247:
over charcoal fires to make tools, but it involved a lot of work, which made it very expensive. It was only smelted where there was enough wood for the fires and cheaper steel was not readily available. Therefore, the material was considered to be economically unimportant in China. However, because the mining was safe, outdoor work, it was practiced by local farmers to supplement their income wherever it was available; in the 19th century 1,000 lb (450 kg) of sluiced sand typically sold for the equivalent of 50 to 60 US dollars (by 2016 exchange rates ~ 900--1000 dollars or 700--800 euros).
22:
381:) typically yielded about 200 lb (91 kg) of pig iron, 20 lb (9.1 kg) of steel, and 70 lb (32 kg) of slag. When smelted for steel, 1,000 lb (450 kg) of sand yielded about 100 lb (45 kg) of steel, 100 lb (45 kg) of slag, and 90 lb (41 kg) of pig iron. Slag and pig iron that were not suitable for use were then melted together to form wrought iron, of which 1,000 lb (450 kg) mixed produced about 500 lb (230 kg) of iron.
111:, depending on the types of minerals along the water's path. The ironsand is typically picked up along the way from beds, veins, or inclusions of magnetite, which may originate a great distance from the sand deposits, and washed downstream or along the currents with the rest of the sand. Being heavier than the other sands, it is often deposited in areas where the water experiences a sudden change in direction or speed, such as the widening of a river or where the waves ebb and flow against the shoreline.
453:
20th centuries, but were unable to process the ore with any economic success due to the sandy nature and high titanium content, which tended to form hard, brittle carbides in the steel. In 1939, a commission was formed to study the properties of the ore and devise a way of smelting it on an industrial scale. The commission determined that, by
302:. The tatara was built with a low, tub-like shape, resembling a horizontal blast-furnace, into which ironsand could be poured and contained, and smelted in stages. Unlike with other methods, the charcoal was piled on top of the sand and smelted from above, keeping it from being blown about by the blasts from the
437:. The sand makes up a large portion of the black-sand beaches on the North Island, as well as the surrounding sea floor. The magnetite in the sand contains fairly large quantities of titanium, and is sometimes referred to as titanomagnetite. It was produced from volcanic eruptions that occurred in the
114:
The ironsand is mixed with the other sands as small grains of black or dark-blue magnetite. Sand used for mining typically had anywhere from 19% magnetite to as low as 2%. The ironsand typically had to be separated from the sand mixture. Because the magnetite is usually heavier than quartz, feldspar,
452:
New
Zealand had limited deposits of iron ore, but the deposits of ironsand were massive. It had been used by some early settlers to manufacture steel and pig iron, but the material could not be smelted in common bloomeries or blast furnaces. A few smelting companies formed in the late 19th and early
98:
Ironsand is found worldwide. Although the iron mineral composition of the ironsand is mostly magnetite, the sand is usually mixed with other types of sand that wash downriver or ashore from mountainous or underwater deposits. The exact composition of the sand mixture may vary drastically even in the
246:
of miners, very little information exists about the industry between the 11th century and the 19th century, when a
European miner named Felix Tegengren arrived to find the Chinese industry in shambles. Tegengren notes that ironsand was sluice mined in Henan and Fujian by local farmers and smelted
235:
Donald B Wagner, an expert in ancient
Chinese metallurgy, notes that attempts to trace the history of ironsand in China end with inconclusive results. One source may indicate its use as early as the Tang Dynasty (~700-900 AD) while others seem to contradict this interpretation. Due to wars,
123:
but on a larger scale). Sluice separation typically yielded concentrations of magnetite ranging from 30 to 50%, depending on the type of sand and the method used. In the early 20th century a process of magnetic separation was developed that could produce concentrations as high as 70%. Once
500:. A large quantity of it is shipped to China and Japan, but by 2011 New Zealand's sole manufacturing plant was producing 650,000 metric tons of steel and iron per year. New Zealand is the only country to use ironsand for industrial smelting. The typical composition of the magnetite is 82%
132:(mimicking a liquid at larger scales) and was easily blown away by the bellow blasts, so was impossible to process using common methods of iron or steel production. Thus, innovative methods of smelting the ore were developed. The magnetite grains, however, often contain other
548:. The magnetite from these areas often contains high amounts of chromium and titanium. In the 19th century ironsand was sometimes used as blotter sand for concrete and masonry work, or more rarely as raw material for steel production; one blacksmith in
306:. Instead of brick or stone, the tatara was made of clay so that it could simply be broken apart to extract the metal bloom. This method allowed smelting of much higher volumes of ore than other types of bloomery smelting.
