
1455:educational theory
905:schools of thought
781:Tools and software
725:Secondary research
649:Discourse analysis
316:Science portal
4671:
4670:
4600:Civil engineering
4546:Licensed engineer
4541:Engineer's degree
4493:
4492:
4325:Building services
4308:Health technology
4169:Chemical reaction
4118:Signal processing
3737:online conference
3696:World Development
3686:978-3-8394-2616-6
3515:Morson, Gary Saul
3499:, Michael Szell,
3446:Liberal Education
3344:World Development
3319:on 10 August 2006
3250:World Development
3187:World Development
2542:978-0-08-047149-5
2395:Christian Schäfer
2192:(11): 1865–1879.
1668:Thematic learning
1597:Holism in science
1357:Materials science
1337:environmental law
1279:political science
1121:joint appointment
1089:information silos
1077:molecular biology
955:interdisciplinary
941:Interdisciplinary
924:interdisciplinary
876:
875:
842:Philosophy portal
750:Systematic review
735:Literature review
693:Historical method
676:Social experiment
611:Scientific method
596:Narrative inquiry
447:Interdisciplinary
441:Research strategy
412:Research question
407:Research proposal
365:
364:
278:Scientific method
268:Science education
209:
208:
4716:
4661:
4651:
4650:
4641:
4640:
4631:
4630:
4501:
4088:Electromechanics
3874:
3873:
3827:
3820:
3813:
3804:
3803:
3711:
3690:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3623:Stiglitz, Joseph
3616:
3594:
3553:
3505:Gerhard Medicus
3492:
3453:
3442:Kleinberg, Ethan
3404:
3393:
3367:
3341:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3318:
3303:
3293:
3275:
3265:
3222:
3212:
3202:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3167:on 2 August 2014
3166:
3160:. Archived from
3135:
3110:
3080:
3051:(1988): 139-151.
3044:
3040:Frank, Roberta:
3037:
3035:
3033:
3027:
3020:
3010:
2996:
2975:
2973:
2959:Chambers, Robert
2944:
2924:
2915:
2913:
2897:
2888:
2865:Haddad, Lawrence
2850:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2836:. Archived from
2817:
2811:
2810:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2779:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2753:on 6 August 2016
2734:
2728:
2727:
2707:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2684:. Archived from
2671:Marshall McLuhan
2668:
2662:
2651:
2645:
2638:
2632:
2623:. Dresden 2006.
2598:
2592:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2510:
2493:(8): 1889–1925.
2484:
2475:
2469:
2454:
2448:
2433:
2427:
2412:
2406:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2373:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2323:
2317:
2311:. Archived from
2294:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2268:
2237:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2208:. Archived from
2177:
2171:
2170:
2153:(3–4): 311–330.
2142:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2091:. Archived from
2081:
2075:
2074:
2072:
2070:
2061:. Archived from
2051:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2031:. Archived from
2021:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2010:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1945:
1927:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1878:
1867:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1823:
1817:
1816:
1796:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1779:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1696:
1459:Marshall McLuhan
1405:Venture research
1238:Miami University
1210:Vartan Gregorian
1178:medieval studies
1069:computer science
1028:material science
992:Greek philosophy
868:
861:
854:
814:Science software
713:Cultural mapping
681:Quasi-experiment
671:Field experiment
639:Content analysis
534:Critical realism
452:Multimethodology
392:
369:
368:
357:
350:
343:
329:
328:
327:
314:
313:
273:Research funding
190:Applied sciences
126:Natural sciences
103:
102:
40:
21:
20:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4714:
4713:
4674:
4673:
4672:
4667:
4619:
4566:
4550:
4526:Master's degree
4502:
4489:
4403:Instrumentation
4266:
4208:
4174:Electrochemical
4127:
4113:Radio frequency
4052:
3979:
3943:Municipal/Urban
3867:
3865:
3859:
3836:
3831:
3718:
3687:
3656:
3654:
3613:
3551:
3497:Roberta Sinatra
3390:
3339:
3322:
3320:
3316:
3301:
3273:
3210:
3170:
3168:
3164:
3133:
3042:
3031:
3029:
3025:
3018:
2971:
2941:
2896:. Kendall/Hunt.
2869:Hoddinott, John
2859:
2857:Further reading
2854:
2853:
2843:
2841:
2834:
2826:. Hollowbrook.
