Japanese phonology

898: 871: 8910:, resulting in alternations such as 'wait' (negative) vs. 'wait' (polite) or 'lend' (negative) vs. 'lend' (polite). Thus, function in native vocabulary as the palatalized counterparts of coronal consonant phonemes. However, the analysis of alveolo-palatal sibilants as palatalized allophones of coronal consonants is complicated by loanwords. The sequences are distinguished from in recent loanwords (with generally preserved in words borrowed more recently than 1930) and to a lesser extent, some speakers may exhibit a contrast in loanwords between and . 10805:. Furthermore, some non-mimetic Yamato words start with voiced obstruents. In some cases, voicing seems to have had an expressive function, adding a negative or pejorative shade to a root. Initial voiced obstruents have also arisen in some Yamato words as the result of phonetic developments, such as loss of original word-initial high vowels or alteration of words that originally started with nasal consonants. Diachronically, the scarcity of word-initial voiced obstruents in native Japanese words seems to be a consequence of their origin from 6895:

which non-identical vowel sequences can occur within the same syllable. One criterion used to evaluate this question is the placement of pitch accent: it has been argued that, like syllables ending in long vowels, syllables ending in diphthongs cannot bear a pitch accent on their final mora. It has also been argued that diphthongs, like long vowels, cannot normally be pronounced with a glottal stop or vowel rearticulation between their two moras, whereas this may optionally occur between two vowels that belong to separate syllables.

11145:: the identity of the epenthetic vowel is largely, although not completely, predictable from the preceding consonant and vowel. It is debated whether these vowels should be regarded as having epenthetic status in the phonology of modern Japanese. The use of epenthetic vowels in Sino-Japanese forms has undergone some changes over time: for example, the descriptions of Portuguese missionaries indicate that in previous stages of the language, Sino-Japanese morphemes could end in coda with no epenthetic vowel. 6339:

accentuation patterns. (Some acoustic experiments have found evidence that some speakers may produce slightly different phonetic pitch contours for these two accentuation patterns; however, even when such differences exist, they do not seem to be perceptible to listeners.) However, the underlying lexical distinction between unaccented words and words with accent on the final mora is made apparent when the word is followed by further material within the same accent phrase, such as the case particle

4806: 64: 15346: 5303:). Another analysis interprets long vowels as sequences of the same vowel phoneme twice, with double vowels distinguished by the presence of a "zero consonant" or empty onset between the vowels. A third approach also interprets long vowels as sequences of the same vowel phoneme twice, but treats the difference between long and double vowels as a matter of syllabification, with the long vowel consisting of the phonemes 15332: 1787:), but the range of overlap observed between similar vowel pairs suggests this assimilation is not a categorical allophonic rule, but a gradient phonetic process. 5% of the utterance-final samples of the moraic nasal were realized as nasalized vowels with no closure: in this case, appreciable tongue raising was observed only when the preceding vowel was 5314:(although only a subset of vowel sequences can be found within a morpheme in native or Sino-Japanese vocabulary). Sequences of three or more vowels also occur. Similar to the distinction between long vowels and double vowels, some analyses of Japanese phonology recognize a distinction between diphthongs (two different vowel phonemes pronounced in one 5336:. The difference between voiced and voiceless versions of a vowel is not phonemically contrastive: however, the use of voiceless vowels is often described as an obligatory feature of standard Tokyo Japanese, in that it sounds unnatural to use a voiced vowel in positions where devoicing is usual. Devoicing mainly affects the short high (close) vowels 5676:

separates them. In this context, alternative pronunciations involving a voiced vowel are more common than they are between other voiceless sounds. The contrast in pronunciation between a long (geminated) fricative and a sequence of two identical fricatives separated by a devoiced vowel phoneme can be illustrated by pairs such as the following:

9866:, it can be borrowed into Japanese with a geminate; gemination may also appear as a result of borrowing via written materials, where a word spelled with doubled letters leads to a geminated pronunciation. Because these loanwords can feature voiced geminates, Japanese now exhibits a voice distinction with geminates where it formerly did not: 7575:, although Ohta favors the analysis with a superheavy syllable based on intuitition that this word contains a long vowel and not a sequence of two separate vowels. Ito and Mester ultimately question whether the placement of pitch accent on the second mora really rules out analyzing a three-mora sequence as a single superheavy syllable. 5549:. A word-final high vowel is likely to be devoiced when it is preceded by a voiceless consonant and followed without pause (or with little pause) by a word that starts with a voiceless consonant within the same phrase. A word-final high vowel may also be devoiced when preceded by a voiceless consonant and followed by a ' 8929:, the sequences do not occur in standard Japanese outside of foreign loanwords and a few marginal exclamations. There are no morphological alternations motivated by this gap, since no morphemes have an underlying form ending in . In borrowed words, has been used consistently at all time periods (the use of in 10775:

interpret them as still playing a role in Japanese phonology, based on the model of a "stratified" lexicon where some active phonological constraints affect only certain layers of the vocabulary. The gaps in the distribution of these consonant phonemes can also be explained in terms of diachronic sound changes.