441:, and is formed due to the oceanic erosion of the volcanic rock which is washed ashore by the waves to form the dunes of the black beaches. The magnetite is mixed with sand made from
254:
along China's southeast coast and used for smelting steel. The typical composition of this ironsand is 48.88% metallic iron, 25.84% silica, 0.232% phosphorus, and 0.052% sulfur.
389:
Ironsand is found many places in Europe, although it was rarely used for smelting. It is often found in association with volcanic or basaltic sands. For example, it is found in
674:
128:
into various forms of iron. However, the loose, granular nature of the ore was difficult to keep contained in common bloomeries or blast furnaces, having a tendency toward
196:) to form cast iron. Although the metal was very brittle, this method was able to produce iron in much greater volumes than bloomery smelting, and with vastly higher
695:
The beach is made up of black iron sand which can become overly hot during the summer and walking in the water or with shoes on will protect your feet from burning.
397:, where the magnetite grains contain a very high amount of titanium and other impurities. The typical composition is 79.2% iron oxide, 14.6% titanium dioxide, 1.6%
232:
in the 1860s). China remained the world's largest producer of iron until the 11th century, manufacturing large quantities of relatively affordable steel and iron.
200:
of metal per ore. By the 1st century BC the
Chinese iron-industry was by far the largest and most advanced in the world. By the 1st century AD they had developed
520:. In 100% concentrations of magnetite this had a maximum potential to yield ~ 58% metallic iron, although the titanium is unrecoverable by modern techniques.
481:
1088:
DSIR: Making
Science Work for New Zealand : Themes from the History of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1926--1992
1076:
DSIR: Making
Science Work for New Zealand : Themes from the History of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1926--1992
497:
461:
began, and thus further development was suspended and did not resume until the late 1960s, producing the first output of steel in 1969.
457:
the sand into bigger chunks or pellets, the problems of smelting the sand in a blast furnace could be eliminated. However, at that time
192:. Around 1200 BC the Chinese developed a method of smelting the rocky ore into pig iron, which was then remelted and poured into molds (
1104:
333:, used in everything from tools to cookware. Ironsand was used extensively in Japan for iron production, especially for traditional
371:
was added to the tatara during the initial stage of smelting, acting as a binder and catalyst for steel production, upon which the
947:
925:
682:
282:
are thought to have been scarce in Japan, so, around the 8th century, iron-making technology developed with the use of ironsand (
652:
1018:
278:
until the 7th or 8th centuries. Prior to this, metals were commonly imported into Japan from China and Korea. Deposits of
148:. Due to the nature of the sand the mining operations were rarely stationary, but frequently moved from place to place.
172:, but was a rather unimportant commodity throughout the long history of the Chinese iron-industry. Unlike the rest of
790:
377:
897:
Dabieshan: Traditional
Chinese Iron-production Techniques Practised in Southern Henan in the Twentieth Century
825:
Dabieshan: Traditional
Chinese Iron-production Techniques Practised in Southern Henan in the Twentieth Century
767:
Dabieshan: Traditional
Chinese Iron-production Techniques Practised in Southern Henan in the Twentieth Century
743:
Dabieshan: Traditional
Chinese Iron-production Techniques Practised in Southern Henan in the Twentieth Century
987:
by Tsunashirō Wada -- Director of Mining Bureau, Department of Agriculture and Commerce Japan 1893 Page 235
911:
by Tsunashirō Wada -- Director of Mining Bureau, Department of Agriculture and Commerce Japan 1893 Page 1
375:
ironsand was poured during further stages. When smelted for pig iron, 1,000 lb (450 kg) or 120
286:) as the raw ingredient. Because of the loose nature of the sand it was difficult to smelt in a normal
229:
180:, there is very little archeological evidence to suggest that bloomery smelting was used in ancient
839:
by Francesca Bray, Vera Dorofeeva-Lichtmann, Georges Métailié -- Koninklijke Brill Nv 2007 Page 616
757:
by Francesca Bray, Vera Dorofeeva-Lichtmann, Georges Métailié -- Koninklijke Brill Nv 2007 Page 616
410:
1138:
414:
597:
1232:
201:
169:
1100:
8:
533:
359:
ironsand is used in the tatara to make pig iron, which is then used to make items out of
241:
188:, a fuel that burns at a high temperature, and an iron ore containing a high content of
71:, and also contains small amounts of titanium, silica, manganese, calcium and vanadium.
1242:
951:
921:
477:
465:
438:
197:
675:"Summer Beach Vacation Piha Beach New Zealand - Photo & Travel Idea New Zealand"
604:" smelters, made of brick and clay, is still practiced by Japanese craftsmen today.
