575:, critical of the excesses of Papal Authority and of the Inquisition and sympathetic to some of the ideas of the Reformers, but still a faithful Catholic. All scholars agree, however, that Palaeologus' radical views in his subsequent published work are more representative of his earlier private opinions; and that he may well have become covertly convinced by antitrinitarian arguments as early as his stay in Pera in 1554–1555. It would accordingly have been unwise for him to publish much of his true opinions until moving to the Principality of Transylvania. However, following Zápolya's death in 1571, permission for Palaeologus, a foreigner, to print antitrinitarian works in the Principality of Transylvania was difficult to obtain; and most of his works of this period circulated in manuscript copies made by his students. From 1573 Dávid attempted to circumvent increasing restrictions on printing in the Principality of Transylvania by seeking to establish a printing press for radical Protestant works, dispatching
989:
community; in which secular distinctions of power and possession did not apply, and which resisted the demands of civil allegiance and military service. For
Palaeologus, seeking the security offered by secular power, possessions and status was a valid, if fragmentary and inadequate, response to the universal human need for blessedness; and accordingly such motivations were not sinful in themselves; nor should believers reject distinctions of secular power and possession amongst one another, although distinctions of religious power and possessions were to be condemned. Palaeologus strongly resisted any suggestion that full participation in the fellowship of believers necessarily excludes either full participation in civic rights and allegiances, or the obligation to defend the legitimate civil order by military force; moreover he unreservedly condemned the practice of separation from the world, especially as this was enforced through the sanction of
931:. Full blessedness can only be apprehended through lifelong participation in the fellowship of faithful believers; where that faith is grounded in the Grace of divine revelation. For Palaeologus the religious life of a Christian (or Muslim or Jewish) congregation is a school of blessedness for its members; by which they may become prepared to respond to God's offer of salvation in full freedom. But that is conditional on those congregations rightly understanding and sharing God's revelation in the text of scripture. Since the instrument of God's Grace for salvation is identified with scriptural revelation, then those who fabricate false revelation or who twist the understanding of true revelation are, for Palaeologus, the agents of
676:(1572), sets out Palaeologus' views on Judaism, Christianity and Islam; presenting three religious tribes who each are capable of providing an equal access to salvation; as each transmit to their members, within their respective scriptures, God's saving grace of divine revelation (albeit that the interpretation of this revelation has, in all three traditions, been corrupted by a clerical elite). The three true tribes being: Jews following the Mosaic Law who accept Jesus as Messiah (in which category Palaeologus also includes Coptic, Syrian and Ethiopic Christians); antitrinitarian Christians; and Muslims who recognise Jesus as a prophet. The treatise concludes with an eloquent defence of religious toleration.
552:
Italian-educated aristocratic houses of central and eastern Europe. Even amongst those who did not share his vision of radical
Christianity there were many, like Giustiniani and Dudith, who sympathised with his pleas for toleration; and his eloquent defence of free religious expression and debate in a Europe increasingly policed into tight bounds of conformity on one side or another. With the aid of his many contacts and correspondents, he appeared able to travel at will across the boundaries dividing Catholic from Reformed, and Christian from Turk. All of which made him a dangerous man, and explains the extensive, determined and persistent efforts of his opponents to have him silenced.
976:
unacceptable, as he understood the task of anti-trinitrarians in the present age to be "witnesses of the truth" (Revelation chapter 10), standing in open opposition to a world given temporarily over to the dominance of Satan. In due time the truth must triumph and Christ would return bring in the rule of the saints; but
Almighty God could not allow that to happen while those saints were endowing Christ with the attributes of divinity. The veneration of Christ within the doctrine of the Trinity was, for Palaeologus, "Satan's design" to extend the period of his rule and stall the promised
900:
similarly exploited in other churches. Palaeologus appears to believe that counterpart fabricated doctrines may function to maintain the dominance of a clerical elite in
Judaism and Islam; if all three religions were to apply a critical appraisal to their traditions, then substantial common ground would be found, and Satan's design to undermine scriptural revelation would be confounded. But in any case, in Palaeologus view, Jews and Muslims cannot be expected to respond fully to Jesus as Messiah and Prophet so long as Christians continue to worship him as God.