13849:. This refers to various historical sound changes that can be loosely described as showing reduction, lenition or coalescence. Alternations resulting from onbin continue to be seen in some areas of Japanese morphology, such as the conjugation of certain verb forms or the form of certain compound verbs. 6861:

Although there is debate about the usefulness or relevance of syllables to the phonology of Japanese, it is possible to analyze Japanese words as being divided into syllables. When setting Japanese lyrics to (modern Western-style) music, a single note may correspond either to a mora or to a syllable.

4597:

when pronounced as an independent word. When a morpheme that can occur independently as a word starting with is used as the second element of a compound, the compound may be pronounced with either or by consistent nasal speakers: factors such as the lexical stratum of the morpheme may play a role,

4062:

The integration of , , , and into contemporary spoken Standard Japanese seems to have been completed at some point after the middle of the twentieth century, in the post-war period: before then, the pronunciation of these sequences seems to have been common only in educated pronunciation. Loanwords

1971:

before the release of the consonant, and for fricatives in the form of a longer period of frication). A geminate can be analyzed phonologically as a syllable-final consonant followed by a syllable-initial consonant (although the hypothesized syllable boundary is not evident at the phonetic level) and

9861:

However, voiced geminate obstruents have been used in words adapted from foreign languages since the 19th century. These loanwords can even come from languages, such as English, that do not feature gemination in the first place. For example, when an English word features a coda consonant preceded by

6894:

Some descriptions of Japanese phonology refer to a VV sequence within a syllable as a diphthong; others use the term "quasi-diphthong" as a means of clarifying that these are analyzed as sequences of two vowel phonemes within one syllable, rather than as unitary phonemes. There is disagreement about

6866:

vowel, N represents a moraic nasal, Q represents a moraic obstruent, components in parentheses are optional, and components separated by a slash are mutually exclusive. However, other, more marginal syllable types (such as trimoraic syllables or vowelless syllables) may exist in restricted contexts.

6473:

is attached to the end of a name to form an affectionate term of address. When this suffix is used, the name may be unchanged in form, or it may optionally be modified: modified forms always have an even number of moras before the suffix. It is common to use the first two moras of the base name, but

2487:

counterpart to . A 2010 corpus study found that in neutralizing varieties, both the fricative and the affricate pronunciation could be found in any position in a word, but the likelihood of the affricate realization was increased in phonetic conditions that allowed for greater time to articulate the

5675:

When a vowel is devoiced between two identical voiceless fricatives, the result is typically not pronounced as a single long fricative. Instead, two acoustically distinct fricative segments are usually produced, although it may be difficult to describe the acoustic characteristics of the sound that

4497:

In the middle of a native morpheme, consistent nasal speakers always use . But in the middle of foreign-stratum morphemes, may be used even by consistent nasal speakers. It is also possible for foreign morphemes to be pronounced with medial : there is considerable variability, but this may be more

271:

in Japanese, words in this stratum originate from several waves of large-scale borrowing from Chinese that occurred from the 6th-14th centuries AD. They comprise 60% of dictionary entries and 20% of ordinary spoken Japanese, ranging from formal vocabulary to everyday words. Most Sino-Japanese words

5660:

sounds like the voiceless palatal fricative . Sometimes there is no clear acoustic boundary between the sound of a devoiced vowel and the sound of the preceding voiceless consonant phoneme. For example, although the word /suta↓iru/ is phonemically analyzed as containing a devoiced /u/ in its first

5604:

A high vowel may occasionally be devoiced after a voiceless consonant even when the following sound is voiced. Devoicing in this context seems to occur more often before nasals or approximants than before other voiced consonant sounds. Some studies have also found rare examples of voiceless vowels

5457:

and also (to a somewhat lesser extent) if the second consonant is a fricative and the first consonant is a fricative or affricate. There is also a tendency to avoid devoicing both vowels when two consecutive syllables (or moras) contain high vowels between voiceless consonants: nevertheless, it is

5225:

long at the phonological level. In normal speech, a "double vowel", that is, a sequence of two identical short vowels (for example, across morpheme boundaries), is pronounced the same way as a long vowel. However, in slow or formal speech, a sequence of two identical short vowels may be pronounced

2003:

uses the length marker to mark a moraic nasal, as , based on the fact that a moraic consonant by itself has the same prosodic weight as a consonant-vowel sequence: consequently, Vance transcribes Japanese geminates with two length markers, e.g. , , and refers to them as "extra-long" consonants. In

363:

in Japanese, this layer of vocabulary consists of non-Sino-Japanese words of foreign origin, mostly borrowed from Western languages after the 16th century; many of them entered the language in the 20th century. In words of this stratum, a number of consonant-vowel sequences that did not previously

11408:

is usually placed between the first and second verb stem. But in some compounds, this vowel can be omitted, resulting in the final consonant of the first verb stem being placed directly before the initial consonant of the second verb stem. When this happens, the first consonant assimilates to the

6965:

sequence, even though this word is arguably monomorphemic in modern Japanese. This is an exceptional case: for the most part, heterosyllabic sequences of two identical short vowels are found only across a morpheme boundary. On the other hand, it is not so rare for a heterosyllabic sequence of two

178:

Many generalizations about Japanese pronunciation have exceptions if recent loanwords are taken into account. For example, the consonant generally does not occur at the start of native (Yamato) or Chinese-derived (Sino-Japanese) words, but it occurs freely in this position in mimetic and foreign