2818:
2814:
2803:
2799:
2792:
2770:
2766:
2756:
2754:
2735:
2731:
2708:
2701:
2691:
2689:
2680:
2669:
2665:
2652:
2648:
2640:Michael Apter:
2639:
2635:
2610:Wayback Machine
2599:
2595:
2586:
2582:
2574:
2570:
2560:
2558:
2543:
2527:
2523:
2515:
2482:
2476:
2472:
2466:Wayback Machine
2455:
2451:
2445:Wayback Machine
2434:
2430:
2424:Wayback Machine
2413:
2409:
2393:
2389:
2350:
2346:
2335:
2331:
2321:
2319:
2315:
2292:
2286:
2282:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2235:
2229:
2225:
2215:
2213:
2178:
2174:
2143:
2139:
2129:
2127:
2112:
2108:
2098:
2096:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2068:
2066:
2065:on 16 June 2013
2053:
2052:
2048:
2038:
2036:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2008:
2006:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1978:
1976:
1963:
1959:
1910:(9): e0221907.
1896:
1892:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1865:
1859:
1855:
1824:
1820:
1813:
1789:
1785:
1770:
1766:
1755:
1751:
1724:
1720:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1607:Interdiscipline
1572:
1540:
1475:
1457:. According to
1446:
1421:social sciences
1267:
1214:Alan I. Leshner
1205:
1157:
1125:women's studies
1097:
1065:quantum physics
1035:even sinology.
988:
945:women's studies
892:interdiscipline
872:
836:
835:
782:
774:
773:
720:Phenomenography
659:Autoethnography
624:
616:
615:
576:Grounded theory
571:Critical theory
566:Art methodology
561:Action research
556:
546:
545:
484:
474:
473:
442:
434:
433:
402:
400:Research design
361:
325:
323:
308:
303:
302:
258:
257:
248:
247:
243:Research ethics
238:Logical fallacy
228:Reproducibility
223:
222:
211:
210:
163:Anthropological
109:Formal sciences
100:
99:
83:
59:Article indexes
45:
44:
43:
42:
41:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4722:
4712:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4669:
4668:
4666:
4665:
4655:
4645:
4635:
4624:
4621:
4620:
4618:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4591:
4590:
4585:
4576:
4574:
4568:
4567:
4565:
4564:
4558:
4556:
4555:Related topics
4552:
4551:
4549:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4512:
4510:
4504:
4503:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4490:
4488:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4475:Sustainability
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4411:
4410:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4344:
4339:
4337:Geoengineering
4334:
4333:
4332:
4322:
4321:
4320:
4318:Rehabilitation
4315:
4313:Pharmaceutical
4310:
4305:
4300:
4298:Bioinformatics
4290:
4285:
4280:
4274:
4272:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4264:
4259:
4257:Semiconductors
4254:
4249:
4247:Nanotechnology
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4218:
4216:
4210:
4209:
4207:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4144:
4137:
4135:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4079:
4078:
4068:
4062:
4060:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3989:
3987:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3977:
3976:
3975:
3970:
3963:Transportation
3960:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3919:
3918:
3913:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3882:
3880:
3871:
3861:
3860:
3858:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3841:
3838:
3837:
3830:
3829:
3822:
3815:
3807:
3801:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3784:
3779:Wolf, Dieter.
3777:
3771:
3763:
3750:
3744:
3743:, CNRS, Paris
3741:Institut Nicod
3731:
3724:
3717:
3716:External links
3714:
3713:
3712:
3702:(3): 511–522.
3691:
3685:
3670:
3663:
3643:
3638:
3632:
3629:
3626:
3620:
3617:
3611:
3595:
3566:
3561:
3554:
3549:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3512:
3509:
3503:
3493:
3472:
3454:
3438:
3425:
3414:
3405:
3394:
3388:
3368:
3350:(3): 477–486.
3335:(March 2002).
3329:
3294:
3266:
3256:(3): 497–509.
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3223:
3203:
3193:(3): 487–496.
3182:
3177:
3150:10.1086/228311
3144:(3): 481–510.
3126:
3123:
3118:
3111:
3093:(2): 167–185.
3081:
3063:(6): 506–514.
3052:
3038:
3011:
3002:
2997:
2987:(4): 448–476.
2976:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2939:
2916:
2903:
2898:
2889:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2833:978-0893416591
2832:
2812:
2797:
2791:978-0140135213
2790:
2764:
2729:
2718:(2): 201–216.
2699:
2663:
2646:
2644:. Munich 1994.
2633:
2593:
2580:
2576:Nils Seethaler
2568:
2541:
2521:
2470:
2449:
2428:
2407:
2387:
2344:
2329:
2280:
2223:
2172:
2137:
2106:
2076:
2046:
2035:on 31 May 2013
2029:www.inidtd.org
2016:
1986:
1957:
1890:
1853:
1834:(2): 118–132.