321:
mountains. The magnetite in the sand contains few impurities or other metal oxides.
1217:
1188:
601:
529:
505:
352:
299:
26:
644:
21:
489:
398:
334:
213:
1010:
493:
464:
Ironsand is placer mined from Waikato North Head. 1.2 million tonnes is used by
1178:
by New York (State). Legislature. Assembly -- E. Coswell Printing 1838 Page 136
573:
402:
225:
209:
544:, where it is often mixed with a feldspar sand and sometimes bright grains of
1237:
1226:
291:
251:
212:
for the manufacture of swords and weapons, and a chemical process of rapidly
129:
104:
802:
The Traditional Chinese Iron Industry and its Modern Fate by Donald B Wagner
592:, in 1761. However, Japanese craftsmen have been using sand-iron, known as "
458:
434:
344:
326:
120:
997:
The Cyclopædia: Or, Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Literature
948:"Hitachi Metals>Tale of tatara>The Tatara Iron Manufacturing Method"
873:
The Chinese in America: A History from Gold Mountain to the New Millennium
849:
The Chinese in America: A History from Gold Mountain to the New Millennium
985:
The Mining Industry of Japan During the Last Twenty Five Years, 1867-1892
909:
The Mining Industry of Japan During the Last Twenty Five Years, 1867-1892
623:
581:
549:
541:
537:
430:
236:
invasions, famines, distrust of the government, overpopulation, a rising
83:
79:
801:
1154:
by New Zealand. Mines Dept, P. Galvin -- John Mackay 1906 Page 486--487
1066:
by New Zealand. Mines Dept, P. Galvin -- John Mackay 1906 Page 494--495
593:
589:
528:
Ironsand is found extensively around the US, especially in the area of
517:
501:
476:
produces up to 4 million tonnes for export. A previous mine existed at
205:
189:
116:
1126:
Minerals Yearbook - Area Reports: International Review: 2011, Volume 3
1040:
Minerals Yearbook - Area Reports: International Review: 2011, Volume 3
618:
553:
454:
360:
221:
217:
157:
60:
837:
Graphics and Text in the Production of Technical Knowledge in China
755:
Graphics and Text in the Production of Technical Knowledge in China
613:
446:
442:
406:
390:
295:
287:
279:
184:. The Chinese countryside was rich in deposits that contained both
145:
137:
125:
75:
99:
same geographic region. In some areas the sand may contain mostly
1128:
by Interior Department, Geological Survey -- USGS 2013 Page 13-48
1090:
by Ross Galbreath -- Victoria University Press 1998 Page 170--200
1042:
by Interior Department, Geological Survey -- USGS 2013 Page 13-48
473:
418:
348:
318:
303:
193:
173:
141:
30:
791:
Scientific American -- Conversion of cast iron into wrought iron
115:
or other minerals, separation was usually done by washing it in
999:
by Abraham Rees -- A. Strahan 1816 Page Mineralogy Iron-Iridium
545:
513:
509:
485:
314:
177:
168:
Ironsand had moderate, localized uses in China during the late
108:
100:
82:
high enough to cause minor burns. As such it forms a hazard in
469:
394:
330:
298:, so the Japanese developed an open-topped bloomery called a
275:
237:
181:
133:
1176:
Documents of the Assembly of the State of New York, Volume 4
1078:
by Ross Galbreath -- Victoria University Press 1998 Page 182
709:
by Yoshimi Goda -- World Scientific Publishing 2010 Page 604
707:
Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures: Third Edition
585:
417:, containing 85.3% iron oxide, 9.5% titanium dioxide, 1.0%
351:. The magnetite in the sand contains often greater than 5%
263:
262:
In Indonesia, iron sand is prevalent on the south coast of
185:
87:
53:
49:
449:. The sand mixture typically contains 5 to 40% magnetite.
565:
1193:
Oxford English Dictionary First Edition (Online version)
1166:
by Lewis Caleb Beck -- Thurloe Weed Printer 1842 Page 22
721:
by Lewis Caleb Beck -- Thurloe Weed Printer 1842 Page 22
600:
for at least 1200 years. The crafting of sand-iron in "
1218:
A history of ironsands in New Zealand steel manufacture
973:
Still the Iron Age: Iron and Steel in the Modern World
875:
by Susie Lan Cassel -- Altamira Press 2002 Page 43--46
851:
by Susie Lan Cassel -- Altamira Press 2002 Page 43--46
779:
Still the Iron Age: Iron and Steel in the Modern World
103:, while in others the sand may be made primarily from
645:"Chemical composition of ironsands - Iron and steel"
899:
by Donald B Wagner -- Curzon Press 1985 Page 31--32
827:
by Donald B Wagner -- Curzon Press 1985 Page 31--32
769:
by Donald B Wagner -- Curzon Press 1985 Page 31--32
745:
by Donald B Wagner -- Curzon Press 1985 Page 31--32
56:. It is typically dark grey or blackish in color.