10774:

and voiced obstruents, tend to be found only in certain positions in a word. None of these restrictions applies to foreign vocabulary; some do not apply to mimetic or Sino-Japanese vocabulary; and certain generalizations have exceptions even within Yamato vocabulary; nevertheless, some linguists

6865:

Normally, each syllable contains at least one vowel and has a length of either one mora (called a light syllable) or two moras (called a heavy syllable); thus, the structure of a typical Japanese syllable can be represented as (C)(j)V(V/N/Q), where C represents an onset consonant, V represents a

4407:

Speakers can be divided in three groups based on the extent to which they use in contexts where is not required: some consistently use , some never use , and some show variable use of versus (or ). Speakers who consistently use are a minority. The distribution of versus for these speakers

1777:

after front vowels. Some descriptions state that it may have incomplete occlusion and can potentially be realized as a nasalized vowel, as in intervocalic position. Instrumental studies in the 2010s showed that there is considerable variability in its realization and that it often involves a lip

6334:

The pitch of other moras in the word (or more precisely, in the accent phrase) is predictable. A common simplified model describes pitch patterns in terms of a two-way division between low- and high-pitched moras. Low pitch is found on all moras following the accented mora (if there is one) and

7081:

Syllables of three or more moras, called "superheavy" syllables, are uncommon and exceptional (or "marked"); the extent to which they occur in Japanese words is debated. Superheavy syllables never occur within a morpheme in Yamato or Sino-Japanese. Apparent superheavy syllables can be found in

1782:

data collected between 2017 and 2019 found that the pronunciation of the moraic nasal in utterance-final position most often involves vocal tract closure with a tongue position that can range from uvular to alveolar: it is assimilated to the position of the preceding vowel (for example, uvular

12098:

Gemination occurs regularly in words consisting of two Sino-Japanese morphemes, but tends not to occur across the major boundary of a complex compound (where one of the components is formed of more than one Sino-Japanese morpheme). However, there are some cases of gemination in this context.

6338:

Under this model, it is not possible to distinguish the pitch patterns of an unaccented phrase and a phrase with accent on the final mora: both show low pitch on the first mora and high pitch on every following mora. It is generally said that there is no audible difference between these two

10208:

could be pronounced either as a lengthened sonorant with uninterrupted voicing, or with some amount of laryngealization such as glottal stop insertion. Another noteworthy characteristic of emphatically lengthened consonants is the potential for a greater than two-way distinction in length.

4784:

The frequency of onset in Tokyo Japanese speech was falling as of 2008, and seems to have already been on the decline in 1940. Pronunciations with are generally less frequent for younger speakers, and even though the use of was traditionally prescribed as a feature of standard Japanese,

5344:

when they are preceded by a voiceless consonant and followed by a second voiceless consonant or by a pause. These vowels are normally not devoiced if they are either preceded or followed by a voiced consonant or by another vowel, although occasional exceptions to this have been observed.

5458:

possible for both vowels to be devoiced in this context (perhaps especially in fast speech). Some older descriptions state that the presence of pitch accent on a mora inhibits devoicing of its vowel, but for young contemporary speakers, it seems to be possible to devoice accented vowels.

241:

Japanese possesses a variety of mimetic words that make use of sound symbolism to serve an expressive function. Like Yamato vocabulary, these words are also of native origin, and can be considered to belong to the same overarching group. However, words of this type show some phonological

10040:

attributes this to a less reliable distinction between voiced and voiceless geminates compared to the same distinction in non-geminated consonants, noting that speakers may have difficulty distinguishing them due to the partial devoicing of voiced geminates and their resistance to the

736:

In some analyses the glides are not interpreted as consonant phonemes. In non-loanword vocabulary, they generally can be followed only by a restricted set of vowel sounds: the permitted sequences, , are sometimes analyzed as rising diphthongs rather than as consonant-vowel sequences.

5294:

on either the first or second element, whereas an intrinsically long vowel can be accented only on its first mora. The distinction between double vowels and long vowels may be phonologically analyzed in various ways. One analysis interprets long vowels as ending in a special segment

11403:

is formed depending on the voicing of the following consonant is the derivation of reduced, i.e. contracted, compound verbs. Japanese has a type of compound verb formed by placing the stem of one verb before another. If the first verb has a stem that ends in a consonant, the vowel

5664:

Some analysts have proposed that 'devoiced' vowels may actually be deleted in some circumstances, either at the phonetic level or at some level of the phonology. However, it has been argued in response that other phenomena show at least the underlying presence of a vowel phoneme:

161:

Japanese phonology has been affected by the presence of several layers of vocabulary in the language: in addition to native Japanese vocabulary, Japanese has a large amount of Chinese-based vocabulary (used especially to form technical and learned words, playing a similar role to

6946:'well'. However, the distinction between a heterosyllabic vowel sequence and a long vowel or diphthong is not always predictable from the position of morpheme boundaries: that is, syllable breaks between vowels do not always correspond to morpheme boundaries (or vice versa). 1755:

vowel or moraic semivowel that can be broadly transcribed as (its specific quality depends on the surrounding sounds). This pronunciation may also occur before the voiced fricatives , although more often, they are pronounced as affricates when preceded by the moraic