743:, is acknowledged as Palaeologus major literary achievement, a masterpiece of exuberant high renaissance latinity. The setting is another imagined satirical debate; only this time the protagonists are named religious authorities on both the Trinitarian and antitrinitarian sides, who have been called together by Almighty God to resolve before the whole world (Christian, Muslim and Jewish) their various claims about the nature of Christ. The treatise is unfinished, but it appears to have been intended to show that the leading modern Trinitarians;
716:
666:
the Jewish people at least) in full force; only requiring their recognition of Jesus as
Messiah. The resurrected Jesus was now with Almighty God, and would return as a universal deliverer to preside over the rule of the saints. Palaeologus appeared to believe that the historic coming of the Jesus as Messiah necessarily abrogated the sacrificial priesthood of the Old Testament; nevertheless his understanding of the historic Jesus entirely as a Jewish figure led to accusations of
737:(1574), is Palaeologus' most complete systematic statement of antitrinitarian belief, published in Kolosvar, this draws extensively on the six unpublished treatises. It is structured within a satirical imagined debate by which a Mexican Indian and a Jew seek an understanding of the Christian faith from a Reformed Protestant, a Lutheran and Counter-Reformation Catholic, but only find squabbles and inconsistencies until their confusion is resolved by an anti-trinitarian.
314:
821:
599:
956:
441:
Protestant ideas. Numbers of
Italian religious exiles found ready employment in these places as physicians, chaplains, tutors, secretaries, and political agents. During 1573, Palaeologus undertook an extended trip to Constantinople and Chios (which had been captured by the Ottoman Empire from the Genoese Republic in 1566) – intended in part to impress Maximilian with his value and contacts – and then became
561:
34:
661:(1572), is Palaeologus' argument supporting the absolute continuity and consistency of the Old and New Testaments. Key to this is his rejection of the standard Christian identification of Jesus Christ as the Messiah, with Jesus Christ as the incarnate Son of God. Palaeologus expressed this as a formula of faith: "God is one and Jesus is the Anointed" a deliberate reworking of the Islamic
952:
although
Palaeologus perceived the arguments of his Polish opponents as Satanic perversions, this did not lead him to seek their suppression or that of their supporters. Just as hearing the revealed scriptures provides for Palaeologus an assured route to truth; so the exposure and confounding of error in free and open debate ensures the defeat of the Master of Lies.
703:
and no essential ceremonies as instruments of salvation. Salvation requires only a free, pure and unqualified acceptance of God's offer of divine Grace; an acceptance that is only possible, in
Palaeologus teaching, within the fellowship of a faithful community of believers where the revealed scriptures are regularly heard and shared.
547:), a term that carried an implication of low social standing, limited education, excessive religious behaviour and the rejection of social and gender norms. Palaeologus conformed to none of these stereotypes. His command of biblical texts was at least the equal of that of the best of his antagonists, his knowledge of
970:
Although the Polish
Brethren rejected the doctrine of the crucifixion as a sacrificial atonement for the sins of humanity, nevertheless they regarded Christ's sinless death and passion as promoting a saving faith through moral example, and Christ's resurrection as according him the status of Mediator
665:
formula. For
Palaeologus, the incarnation is a fabrication of the Church, unfounded and unscriptural. Jesus in his earthly ministry had been only and completely the true Messiah of Israel, and as such fulfilled in all respects the messianic prophecies of the Mosaic Law; which accordingly remains (for
988:
The Polish Brethren, like almost all antitrinitarians, held that the Grace of salvation could only be achieved through full participation in the fellowship of faithful believers; and they consequently sought to reinforce this by separating themselves from the sinful world in an exclusive egalitarian
975:
and the invocation of Jesus by name in prayer. As formalised in the Catechism of George Schomann published in 1574, the church in Rakow retained many of the elements of trinitarian worship and doctrine, but re-expressed in accordance with antitrinitarian principles. For Palaeologus this was wholly
702:
These four treatises refute the claim of Christian churches to have unique access to salvation through participation in the benefits of the atoning death and resurrection of Christ; by baptism and by the sacrament of the Eucharist. For Palaeologus, there is no need for specific rites of atonement,
440:
prized Italian culture and language, and most had sent their sons to Italian universities. Within their own extensive feudal estates they exercised substantial religious freedom – beyond the reach of Catholic bishops, Reformed city councils or the Inquisition – and many were sympathetic to radical
255:
951:
in KrakĂłw, and much of his antitrinitarian teaching accords with theirs, while being more systematically expressed; and much more learned in presentation. He departed from their doctrines and practices, however, in two key respects; which proved the occasion for bitter controversy. Nevertheless,
926:
and God offers to all a free choice of blessedness. Nevertheless, individual humans in a state of nature do not have the capability to appreciate or comprehend the full dimensions of the choice that is on offer, but can only grasp at fragments of true blessedness in the form of material rewards
899:
Palaeologus held these propositions to be frauds, perpetrated on the faithful under the prompting of Satan as devices by which the clergy might establish and maintain control; and he sees Calvinism as presenting these false doctrines in their most developed form, although the same doctrines are
614:
On Palaeologus' arrest, a large body of theological writings, by him and others, fell into the hands of the Roman Inquisition. Some of these works are not known from the Unitarian archives preserved in Cluj and KrakĂłw; and selected extracts were published by the Vatican Library in the late 19th
636:
Two treatises written around 1569 in the form of open letters to Pope Pius V (Ghislieri); but intended for the Emperor Maximilian II. They criticise Calvinist teachings on predestination and original sin, also accusing the Inquisition of groundless persecution in its accusations and judgements
551:
probably better than any. He was formidably skilled in academic debate and wrote eloquently in high Latin style. Moreover, he was a strong critic of all forms of social subversion; and with his education from the University of Bologna, he was readily at ease in the Italian-speaking and
393:
507:
insisted that if Palaeologus would denounce his former antitrinitarian opinions then he would be more useful alive. Although Palaeologus was now reconciled with the Catholic Church, he still refused to cooperate with Gregory's plan and was beheaded on March 23, 1585.