1054:by Department of Science and Research 1979 Page 8
1011:"1. Iron – an abundant resource - Iron and steel"
584:(1685-1763) invented sand-iron, or the making of
429:Ironsand occurs extensively on the west coast of
156:Historically, ironsand was predominantly used in
124:concentrated, the magnetite grains could then be
1224:
216:liquid pig-iron to make wrought iron, using the
16:A type of sand with heavy concentrations of iron
472:, in a unique manufacturing process. Mining at
343:ironsand is found mixed with sand made from an
355:, which lowers the smelting temperature. The
74:Ironsand has a tendency to heat up in direct
498:New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy
885:Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5
861:Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5
813:Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5
731:Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5
160:cultures; most notably in China and Japan.
86:at popular west-coast surf beaches such as
1139:"First steel produced from local ironsand"
580:(new edition, 1796 (2 vols)), stated that
309:The ironsand in Japan comes in two forms.
1052:New Zealand Journal of Science, Volume 22
1008:
642:
274:Large scale mining was not practiced in
20:
250:However, in the modern age ironsand is
1225:
975:by Vaclav Smil -- Elsevier 2016 Page 6
922:"The Tatara Iron Manufacturing Method"
781:by Vaclav Smil -- Elsevier 2016 Page 6
643:Templeton, Fleur (24 September 2011).
496:and others in 2005 in the wake of the
421:, and 1.5% silica and aluminum oxide.
240:epidemic, and clashes between various
228:, it was independently discovered by
1107:from the original on 2 February 2013
1021:from the original on 5 November 2012
655:from the original on 19 January 2012
367:). In the manufacture of steel, the
325:ironsand was used for manufacturing
13:
1015:Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand
928:from the original on 31 March 2015
887:by Joseph Needham -- Page 343--347
863:by Joseph Needham -- Page 343--347
733:by Joseph Needham -- Page 343--347
649:Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand
14:
1254:
1211:
1009:Templeton, Fleur (15 June 2010).
480:in South Taranaki. A proposal by
578:The American universal geography
523:
1181:
1169:
1157:
1152:The New Zealand mining handbook
1145:
1131:
1119:
1103:. Kiwis Against Seabed Mining.
1093:
1081:
1069:
1064:The New Zealand mining handbook
1057:
1045:
1033:
1002:
990:
978:
966:
940:
914:
902:
890:
878:
866:
854:
842:
830:
818:
806:
795:
784:
772:
760:
748:
736:
724:
712:
700:
667:
636:
424:
409:. It can also be found in the
1:
815:by Joseph Needham -- Page 345
629:
313:ironsand is found mixed with
93:
52:with heavy concentrations of
257:
7:
607:
492:faced resistance from some
317:sand that washes down from
10:
1259:
559:
384:
59:It is composed mainly of
1101:"What is seabed mining?"
576:(1761–1826), writing in
269:
163:
415:Aberdeenshire, Scotland
405:, and trace amounts of
151:
33:, attracted to a magnet
1164:Mineralogy of New-York
719:Mineralogy of New-York
681:. 2013. Archived from
204:for the production of
34:
484:for further ironsand
170:Industrial Revolution
119:(a method similar to
24:
679:New Zealand Pictures
136:impurities, such as
552:used it for making
534:Southern California
924:. Hitachi Metals.
401:, 0.8% silica and
35:
568:online entry for
564:According to the
488:off the coast of
466:New Zealand Steel
439:Pleistocene epoch
290:, or to use in a
1250:
1205:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1185:
1179:
1173:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1135:
1129:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1006:
1000:
994:
988:
982:
976:
970:
964:
963:
961:
959:
954:on 31 March 2015
950:. Archived from
944:
938:
937:
935:
933:
918:
912:
906:
900:
894:
888:
882:
876:
870:
864:
858:
852:
846:
840:
834:
828:
822:
816:
810:
804:
799:
793:
788:
782:
776:
770:
764:
758:
752:
746:
740:
734:
728:
722:
716:
710:
704:
698:
697:
692:
690:
671:
665:
664:
662:
660:
640:
506:titanium dioxide
482:Iron Ore NZ Ltd.