10782:

occur without restriction at the start of Sino-Japanese and foreign morphemes, but usually do not occur at the start of Yamato words. However, suffixes or postposed particles starting with these sounds have been in use since Old Japanese, such as the case particle

10087:

may be geminated in certain emphatic variants of native words. Reduplicative mimetics may be used in an intensified form where the second consonant of the first portion is geminated, and this can affect consonants that otherwise do not occur as geminates, such as

2319:

is neutralized in syllable-final position, the first half of a geminate obstruent can be interpreted as an archiphoneme (just as the moraic nasal can be interpreted as an archiphoneme representing the neutralization of the contrast between the nasal consonants

1362:

and the identification of moraic consonants as their own phonemes, treating them instead as the syllable-final realizations of other consonant phonemes (although some analysts prefer to avoid using the concept of syllables when discussing Japanese phonology).

6335:

usually also on the first mora of the accent phrase (unless it bears the accent). High pitch is found on the accented mora (if there is one) and on non-initial moras up to the accented mora, or up to the end of the accent phrase if there is no accented mora.

5975:, a distinct concept from that of syllables. Each mora occupies one rhythmic unit, i.e. it is perceived to have the same time value. A mora may be "regular" consisting of just a vowel (V) or a consonant and a vowel (CV), or may be one of two "special" moras, 2982:, noting that in Japanese, syllables such as show a longer average duration than their non-palatalized counterparts (whereas comparable duration differences were not generally found between pairs of palatalized and unpalatalized consonants in Russian). 10488:

may be blocked by a syntactic boundary or by some (though not all) morpheme boundaries (Kawahara suggests that apparent cases of glide formation across morpheme boundaries are best interpreted as evidence that the boundary is no longer transparent).

4436:, 'postwar', although aside from the segmental difference in the consonant, these are prosodically distinct: the first is normally pronounced as two accent phrases, , whereas the second is pronounced as a single accent phrase (either or ). 4785:

pronunciations with seem in practice to have acquired a more prestigious status, as shown by studies that find higher rates of usage when speakers read words from a list. The frequency of also varies by region: it is rare in the southwestern

9334:

argues that and remain "foreignisms" in Japanese phonology; they are less frequent than , and this has been interpreted as evidence that a constraint against * remained active in Japanese phonology for longer than the constraint against *.

5775:

Japanese speakers are usually not even aware of the difference of the voiced and devoiced pair. On the other hand, gender roles play a part in prolonging the terminal vowel: it is regarded as effeminate to prolong, particularly the terminal

956:, the tap is typically articulated in such a way that the tip of the tongue is at first momentarily in light contact with the alveolar ridge before being released rapidly by airflow. This sound is described variably as a tap, a "variant of 1261:

is closely correlated with the time available to a speaker to articulate the consonant, which is affected by speech rate as well as the identity of the preceding sound. All three show a high (over 90%) rate of plosive pronunciations after

1318:, a unit of timing or prosodic length. The phonemic analysis of moraic consonants is disputed. One approach, particularly popular among Japanese scholars, analyzes moraic consonants as the phonetic realization of special "mora phonemes" ( 7342:

According to some accounts, certain forms listed in the above table may be avoided in favor of a different pronunciation with an ordinary heavy syllable (by reducing a long vowel to a short vowel or a geminate to a singleton consonant).

3324:

is uncontroversial, there is disagreement among linguists about whether alveolo-palatal sibilants continue to function synchronically as allophones of coronal consonant phonemes: the identification of as a palatalized allophone of

1760:

At the end of an utterance, the moraic nasal is pronounced as a nasal segment with a variable place of articulation and degree of constriction. Its pronunciation in this position is traditionally described and transcribed as uvular

8898:, but do not contrast in this position with unpalatalized consonants: as a result, palatalization in this context can be analyzed as allophonic. In native Japanese vocabulary, coronal obstruent phones (i.e. ) do not occur before 2741:. When this analysis is adopted, a palatalized consonant before a back vowel is interpreted as a biphonemic /Cj/ sequence. The phonemic analysis described above can be applied straightforwardly to the palatalized counterparts of 4470:, are pronounced with by consistent nasal speakers. In addition, certain words that normally occur after other words may be pronounced with even when they occur at the start of an utterance: examples include the conjunction 1972:

can be transcribed phonetically as two occurrences of the same consonant phone in sequence: a geminate plosive or affricate is pronounced with just one release, so the first portion of such a geminate may be transcribed as an

7359:

again affirms the existence of a tendency to shorten superheavy syllables in speech at a conversational tempo (specifically, to replace VRQ with VQ, VRN with VN, and VNQ with VN), but stipulates that the distinctions between

8972:)). The sequences and tend to be found in words borrowed more recently than around 1950, whereas words borrowed before that point may show depalatalization to and respectively, as seen in the 19th-century borrowed forms 10427:

than the second, there is often not a clear distinction between a pronunciation with hiatus and a pronunciation where a glide with the same frontness as the first vowel is inserted before the second: i.e., the VV sequences

6887:(C)(j)VR (ending in a long vowel). May be analyzed either as a special case of (C)(j)VV with both V as the same vowel phoneme, or as ending in a vowel followed by a special chroneme segment (written as R or sometimes H). 6411:, or the second mora of a long vowel or diphthong). An initial unaccented mora isn't always pronounced with low pitch when it occurs as part of a heavy syllable. Specifically, when the second mora of an accent phrase is 6398:

The placement of pitch accent, and the lowering of pitch on an initial unaccented mora, show some restrictions that can be explained in terms of syllable structure. Accent cannot be placed on the second mora of a

11280:

sound changes, have acted to produce voiceless geminates in Yamato words (often across morpheme boundaries, but sometimes even within a morpheme). Gemination can arise as the result of emphasis, compounding, or

5286:

states that there is no complete glottal closure and questions whether there is any actual glottal narrowing at all. Vance describes it as vowel rearticulation (a drop in intensity) and transcribes it as or .