453:) and the leading theoretician of nonadorantism, the strain of radical Protestantism that denied the validity of addressing Jesus in prayer. Following Zápolya's death in 1571, the succession to the Principality of Transylvania had been disputed. Palaeologus supported
369:
succeeded in 1564, Palaeologus advanced in the imperial favour. Following the example of his patron Dudith, Palaeologus renounced his religious vows, marrying the daughter of a leading Prague reformer. In 1569, Palaeologus was proposed to the emperor as the
325:
in 1559, the Roman mob looted buildings and burned records. Palaeologus escaped from prison when a mob stormed the headquarters of the Roman Inquisition and released inmates. Although evidence against him had been destroyed, he was subsequently
374:
candidate to the office of Archbishop of Prague. This was however blocked by Ghislieri, his sworn enemy, who was now pope; and who eventually had Palaeologus expelled from the imperial dominions to Poland in 1571, where he was reunited in
341:, the papal legate, to have the Inquisition heresy conviction overturned. Then later in 1562, realising that he was also not safe or welcome among Reformed Protestants because of his virulent denunciations of Calvinism, he offered help to
473:. Meanwhile, Dávid was accused of religious innovation and deposed as leader of the Transylvanian Unitarian Church for his nonadorant practices. He died in prison in 1579. Palaeologus wrote polemical works supporting Dávid and attacking
872:; the doctrine that within the unity of Almighty God, there are three persons; Father, Son and Holy Spirit; equal and pre-existent outside the bounds of time and space; and that the only way to salvation for all humanity is through the
777:, is a refutation of the fundamental assumptions of the doctrine of Original Sin; arguing that all humans cannot descended from a single individual, and hence that there cannot be a strict transmission of inherited sin to all humanity.
579:
to Constantinople with funds for the project; and it is possible that Palaeologus's trip to Constantinople that year may have been partly related to this abortive project, as Palaeologus spent several days with Neuser there.
794:
These treatises were all printed by Budny in 1580; and defend Dávid against the charges of religious innovation in teaching nonadorantism; recording also Palaeologus' criticism of the role of Sozzini in the sorry
757:, is in the form of a commentary on the Book of Revelation, but is actually another stinging attack on Pius V and the Inquisition, and is dedicated to his old friend and original mentor Giustiniani.
980:, by corrupting the church into a form where Almighty God, in his absolute individual oneness, must turn away from it; and true antitrinitarians must not be compromised with it in any way.
191:
Palaeologus played an active role in the high politics of European religion and diplomacy over a period of twenty years before he lost imperial favour; and having been extradited to the
379:
with Dudith, who was now the imperial representative to the Kingdom of Poland. Palaeologus was openly advancing antitrinitarian views but became embroiled in a bitter controversy with
461:, the Catholic candidate. Following two failed uprisings, Bekes conceded defeat in 1575 and Palaeologus moved to KrakĂłw where he promoted the cause of Maximilian, against that of
488:
in December 1581. Although the spying accusations could not be substantiated, a large body of heretical writings was found with him and he was extradited to Rome in May 1582.
959:
Fausto Sozzini, leading exponent of the theology of the Polish Brethren; attacked by Palaeologus both for advocating pacifism, and for his failure to support Ferenc Dávid
919:, which Palaeologus understands as wrong intention rather than as wrong action; sin arises from seeking something that revealed scripture shows ought not to be desired.
420:
had corresponded with him since 1570 and sought his advice. By 1573 this was a well-worn path for Italian reformers and radicals; already taken, amongst many others by
168:
Power, Palaeologus cultivated a wide range of high-placed contacts and correspondents in the imperial, royal, and aristocratic households in Eastern Europe and the
306:) and brought to the prison of the Roman Inquisition under the personal investigation of the Grand Inquisitor, Michele Ghislieri (a fellow Dominican friar, later
727:, is an open letter to one of his friends, but intended for the Maximilian II. It describes Palaeologus' trip to Constantinople and Chios in the spring of 1573,
1589:
484:
was much less sympathetic, becoming convinced that Palaeologus was spying for the Ottoman Empire and possibly Poland too. Palaeologus was arrested by the
1614:
771:. Castellio was convicted and executed in Geneva for blasphemy and heresy in 1553 – in particular for his repudiation of the doctrine of the trinity.