353:titanium dioxide
40:, also known as
1258:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1251:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1223:
1222:
1214:
1209:
1208:
1198:
1196:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1174:
1170:
1162:
1158:
1150:
1146:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1124:
1120:
1110:
1108:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1038:
1034:
1024:
1022:
1007:
1003:
995:
991:
983:
979:
971:
967:
957:
955:
946:
945:
941:
931:
929:
920:
919:
915:
907:
903:
895:
891:
883:
879:
871:
867:
859:
855:
847:
843:
835:
831:
823:
819:
811:
807:
800:
796:
789:
785:
777:
773:
765:
761:
753:
749:
741:
737:
729:
725:
717:
713:
705:
701:
688:
686:
673:
672:
668:
658:
656:
641:
637:
632:
610:
562:
526:
427:
399:manganese oxide
387:
335:Japanese swords
272:
260:
166:
154:
96:
70:
66:
48:, is a type of
25:Iron sand from
17:
12:
11:
5:
1256:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1221:
1220:
1213:
1212:External links
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574:Jedidiah Morse
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403:aluminum oxide
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226:Heaton process
220:properties of
210:crucible steel
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732:
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715:
708:
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696:
685:on 5 May 2013
684:
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524:United States
521:
519:
516:, and 0.015%
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292:blast furnace
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105:volcanic rock
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62:
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51:
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39:
32:
28:
23:
19:
1233:Ore deposits
1197:. Retrieved
1192:
1183:
1175:
1171:
1163:
1159:
1151:
1147:
1133:
1125:
1121:
1109:. Retrieved
1095:
1087:
1083:
1075:
1071:
1063:
1059:
1051:
1047:
1039:
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1014:
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952:the original
942:
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916:
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687:. Retrieved
683:the original
678:
669:
657:. Retrieved
648:
638:
598:sword-making
577:
569:
563:
527:
463:
459:World War II
451:
435:North Island
428:
388:
376:
372:
368:
364:
356:
345:igneous rock
340:
339:
327:wrought iron
322:
310:
308:
283:
273:
261:
252:placer mined
249:
242:
234:
224:(called the
167:
155:
121:gold panning
117:sluice boxes
113:
97:
80:temperatures
73:
58:
45:
41:
37:
36:
18:
1199:16 December
1189:"sand-iron"
624:Sand mining
582:Jared Eliot
550:Connecticut
542:Great Lakes
538:New England
431:New Zealand
425:New Zealand
264:Java island
230:John Heaton
84:New Zealand
1227:Categories
1111:19 January
958:20 January
932:20 January
630:References
594:tamahagane
590:black sand
540:, and the
518:phosphorus
502:iron oxide
468:to create
206:mild steel
190:phosphorus
158:East Asian
94:Occurrence
78:, causing
1243:Iron ores
1025:4 January
689:4 January
659:4 January
619:Ironstone
570:sand-iron
554:bar stock
512:; 0.015%
455:sintering
411:River Dee
361:cast iron
258:Indonesia
222:saltpeter
218:oxidation
61:magnetite
46:iron sand
42:iron-sand
1105:Archived
1019:Archived
926:Archived
653:Archived
614:Iron ore
608:See also
530:New York
490:Taranaki
447:rhyolite
443:andesite
407:chromium
391:Tenerife
365:nabegane
296:pig iron
294:to make
288:bloomery
280:iron ore
202:puddling
146:titanium
138:chromium
107:such as
76:sunlight
38:Ironsand
560:History
508:and 8%
478:Waipipi
474:Taharoa
419:arsenic
349:diorite
347:called
319:granite
304:bellows
284:satetsu
174:Eurasia
142:arsenic
126:smelted
31:Arizona
27:Phoenix
1195:. 1909
602:tatara
596:", in
546:garnet
514:sulfur
510:silica
486:mining
385:Europe
315:quartz
300:tatara
198:yields
178:Africa
109:basalt
101:quartz
588:from
504:, 8%
494:Māori
470:steel
413:, in
395:Spain
378:kanme
369:akome
357:akome
341:Akome
331:steel
276:Japan
270:Japan
243:tongs
238:opium
182:China
164:China
144:, or
134:metal
1238:Sand
1201:2013
1113:2013
1027:2013
960:2015
934:2015
691:2013
661:2013
586:iron
445:and
373:masa
329:and
323:Masa
311:Masa
194:cast
186:coal
176:and
152:Asia
88:Piha
63:, Fe
54:iron
50:sand
566:OED
433:'s
44:or
1229::
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