4955:). When compressed, it is pronounced with the side portions of the lips in contact but with no salient protrusion. In conversational speech, compression may be weakened or completely dropped. It is centralized 2560:

in Standard Japanese are variably pronounced with affricates or fricatives according to the contextual tendencies described above, regardless of whether they are underlyingly voiced or derived by rendaku from

4123:. Both of these replacement strategies are now largely obsolete, although certain old adapted forms continue to be used, sometimes with specialized meanings compared to a variant pronunciation: for example, 3611:

Aside from arguments based on loanword phonology, there is also disagreement about the phonemic analysis of native Japanese forms. Some verbs can be analyzed as having an underlying stem that ends in either

22891:

Youngberg, Connor (2021b), "The role of the elements in diphthong formation and hiatus resolution: Evidence from Tokyo and Owari Japanese", in Bendjaballah, Sabrina; Tifrit, Ali; Voeltzel, Laurence (eds.),

11210:

of the initial consonant of a morpheme from unvoiced to voiced in some contexts when it occurs in the middle of a word. This phonetic difference is marked in the kana spelling of a word via the addition of

9559:

can occur in some colloquial speech forms as a result of dropping of a preceding mora. In this context, its pronunciation is invariably assimilated to the place of articulation of the following consonant:

10583:

Within words and phrases, Japanese allows long sequences of phonetic vowels without intervening consonants. Sequences of two vowels within a single word are extremely common, occurring at the end of many

2282:

and treats geminate consonants as double consonant phonemes, that is, as sequences consisting of a consonant phoneme followed by itself: in this type of analysis, , , can be phonemically transcribed as

1115:

may be pronounced as plosives with zero or low positive voice onset time (categorizable as voiceless unaspirated or "short-lag" plosives); while significantly less aspirated on average than word-initial

9473:

across word boundaries or across the juncture in the middle of a "complex compound" where the first or second element is a prosodic word composed of more than one Sino-Japanese morpheme: for example,

6853:

Aside from the bimoraic foot as shown above, in some analyses monomoraic (one-mora) feet (also called "degenerate" feet) or trimoraic (three-mora) feet are considered to occur in certain contexts.

18775:

Verdonschot, Rinus G.; Kiyama, Sachiko; Tamaoka, Katsuo; Kinoshita, Sachiko; Heij, Wido La; Schiller, Niels O. (2011). "The functional unit of Japanese word naming: Evidence from masked priming".

5792:, 'there is'. Some nonstandard varieties of Japanese can be recognized by their hyper-devoicing, while in some Western dialects and some registers of formal speech, every vowel is voiced. 4598:

but it seems difficult to establish precise rules predicting which pronunciation occurs in this context, and the pronunciation of some words varies even among consistent nasal speakers, such as

21339:

Hashi, Michiko; Komada, Akina; Miura, Takao; Daimon, Shotaro; Takakura, Yuhki; Hayashi, Ryoko (2014), "Articulatory Variability in Word-Final Japanese Moraic-Nasals: An X-ray Microbeam Study",

9938:

Phonetically, voiced geminate obstruents in Japanese tend to have a 'semi-devoiced' pronunciation where phonetic voicing stops partway through the closure of the consonant. High vowels are not

4589:, 'rattle-rattle' ). Consistent nasal speakers typically use at the start of the second morpheme of a bimorphemic Sino-Japanese word, or at the start of a morpheme that has undergone 3920:

is not consistently produced as , but can sometimes be a sound with weak or no bilabial friction that could be transcribed as (a voiceless approximant similar to the start of English "who").

5361:) between two voiceless consonants is very likely to be devoiced if the second consonant is a stop or affricate, or if the first is a stop and the second is a voiceless fricative other than 3489:). Pronouncing loanwords with or is rare even among the most innovative speakers, but not entirely absent. To transcribe , as opposed to , it is possible to use the novel kana spelling 5827:

may occur before a vowel at the beginning of an utterance, or after a vowel at the end of an utterance. This is demonstrated below with the following words (as pronounced in isolation):

22403: 7432:, 'navy blue-QUOTATIVE' are clearly audible in careful pronunciation. Ito and Mester explicitly deny that there is a general tendency to shorten the long vowel of forms such as 899: 872: 6458:

The bimoraic foot, a unit composed of two moras, plays an important role in linguistic analyses of Japanese prosody. The relevance of the bimoraic foot can be seen in the formation of

3796:

Other interpretations treat as their own phonemes, while treating other palatalized consonants as allophones or clusters. The status of as phonemes rather than clusters ending in

10216:+ consonant sequences may also arise in truncated word forms (created by blending some moras from each word in a longer phrase) and in forms produced as the outcome of word games: 9135:. Though originally allophonic, some of these variants have arguably attained phonemic status because of later neutralizations or the introduction of novel contrasts in loanwords. 5661:

mora, it can be acoustically analyzed as starting with a fricative that is sustained up until the following , with no third sound intervening between these two consonant sounds.