828:
as the leader of the Reformed church of Geneva; whose Trinitarian theology Palaeologus sought to expose as a Satanic perversion of the true Gospel
188:
were rejected as spurious fabrications. He was continually pursued by his many enemies, repeatedly escaping through his many covert supporters.
361:, stirring up in the process a major disruption to the Council's proceedings. Eventually in 1563, Palaeologus was granted imperial asylum in
433:
317:
Andreas Dudith, protected Palaeologus and employed his scholarship in support of the imperial arguments presented to the Council of Trent
1634:
1624:
1604:
310:). For the rest of his life, Palaeologus maintained a fierce opposition to the Inquisition, and a particular enmity for Ghislieri.
719:
Maximillian II, Holy Roman Emperor,was Palaeologus' ultimate patron and protector, and the intended audience for many of his works
396:
Ferenc Dávid, leader of the Unitarian Church of Transylvania; imprisoned, he was defended by Palaeologus in a succession of works.
811:(1572), about the obligation of a Christian to provide military service and secular allegiance to the rightful civil authorities.
602:
Michael Servetus, executed in Geneva in 1553, his antitrinitarian writings were the formative influence of Palaeologus' theology
915:(Romans 10:17), through hearing and sharing the revealed word of God in the congregation of the faithful. Faith is assailed by
290:
in 1553. In 1556 Palaeologus returned to Chios and actively supported the secular Genoese commissioners and the agents of the
267:
232:
1584:
751:, are not only unjustified in their arguments, but also culpably misrepresent the ancient predecessors to whom they appeal.
1619:
437:
1544:
1525:
1506:
1487:
1468:
366:
843:
all humanity is lost to sin, and can only attain salvation through divine Grace operating through the sacraments of
446:
405:
228:
295:
564:
Symon Budny, collaborated with Palaeologus in developing the theology of non-adorantism, and published his works
1629:
481:
1461:
The Heidelberg Antitrinitarians : Johann Sylvan, Adam Neuser, Matthias Vehe, Jacob Suter, Johann Hasler
251:. Although in later life he repeatedly defended this claim, no independent sources survive that support it.
413:
1644:
1639:
1594:
353:. Palaeologus advised Dudith in the presentation to the Council of the imperial arguments for permitting
1609:
1574:
832:
In common with all 16th century antitrinitarians, Palaeologus rejected three fundamental propositions:
587:, who shared both Palaeologus' nonadorantist theology and his criticisms of the pacifism of the Polish
354:
1599:
1579:
873:
302:
and arrested in Genoa in 1557. In 1558, he escaped to Constantinople, but was rearrested in Ragusa (
595:
and many of Palaeologus' works, often in anonymous editions, were printed there from 1580 onwards.
499:
at the sight of a Portuguese Marani being burnt alive and was permitted to return to his cell. The
380:
227:
and by the 16th century it was a fief of the Giustiniani family. The young man attached himself to
1539:. Bibliotheca Unitariorum (in Latin and English). Vol. 3. Utrecht: Bibliotheca Unitariorum.
977:
409:
337:. Palaeologus escaped initially to France, where, in 1562, he unsuccessfully petitioned Cardinal
971:
for the faithful before the throne of God; and accordingly retained both a commemoration of the
401:
652:
428:, and Paleologus found a receptive audience for his teachings. The aristocratic households of
1564:
544:
357:; and in exchange Dudith attempted to have Palaeologus's heresy conviction overturned by the
338:
240:
172:; while formulating and propagating a radically heterodox version of Christianity, in which
1569:
572:
527:
500:
927:(possessions, power); or in the case of noble pagans, in the perfection of the individual
8:
764:
647:
492:
278:, and it was here that he developed a lifelong adherence to antitrinitarian teachings of
748:
569:
466:
425:
358:
291:
462:
458:
333:
by a Roman Inquisition tribunal, convicted, sentenced to death in 1561, and burned in
16:
Not to be confused with Antonio de' Massilara, Matteus Paleologus, (Bishop of Bosnia).
1540:
1521:
1502:
1483:
1464:
504:
485:
442:
421:
389:
over the Polish antitrinitarians' condemnation of Christian service in the military.
327:
224:
196:
54:
1535:
Szczucki, Lech (1994). "Introduction". In Domański, Juliusz; Szczucki, Lech (eds.).