1818:
1812:978-0873523851
1811:
1783:
1764:
1749:
1738:(3): 168–188.
1718:
1707:(2): 121–128.
1690:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1681:
1676:
1670:
1665:
1663:Systems theory
1660:
1655:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1474:
1471:
1463:paradigm shift
1445:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1409:human sciences
1402:
1398:
1391:Sports science
1388:
1382:
1376:
1354:
1348:
1341:sustainability
1301:global warming
1286:
1266:
1263:
1226:Elias Zerhouni
1204:
1201:
1156:
1153:
1102:peer reviewers
1096:
1093:
1073:bioinformatics
1057:nanotechnology
987:
984:
937:global warming
874:
873:
871:
870:
863:
856:
848:
845:
844:
838:
837:
834:
833:
832:
831:
826:
821:
811:
810:
809:
804:
794:
789:
783:
780:
779:
776:
775:
772:
771:
766:
765:
764:
754:
753:
752:
747:
745:Scoping review
742:
737:
732:
722:
717:
716:
715:
705:
700:
695:
690:
688:Field research
685:
684:
683:
678:
673:
663:
662:
661:
651:
646:
641:
636:
631:
625:
622:
621:
618:
617:
614:
613:
608:
603:
598:
593:
588:
586:Historiography
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
557:
552:
551:
548:
547:
544:
543:
542:
541:
539:Subtle realism
536:
526:
521:
519:Postpositivism
516:
511:
506:
501:
496:
494:Constructivism
491:
489:Antipositivism
485:
480:
479:
476:
475:
472:
471:
466:
465:
464:
454:
449:
443:
440:
439:
436:
435:
432:
431:
430:
429:
424:
414:
409:
403:
398:
397:
394:
393:
385:
384:
378:
377:
363:
362:
360:
359:
352:
345:
337:
334:
333:
305:
304:
301:
300:
295:
290:
285:
283:Science policy
280:
275:
270:
265:
259:
255:
254:
253:
250:
249:
246:
245:
240:
235:
233:Cognitive bias
230:
224:
218:
217:
216:
213:
212:
207:
206:
205:
204:
203:
202:
197:
187:
186:
185:
180:
175:
173:Criminological
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
140:
139:
138:
133:
123:
122:
121:
116:
101:
90:
89:
88:
85:
84:
82:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
50:
47:
46:
35:
34:
33:
32:
31:
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4721:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4681:
4679:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4654:
4646:
4644:
4636:
4634:
4626:
4625:
4622:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4580:
4578:
4577:
4575:
4573:
4569:
4563:
4560:
4559:
4557:
4553:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4511:
4509:
4505:
4500:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4409:
4406:
4405:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4331:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4323:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4295:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4269:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4219:
4217:
4215:
4211:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4149:
4148:
4145:
4142:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4077:
4074:
4073:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4059:
4055:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4018:Manufacturing
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4008:Biomechanical
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3986:
3982:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3965:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3908:
3907:
3906:Environmental
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3886:Architectural
3884:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3862:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3842:
3839:
3835:
3828:
3823:
3821:
3816:
3814:
3809:
3808:
3805:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3788:
3785:
3782:
3778:
3775:
3772:
3769:
3768:
3764:
3762:
3761:
3756:
3755:
3751:
3748:
3745:
3742:
3738:
3736:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3692:
3688:
3682:
3678:
3677:
3671:
3668:
3664:
3653:
3649:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3636:
3633:
3630:
3627:
3624:
3621:
3618:
3614:
3612:9780198297581
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3559:
3555:
3552:
3550:9788178240534
3546:
3542:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3473:
3470:
3469:9780271038261
3466:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3430:
3426:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3395:
3391:
3389:9788178240534
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3272:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:. India: Sage
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3209:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3050:
3046:
3039:
3024:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2977:
2970:
2969:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2940:9780140807233
2936:
2932:
2928:
2923:
2917:
2912:
2911:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2895:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2860:
2839:
2835:
2829:
2825:
2824:
2816:
2808:
2801:
2793:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2777:
2768:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2733:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2706:
2704:
2687:
2683:
2678:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2643:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2616:
2612:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2597:
2590:
2584:
2577:
2572:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2525:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2481:
2474:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2432:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2411:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2391:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2364:(2): 438–61.