2496:, and 80% after a pause. In addition, the rate of fricative realizations increased as speech rate increased. In terms of direction, these effects match those found for the use of 10496:> . In addition, some vowel sequences in contemporary Japanese may optionally undergo coalescence to a long vowel in colloquial or casual speech (for some sequences, such as 6323:

system where a word can either be unaccented, or can bear an accent on one of its moras. An accented mora is pronounced with a relatively high tone and is followed by a drop in

9417:

can occur as the second and final mora of a Sino-Japanese morpheme. It may be followed by any other consonant or vowel. However, in some contexts Sino-Japanese morpheme-final

9274:, which received official recognition by a cabinet notice in 1991 as an alternative to the use of or to adapt foreign . Forms where and can be found include the following: 1814:, but this requires treating syllable or mora boundaries as potentially distinctive, because there is a clear contrast in pronunciation between the moraic nasal and non-moraic 5612:

are sometimes devoiced, usually between voiceless consonants; devoicing of these vowels is infrequent, optional, varies between speakers, and can be affected by speech rate.

5003:

is pronounced with lip protrusion (forward motion causing the lip corners to be brought closer together horizontally), in contrast to the spread lip position of a vowel like

2249:—despite the fact that phonetically, it is not always a stop, and is usually not glottal—based on the use of in certain marginal forms that can be interpreted as containing 179:

words. Because of exceptions like this, discussions of Japanese phonology often refer to layers, or "strata," of vocabulary. The following four strata may be distinguished:

7612:

implausible, and propose that pitch accent, rather than always falling on the first mora of a syllable, may fall on the penultimate mora when a syllable is superheavy. Per

5553:' at a phrase boundary. Devoicing between a voiceless consonant and a pause seems to occur with less overall consistency than devoicing between voiceless consonants. Final 9396:

show a number of phonotactic restrictions (although some constraints can be violated in certain contexts, or may apply only within certain layers of Japanese vocabulary).

6850:

argues that the various kinds of modifications are best explained in terms of a two-mora 'template' used in the formation of this type of hypocoristic: the bimoraic foot.

6305:, though not strictly: geminate consonants and moras with devoiced vowels may be shorter than other moras. Factors such as pitch have negligible influence on mora length. 2004:

the following transcriptions, geminates will be phonetically transcribed as two occurrences of the same consonant across a syllable boundary, the first being unreleased.

87:

is the system of sounds used in the pronunciation of the Japanese language. Unless otherwise noted, this article describes the standard variety of Japanese based on the

22250: 21229:

Broselow, Ellen; Huffman, Marie; Hwang, Jiwon; Kao, Sophia; Lu, Yu-An (2012), "Emergent Rankings in Foreign Word Adaptations", in Arnett, Nathan; Bennett, Ryan (eds.),

1967:) consonant sounds. Compared to singleton consonants, geminate consonants have greater phonetic duration (realized for plosives and affricates in the form of a longer 22655:

Tamaoka, Katsuo; Makioka, Shogo (2004), "Frequency of occurrence for units of phonemes, morae, and syllables appearing in a lexical corpus of a Japanese newspaper",

9619:

generally occurs only between a vowel and a consonant in the middle of a word. However, word-initial geminates may occur in casual speech as the result of elision:

5904:

When an utterance-final word is uttered with emphasis, the presence of a glottal stop is noticeable to native speakers, and it may be indicated in writing with the

22193: 5650:

Phonetically, a devoiced vowel may sound like a period of turbulent noise showing the acoustic characteristics of a voiceless fricative: for example, the devoiced

22234:"Arguments that Japanese [Cj]s are complex onsets: durations of Japanese [Cj]s and Russian [Cj]s and blocking of Japanese vowel devoicing" 5015:

as an unrounded vowel could be caused partly by its fronted articulation, and partly by its protrusion being accompanied by less vertical lip closure compared to

1810:, based on the traditional description of its pronunciation before a pause. It is sometimes analyzed as a syllable-final allophone of the coronal nasal consonant 12285:(which occurs as a reading of various etymologically unrelated morphemes) shows a higher tendency to undergo gemination than other Sino-Japanese forms ending in 11165:

processes that can change the shape of morphemes when they are combined in compounds, derived words, or inflected forms of verbs or adjectives. Various forms of

10028:

Phonemic devoicing like this (which may be marked in spelling) has been argued to be conditioned by the presence of another voiced obstruent. Another example is

11684:

Sino-Japanese morphemes ending in these moras remain unchanged when followed by a voiced consonant, and are usually unchanged when followed by a vowel (but see

11118:, echoing the quality of the vowel before the consonant. There are some deviations from the aforementioned patterns: for example, some older borrowings such as 1350:. The pronunciation of these sounds varies depending on context: because of this, they may be analyzed as "placeless" phonemes with no phonologically specified 965: 5672:

Even when the vowel of a CV sequence is devoiced and appears to be deleted, the pronunciation of the preceding consonant phoneme shows coarticulatory effects.