781:
Confutatio vera et solida Iudicii Ecclesiarum Polonicarum de causa Francisci Davidis
223:, of a Greek father and an Italian mother. Chios had been, since 1347, ruled by the
616:
350:
279:
248:
1463:. Bibliotheca dissidentium. Vol. 11. Baden-Baden: Editions Valentin Koerner.
993:, a sanction that must necessarily deprive those subjected to it of eternal life.
990:
944:
400:
Having acquired enemies in Catholic Rome, Calvinist Geneva, and Anti-Trinitarian
384:
236:
157:
153:
417:
854:
848:
787:
Defensio Francisci Davidis in negotio de non invocando Jesu Christo in precibus
474:
346:
342:
275:
216:
208:
169:
715:
282:, and composed a defence of Servetus' doctrines against their denunciation by
262:); condemned Palaeologus to death in absentia, and remained his lifelong enemy
243:. He adopted the name "Jacob Palaeologus" and claimed kinship with the former
239:. He was educated in Dominican schools at Genoa and Ferrara, and later at the
1558:
964:
768:
728:
885:
836:
454:
322:
192:
177:
173:
72:
801:
Ad scriptum fratrum Racoviensium de bello et judiciis forensibus Responsio
711:, is a refutation of the pacifism of Gregory Paul and the Polish Brethren.
404:
in Lesser Poland; Palaeologus sought in 1573 a more congenial home in the
889:
881:
865:
has been determined from the beginning of time by God's sovereign choice.
825:
744:
731:
numerous high-ranking officials and notable figures who had received him.
584:
576:
540:
512:
307:
299:
283:
259:
244:
892:
548:
523:
972:
923:
820:
667:
371:
313:
303:
161:
376:
254:
598:
220:
725:
Epistola de rebus Chii et Constantinopoli cum eo actis lectu digna
286:; in consequence of which Servetus had been condemned to death in
955:
869:
844:
662:
592:
533:
496:
470:
429:
185:
176:
was not to be invoked in worship, and where differences between
1520:(3rd ed.). Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press.
858:
857:; the doctrine that the eternal destination of every person to
511:
A wide variety of radical groups emerged from the 16th century
362:
334:
287:
271:
87:
560:
392:
1344:
1342:
932:
904:
212:
181:
83:
50:
1239:
1237:
1235:
33:
1359:
1357:
1317:
1315:
1302:
1300:
1162:
1160:
928:
862:
840:
539:
These groups were commonly dismissed by their opponents as
450:
165:
68:
1339:
1196:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1019:
1017:
457:, the pro-imperial and antitrinitarian candidate, against
1327:
1273:
1261:
1232:
1208:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1077:
1075:
1073:
916:
877:
1441:
1429:
1393:
1381:
1369:
1354:
1312:
1297:
1249:
1220:
1184:
1157:
1145:
805:
Adversus Jacobi Palaeologi de bello sententiam Responsio
1405:
1285:
1099:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1014:
1002:
645:, is a comprehensive scholarly refutation of the bull
1417:
1172:
1133:
1116:
1087:
1070:
983:
1058:
1029:
412:
status had been established under the rule of Prince
156:
friar who renounced his religious vows and became an
1041:
938:
643:
Adversus proscriptionem Elisabethae Reginae Angliae
491:On February 19, 1583, Palaeologus was taken to be
1556:
809:Defensio verae sententiae de magistratu politico
767:against the criticisms of the Calvinist leader,
532:a rejection of the orthodox formulations of the
480:Maximilan II died in 1576, and the new emperor
258:The Grand Inquisitor, Michele Ghislieri (later
903:Salvation, for Palaeologus comes only through
803:, is Palaeologus' rejoinder to Gregory Paul's
19:Dominican friar who became an anti-Trinitarian
1499:Reformation: Europe's house divided 1490–1700
922:Palaeologus emphasises that all mankind has
1590:16th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
909:
659:De discriminate Veteris et Novi Testamentum
1496:
1267:
1214:
619:, and are believed to date from the 1550s.
266:By 1554, Palaeologus was back east in the
907:, which he understands as being achieved
807:, itself a reply to Palaeologus treatise
568:Until 1571, Palaeologus claimed to be an
298:; this led to his being denounced to the
1615:People executed by the Roman Inquisition
1534:
1515:
1458:
1447:
1435:
1423:
1411:
1399:
1387:
1375:
1363:
1348:
1333:
1321:
1306:
1291:
1279:
1255:
1243:
1226:
1202:
1190:
1166:
1151:
1139:
1127:
1110:
1093:
1081:
1064:
1052:
1035:
1023:
1008:
954:
819:
761:Theodoro Bezae pro Castellione et Bellio
714:
597:
559:
391:
312:
253:
1477:
1178:
839:; the doctrine that through the sin of
349:and the imperial representative at the
1557:
160:theologian. A polemicist against both
97:Reformer, theologian, controversialist
735:Catechesis Christiana dierum duodecim
233:Master General of the Dominican Order
38:Chios, birthplace of Jacob Palaelogus
543:(although by no means all practiced
984:Pacifism and utopian egalitarianism
651:by which Pius V had excommunicated
615:century. They propose a defence of
128:nonadorantism, religious toleration
13:
775:An omnes ab uno Adamo descenderint
591:, established a printing press in
526:as essential instruments of God's
14:
1656:
519:a rejection of clerical authority
274:, the Latin Christian quarter of
195:, was executed for heresy by the
1459:Burchill, Christopher J (1989).