2363:
2359:
2355:
2348:
2340:
2333:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2284:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2227:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2141:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2110:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2020:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1961:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1875:
1871:
1864:
1857:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1822:
1814:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1787:
1778:
1777:
1768:
1760:
1753:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1695:
1691:
1680:
1677:
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1659:
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1650:
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1630:
1628:
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1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
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1587:Encyclopedism
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1582:Double degree
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2058:
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2028:
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1169:perspectives
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1041:anthropology
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581:Hermeneutics
469:Quantitative
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168:Sociological
114:Mathematical
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4699:Occupations
4653:Wikiproject
4408:and Control
4398:Information
4222:Biomaterial
4152:Bioresource
4143:/Bioprocess
4141:Biochemical
4093:Electronics
3864:Specialties
3834:Engineering
3577:(1): 7–20.
3495:Yifang Ma,
3483:(1): 5–18.
2879:(1): 1–19.
2692:4 September
2120:Opinionator
2099:26 November
2025:"INIT-Home"
1632:Methodology
1373:engineering
1141:cybernetics
1106:disciplines
1020:Roman roads
986:Development
909:engineering
654:Ethnography
554:Methodology
509:Fallibilism
457:Qualitative
427:Referencing
256:Instruments
195:Engineering
4678:Categories
4572:Glossaries
4393:Industrial
4373:Facilities
4368:Explosives
4293:Biomedical
4288:Automation
4237:Metallurgy
4147:Biological
4098:Microwaves
4058:Electrical
4003:Automotive
3985:Mechanical
3958:Structural
3923:Geological
3911:Ecological
3901:Earthquake
3657:4 November
3452:(1): 6–11.
3364:1813/57796
3171:25 October
3032:7 November
2844:15 October
2776:The Greeks
2381:1807/68882
2216:29 January
2009:6 November
1870:The Lancet
1686:References
1553:pentathlon
1538:Quotations
1385:Provenance
1311:including
1049:technology
1016:philosophy
1008:dramatists
1004:historians
829:Statistics
824:Simulation
762:Simulation
703:Interviews
666:Experiment
634:Case study
606:Pragmatism
524:Pragmatism
514:Positivism
504:Empiricism
298:Technology
183:Linguistic
79:Philosophy
74:Literature
64:Glossaries
4694:Knowledge
4531:Doctorate
4445:Packaging
4415:Logistics
4388:Geomatics
4349:/graphics
4242:Molecular
4232:Corrosion
4214:Materials
4194:Petroleum
4184:Molecular
4066:Broadcast
4048:Tribology
3998:Aerospace
3933:Hydraulic
3591:145181997
3284:: 43–65.
3107:144173921
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2629:1433-626X
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2167:143872826
1934:1932-6203
1848:147266697
1369:chemistry
1317:chemistry
1305:pollution
1283:economics
1275:sociology
1110:promotion
1045:sociology
1032:logistics
1024:surveying
976:geography
972:economics
968:chemistry
952:adjective
922:The term
462:Art-based
288:Scientist
158:Political
4704:Pedagogy
4684:Academia
4633:Category
4562:Engineer
4470:Software
4465:Security
4440:Ontology
4430:Military
4420:Robotics
4383:Forensic
4303:Clinical
4262:Surfaces
4252:Polymers
4227:Ceramics
4204:Reaction
4133:Chemical
4071:Computer
3993:Acoustic
3948:Offshore
3916:Sanitary
3601:(1999).
3521:(2017).
3323:8 August
3158:17242802
2606:Archived
2555:Archived
2513:Archived
2462:Archived
2441:Archived
2437:Research
2420:Archived
2264:Archived
2260:17283125
2186:Synthese
2124:Archived
2069:15 April
2039:15 April
2003:Archived
1973:Archived
1952:31483810
1904:PLOS ONE
1713:23767672
1637:Polymath
1570:See also
1496:richness
1437:pedagogy
1335:such as
1299:such as
1265:Examples
1258:hegemony
1095:Barriers
1012:medicine
980:politics
960:land use
933:HIV/AIDS
629:Analysis
422:Argument
382:Research
374:a series
372:Part of
293:Research
200:Medicine
178:Military
153:Economic
131:Physical
119:Computer
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4643:Commons
4485:Textile
4480:Systems
4450:Privacy
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4199:Process
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4103:Optical
4083:Control
4076:outline
4043:Thermal
4033:Railway
3973:Railway
3968:Traffic
3891:Coastal
3850:Outline
3845:History
3378:(ed.),
3221:: 1–37.
2965:(ed.),
2757:31 July
2679:, p.13
2673:(1964)
2561:13 June
2322:31 July
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2206:8553978
2130:31 July
1979:19 July
1943:6726372
1912:Bibcode
1883:31 July
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1365:physics
1325:ecology
1321:physics
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1129:history
964:biology
708:Mapping
623:Methods
529:Realism
417:Writing
96:Outline
69:History
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2625:ISSN
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