6450:

have different accent systems: some distinguish a greater number of contrastive pitch patterns than the Tokyo dialect, while others make fewer distinctions.

307:. Japanese writers also repurposed kanji to represent native vocabulary; as a result, there is a distinction between Sino-Japanese readings of kanji, called 22184:

Nasukawa, Kuniya (2015), "8. Why the Palatal Glide Is Not a Consonant in Japanese: A Dependency-based Analysis", in Raimy, Eric; Cairns, Charles E. (eds.),

10801:

occur frequently in the mimetic stratum of native Japanese vocabulary, where they often function as sound-symbolic variants of their voiceless counterparts

7347:

suggests there might be a strong tendency to reduce superheavy syllables to the length of two moras in speech at a normal conversational speed, saying that

7463:

It has also been argued that in some cases, an apparent superheavy syllable might actually be a sequence of a light syllable followed by a heavy syllable.

1802:

and analyzed as a "placeless" nasal. Some analysts do not categorize it as a phonological consonant. Less abstractly, it may be analyzed as a uvular nasal

11024:, 'likewise') or in the middle of a mimetic root (examples are mostly confined to mimetics that imitate "gutteral" or "laryngeal" sounds, such as 5453:

between voiceless consonants is not restricted to fast speech and occurs even in careful pronunciation. Devoicing is inhibited if the second consonant is

2203:. This analysis seems to be supported by the intuition of native speakers and matches the use in kana spelling of a single symbol, a small version of the 25184: 21701:

Kitaoka, Daiho (2017), "Repair Strategies for failed feature specification in Japanese: Evidence from loanwords, a reversing word game, and blending.",

11289:

and a voiced consonant are found in place of voiced geminate obstruents, which do not occur in native Standard Japanese words (other than marginally as

10132:, 'flabby'). Adjectives may take an emphatic pronunciation where the second consonant is geminated and the following vowel is lengthened, as in 4424:, 'big raven') can be cited as examples of words that are segmentally identical aside from the use of versus . Another commonly cited pair is 4408:

mostly follows predictable rules (as described below): however, a number of complications and exceptions exist, and as a result, some linguists analyze

6443:

constituting "deficient moras", a term Labrune suggests can also encompass moras without an onset, with a devoiced vowel, or with an epenthetic vowel.

725:

recognizes 21, equivalent to Smith's 12 plus the following 9 (/j w ts tɕ (d)ʑ ɕ ɸ N Q/). Consonants inside parentheses in the table can be analyzed as

110:. Phonetic length is contrastive for both vowels and consonants, and the total length of Japanese words can be measured in a unit of timing called the 52: 15117:. Secondly, the vowel may combine with the preceding vowel, according to historical sound changes; if the resulting new sound is palatalized, meaning 4545:

At the start of a morpheme in the middle of a word, either or may be possible, depending on the word. Only is possible after the honorific prefix

6969:

In addition, it seems to be possible in some cases for a VV sequence to be pronounced in one syllable even across a morpheme boundary. For example,

6297:

are pronounced louder, longer, and with higher pitch, while unstressed syllables are relatively shorter in duration. Japanese is often considered a

3426:

as continues to be an active rule of Japanese phonology, but that this rule is restricted from applying to words belonging to the foreign stratum.

5584:. Phrase-final vowels are not devoiced when the phrase carries the rising intonation associated with an interrogative sentence, as in the question 4455:

At the start of an independent word, all speakers use in almost all circumstances. However, postpositional particles, such as the subject marker

272:

are composed of more than one Sino-Japanese morpheme. Sino-Japanese morphemes have a limited phonological shape: each has a length of at most two

25035: 21805:

Kubozono, Haruo; Itô, Junko; Mester, Armin (2009), The Linguistic Society of Korea (ed.), "Consonant Gemination in Japanese Loanword Phonology",

21484:

Ito, Junko; Kubozono, Haruo; Mester, Armin (2017), "A prosodic account of consonant gemination in Japanese loanwords", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

21149:

A Psycholinguistic Perspective on Finnish and Japanese Prosody: Perception, Production and Child Acquisition of Consonantal Quantity Distinctions

7623:

Evidence for the avoidance of superheavy syllables includes the adaptation of foreign long vowels or diphthongs to Japanese short vowels before

3735:'(must not) read' as evidence that palatalization produced by vowel coalescence can result in alternation between different consonant phonemes. 23166: 22508:

Sano, Shin-ichiro; Ooigawa, Tomohiko (2010). "Distribution and Trichotomic Realization of Voiced Velars in Japanese – An Experimental Study".

22451:

Riney, Timothy James; Takagi, Naoyuki; Ota, Kaori; Uchida, Yoko (2007), "The intermediate degree of VOT in Japanese initial voiceless stops",

22434: 4999:, while acknowledging the possibility of unrounding in fast speech. Based on visual recordings of Japanese speakers' lips, they conclude that 9927:

is the only voiced stop that is regularly adapted as a geminate when it occurs in word-final position after a lax/short vowel; gemination of

3816:

sequences such as , are generally absent. (Aside from loanwords, also occur marginally in native vocabulary in certain exclamatory forms.)