963:
943:Palaeologus had encountered the
939:Criticism of the Polish Brethren
406:Unitarian Church of Transylvania
32:
1635:16th-century Protestant martyrs
1625:Executed Roman Catholic priests
1605:Laicized Roman Catholic priests
447:Unitarian college at Kolozsvár
438:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1:
1497:MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2003).
996:
467:1576 Royal election in Poland
294:against the authority of the
268:Dominican convent of St Peter
146:
1516:Williams, George H (2000) .
815:
583:It was only after 1578 that
515:, commonly characterised by
434:Principality of Transylvania
207:Palaeologus was born at the
7:
1585:Greek Roman Catholic clergy
1482:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
755:Commentarius in Apocalypsim
608:Contra Calvinum pro Serveto
365:; and when the new Emperor
10:
1661:
1620:People executed for heresy
695:De resurrectione mortuorum
503:argued for his death, but
477:for siding against Dávid.
355:communion under both kinds
15:
680:Dissolutio de sacramentis
414:John II Sigismund Zápolya
152:– March 23, 1585), was a
132:
124:
117:
101:
93:
79:
61:
43:
31:
24:
1480:The European Reformation
824:Thedore Beza, succeeded
763:(1575), is a defence of
555:
381:Gregory Paul of Brzeziny
1518:The Radical Reformation
1501:. London : Allen Lane.
469:; and then settling in
235:) and entered into the
202:
1537:Disputatio scholastica
1478:Cameron, Euan (1991).
960:
910:
829:
741:Disputatio Scholastica
720:
653:Elizabeth I of England
603:
565:
397:
318:
263:
108:Disputatio Scholastica
1630:Executed Greek people
958:
823:
718:
601:
563:
395:
316:
257:
241:University of Bologna
112:Catechesis Christiana
637:against Palaeologus.
501:College of Cardinals
229:Vincenzo Giustiniani
765:Sebastian Castellio
670:from his opponents.
648:Regnans in Excelsis
625:De peccato originis
522:a rejection of the
493:burned at the stake
1645:Writers from Chios
1640:Italian Dominicans
1595:Italian Unitarians
961:
830:
749:Pope Boniface VIII
721:
709:De bello sententia
674:De Tribus gentibus
604:
566:
545:believer's baptism
426:Francesco Stancaro
398:
359:Ecumenical Council
319:
292:Holy Roman Emperor
264:
219:near the coast of
1610:Former Dominicans
1575:Clergy from Chios
505:Pope Gregory XIII
486:Bishop of Olomouc
422:Giorgio Biandrata
225:Republic of Genoa
197:Roman Inquisition
139:Jacob Palaeologus
136:
135:
55:Republic of Genoa
26:Jacob Palaeologus
1652:
1600:Antitrinitarians
1580:Greek Dominicans
1550:
1531:
1512:
1493:
1474:
1451:
1445:
1439:
1433:
1427:
1421:
1415:
1409:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1352:
1346:
1337:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1310:
1304:
1295:
1289:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1253:
1247:
1241:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1170:
1164:
1155:
1149:
1143:
1137:
1131:
1125:
1114:
1108:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1068:
1062:
1056:
1050:
1039:
1033:
1027:
1021:
1012:
1006:
913:
880:achieved by the
617:Michael Servetus
351:Council of Trent
321:At the death of
280:Michael Servetus
151:
148:
119:Theological work
104:
36:
22:
21:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1547:
1528:
1509:
1490:
1471:
1454:
1450:, p. 1139.
1446:
1442:
1438:, p. 1137.
1434:
1430:
1422:
1418:
1410:
1406:
1402:, p. 1147.
1398:
1394:
1390:, p. 1168.
1386:
1382:
1378:, p. 1131.
1374:
1370:
1366:, p. 1151.
1362:
1355:
1347:
1340:
1332:
1328:
1324:, p. 1152.
1320:
1313:
1309:, p. 1124.
1305:
1298:
1290:
1286:
1278:
1274:
1268:MacCulloch 2003
1266:
1262:
1258:, p. 1149.
1254:
1250:
1242:
1233:
1229:, p. 1138.
1225:
1221:
1215:MacCulloch 2003
1213:
1209:
1201:
1197:
1193:, p. 1087.
1189:
1185:
1177:
1173:
1165:
1158:
1154:, p. 1130.
1150:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1126:
1117:
1109:
1100:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1071:
1063:
1059:
1051:
1042:
1034:
1030:
1022:
1015:
1011:, p. 1125.
1007:
1003:
999:
991:excommunication
986:
968:
945:Polish Brethren
941:
911:fides ex auditu
818:
558:
463:Stephen Báthory
459:Stephen Báthory
339:Ippolito d'Este
296:bishop of Chios
237:Dominican Order
205:
158:antitrinitarian
149:
143:Giacomo da Chio
102:
75:
66:
57:
48:
39:
27:
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1658:
1648:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1552:
1551:
1545:
1532:
1526:
1513:
1507:
1494:
1488:
1475:
1469:
1455:
1453:
1452:
1440:
1428:
1416:
1404:
1392:
1380:
1368:
1353:
1338:
1326:
1311:
1296:
1294:, p. 110.
1284:
1272:
1270:, p. 263.
1260:
1248:
1231:
1219:
1217:, p. 167.
1207:
1195:
1183:
1181:, p. 320.
1171:
1156:
1144:
1132:
1115:
1098:
1086:
1069:
1057:
1040:
1028:
1013:
1000:
998:
995:
985:
982:
967:
962:
949:ecclesia minor
940:
937:
897:
896:
866:
855:Predestination
852:
849:holy communion
817:
814:
813:
812:
797:
796:
791:
790:
784:
778:
772:
758:
752:
738:
732:
713:
712:
705:
704:
699:
698:
692:
687:
685:De Eucharistia
682:
677:
671:
656:
639:
638:
633:
632:
630:De providentia
627:
621:
620:
611:
610:
589:Ecclesia Minor
557:
554:
537:
536:
530:
520:
475:Fausto Sozzini
386:Ecclesia Minor
347:Bishop of Knin
343:Andreas Dudith
276:Constantinople
217:Aegean Islands
209:Genoese colony
204:
201:
170:Ottoman Empire
141:, also called
134:
133:
130:
129:
126:
122:
121:
115:
114:
105:
99:
98:
95:
91:
90:
81:
77:
76:
67:
65:March 23, 1585
63:
59:
58:
49:
45:
41:
40:
37:
29:
28:
25:
18:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1657:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1548:
1546:90-6004-431-2
1542:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1527:0-943549-83-3
1523:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1508:9780713993707
1504:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1489:9780198730934
1485:
1481:
1476:
1472:
1470:9783873201200
1466:
1462:
1457:
1456:
1449:
1448:Williams 2000
1444:
1437:
1436:Williams 2000
1432:
1425:
1424:Szczucki 1994
1420:
1413:
1412:Szczucki 1994
1408:
1401:
1400:Williams 2000
1396:
1389:
1388:Williams 2000
1384:
1377:
1376:Williams 2000
1372:
1365:
1364:Williams 2000
1360:
1358:
1350:
1349:Szczucki 1994
1345:
1343:
1335:
1334:Szczucki 1994
1330:
1323:
1322:Williams 2000
1318:
1316:
1308:
1307:Williams 2000
1303:
1301:
1293:
1292:Burchill 1989
1288:
1281:
1280:Szczucki 1994
1276:
1269:
1264:
1257:
1256:Williams 2000
1252:
1245:
1244:Szczucki 1994
1240:
1238:
1236:
1228:
1227:Williams 2000
1223:
1216:
1211:
1204:
1203:Szczucki 1994
1199:
1192:
1191:Williams 2000
1187:
1180:
1175:
1168:
1167:Szczucki 1994
1163:
1161:
1153:
1152:Williams 2000
1148:
1141:
1140:Szczucki 1994
1136:
1129:
1128:Szczucki 1994
1124:
1122:
1120:
1112:
1111:Szczucki 1994
1107:
1105:
1103:
1095:
1094:Szczucki 1994
1090:
1083:
1082:Szczucki 1994
1078:
1076:
1074:
1066:
1065:Szczucki 1994
1061:
1054:
1053:Szczucki 1994
1049:
1047:
1045:
1037:
1036:Szczucki 1994
1032:
1025:
1024:Szczucki 1994
1020:
1018:
1010:
1009:Williams 2000
1005:
1001:
994:
992:
981:
979:
974:
973:Lord's Supper
966:
965:Nonadorantism
957:
953:
950:
946:
936:
934:
930:
925:
920:
918:
914:
912:
906:
901:
894:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
864:
860:
856:
853:
850:
846:
842:
838:
835:
834:
833:
827:
822:
810:
806:
802:
799:
798:
793:
792:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
769:Theodore Beza
766:
762:
759:
756:
753:
750:
746:
742:
739:
736:
733:
730:
729:name-dropping
726:
723:
722:
717:
710:
707:
706:
701:
700:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
675:
672:
669:
664:
660:
657:
654:
650:
649:
644:
641:
640:
635:
634:
631:
628:
626:
623:
622:
618:
613:
612:
609:
606:
605:
600:
596:
594:
590:
586:
581:
578:
574:
571:
562:
553:
550:
546:
542:
535:
531:
529:
525:
521:
518:
517:
516:
514:
509:
506:
502:
498:
494:
489:
487:
483:
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
394:
390:
388:
387:
382:
378:
373:
368:
367:Maximilian II
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
331:
324:
315:
311:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
261:
256:
252:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
215:, one of the
214:
210:
200:
198:
194:
189:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
144:
140:
131:
127:
125:Notable ideas
123:
120:
116:
113:
109:
106:
100:
96:
94:Occupation(s)
92:
89:
85:
82:
78:
74:
70:
64:
60:
56:
52:
46:
42:
35:
30:
23:
1565:1520s births
1536:
1517:
1498:
1479:
1460:
1443:
1431:
1419:
1407:
1395:
1383:
1371:
1329:
1287:
1275:
1263:
1251:
1222:
1210:
1198:
1186:
1179:Cameron 1991
1174:
1147:
1135:
1089:
1060:
1031:
1004:
987:
969:
948:
942:
921:
908:
902:
898:
886:resurrection
837:Original Sin
831:
808:
804:
800:
786:
780:
774:
760:
754:
740:
734:
724:
708:
694:
689:
684:
679:
673:
658:
646:
642:
629:
624:
607:
588:
582:
567:
538:
510:
490:
479:
455:Gaspar Bekes
418:Ferenc Dávid
399:
385:
329:
323:Pope Paul IV
320:
265:
247:emperors of
206:
193:Papal States
190:
178:Christianity
174:Jesus Christ
142:
138:
137:
118:
111:
107:
103:Notable work
73:Papal States
1570:1595 deaths
882:crucifixion
826:John Calvin
745:John Calvin
690:De Baptismo
585:Symon Budny
577:Adam Neuser
541:Anabaptists
513:Reformation
330:in absentia
308:Pope Pius V
300:Inquisition
284:John Calvin
260:Pope Pius V
245:Palaiologos
150: 1520
80:Nationality
1559:Categories
997:References
893:Son of God
549:patristics
524:sacraments
482:Rudolph II
1351:, XXXVII.
1205:, XXVIII.
924:free will
890:incarnate
874:atonement
816:Teachings
668:Judaizing
416:. Bishop
410:Unitarian
372:Utraquist
304:Dubrovnik
249:Byzantium
162:Calvinism
154:Dominican
1336:, XXVII.
1282:, XXXII.
1246:, XLVII.
978:parousia
655:in 1570.
573:humanist
570:Erasmian
408:, whose
383:and the
221:Anatolia
1169:, XVII.
1113:, XIII.
1026:, VIII.
947:of the
888:of the
870:Trinity
845:baptism
795:affair.
663:shahada
593:Belarus
534:Trinity
497:abjured
471:Moravia
465:in the
445:of the
430:Hungary
231:(later
186:Judaism
84:Genoese
1543:
1524:
1505:
1486:
1467:
1414:, XIX.
1130:, XVI.
1096:, XIV.
1084:, XII.
859:Heaven
789:(1580)
783:(1580)
697:(1572)
443:Rector
377:KrakĂłw
363:Prague
335:effigy
328:tried
288:Geneva
184:, and
47:c 1520
1426:, XX.
1142:, XV.
1067:, XI.
1038:, IX.
933:Satan
905:faith
556:Works
528:Grace
402:RakĂłw
213:Chios
182:Islam
166:Papal
88:Greek
51:Chios
1541:ISBN
1522:ISBN
1503:ISBN
1484:ISBN
1465:ISBN
1055:, X.
929:soul
884:and
876:for
868:The
863:Hell
847:and
841:Adam
747:and
495:but
451:Cluj
436:and
424:and
272:Pera
203:Life
164:and
69:Rome
62:Died
44:Born
917:sin
878:sin
861:or
270:in
211:on
1561::
1356:^
1341:^
1314:^
1299:^
1234:^
1159:^
1118:^
1101:^
1072:^
1043:^
1016:^
935:.
432:,
345:,
199:.
180:,
147:c.
110:,
71:,
53:,
1549:.
1530:.
1511:.
1492:.
1473:.
895:.
851:.
449:(
145:(
86:/
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