22604:

Shinohara, Shigeko (2004), "Emergence of universal grammar in foreign word adaptations", in Kager, René; Pater, Joe; Zonneveld, Wim (eds.),

25231: 21166:

Arai, Takayuki; Warner, Natasha; Greenberg, Steven (2007), "Analysis of spontaneous Japanese in a multi-language telephone-speech corpus",

10949:. The gap in the distribution of singleton results from the fact that original *p developed in Japanese to at the start of a word and to 9247:. Verb inflection shows alternations between and , as in 'win' (negative) and 'win' (present tense). However, the interpretation of as 6931:

argues against the syllable as a unit of Japanese phonology and thus concludes that no vowel sequences ought to be analyzed as diphthongs.

3329:

is especially debated, due to the presence of a distinctive contrast between and in the foreign stratum of Standard Japanese vocabulary.

22624:

Starr, Rebecca Lurie; Shih, Stephanie S (2017), "The syllable as a prosodic unit in Japanese lexical strata: Evidence from text-setting",

11134:

after . The use of epenthetic vowels in these contexts is an established convention when using kana to transcribe foreign words or names.

3727:, etc. as evidence that a stem-final consonant is not always maintained without phonemic change throughout a verb's conjugated forms, and 770:

are lamino-alveolopalatal : the affricates are sometimes transcribed broadly as (standing for prepalatal ). The palatalized allophone of

23978: 22222: 22009:

Maekawa, Kikuo (2010), "Coarticulatory reinterpretation of allophonic variation: Corpus-based analysis of /z/ in spontaneous Japanese",

6431:

rejects the use of the syllable in descriptions of Japanese phonology and so explains these phenomena alternatively as a consequence of

25030: 21239: 2733:(excluding certain marginal forms). Palatalized consonants are often analyzed as allophones conditioned by the presence of a following 1996:/p t k s/ and their allophones. (However, other consonant phonemes can appear as geminates in special contexts, such as in loanwords.) 22373:

Poser, William (1986), "Japanese Evidence Bearing on the Compensatory Lengthening Controversy", in Wetzels, Leo; Sezer, Engin (eds.),

11320:'smiling'. Adverbs derived from roots with voiced medial consonants exhibit forms with a moraic nasal in place of gemination, such as 9410:

can occur between a vowel and a consonant, between vowels (where it contrasts with non-moraic nasal onsets), or at the end of a word.

4412:

as a distinct phoneme for consistent nasal speakers. The contrast has very low functional load, but for some speakers pairs such as (

23832: 23433: 2507:(including both and , in either intervocalic or postnasal position) seems to be higher than the rate of non-plosive realizations of 959: 939: 763:-alveolar or laminal denti-alveolar (that is, the blade of the tongue contacts the back of the upper teeth and the front part of the 645: 21977: 9520:

is followed by a morpheme that starts in modern Japanese with a vowel or semivowel developed a pronunciation with a geminate nasal (

6419:(the moraic nasal), the first two moras are optionally either LH (low-high) or HH (high-high). In contrast, when the second mora is 1104:

seem to be unaspirated on average. Phonetic studies in the 1980s observed an effect of accent as well as word position, with longer

21807:

Current Issues in Unity and Diversity of Languages. Collection of Papers Selected from the 18th International Congress of Linguists

21471:

Itô, Junko; Kitagawa, Yoshihisa; Mester, Armin (1996), "Prosodic Faithfulness and Correspondence: Evidence from a Japanese Argot",

9656:. The same generally applies to Sino-Japanese vocabulary. In these layers of vocabulary, functions as the geminate counterpart of 322:

is relatively common in Sino-Japanese, and contact with Middle Chinese is often described as being responsible for the presence of

13807: 10484:, but it is sometimes replaced with : this change is optional in loanwords. Kawahara states that the formation of a glide between 9768:) do not occur as geminates in Yamato or Sino-Japanese words. The avoidance of geminated voiced obstruents can be seen in certain 1160:

non-plosive pronunciations that can be broadly transcribed as voiced fricatives , although they may be realized instead as voiced

6934:

In some contexts, a VV sequence that could form a valid diphthong is separated by a syllable break at a morpheme boundary, as in

2271:

is used as a written representation of in these contexts. This suggests that Japanese speakers identify as the default form of

1999:

Geminate consonants can also be phonetically transcribed with a length mark, as in , but this notation obscures mora boundaries.

22525:

Schourup, Lawrence; Tamori, Ikuhiro (1992), "Japanese Palatalization in Relation to Theories of Restricted Underspecification",

13457:

These historical changes are still germane to modern grammatical analysis and education. For example, the "tentative" auxiliary

4404:. They are written the same way in kana, and native speakers have the intuition that the two sounds belong to the same phoneme. 3418:

to is an inactive, 'fossilized' rule, and conclude that must now be analyzed as containing an affricate phoneme distinct from

2275:, or the form it takes when it is not possible for it to share its place and manner of articulation with a following obstruent. 24657: 15539::82–89); however, the original phonemic transcriptions have been altered and mora boundaries and romanizations have been added. 15435:

to be a "special segment", neither a consonant nor a vowel, and analyzes it as a deficient prosodeme specified only for and .

4647:

can potentially be pronounced as when it occurs non-initially in certain proper nouns or lexicalized compound words, such as

1920:(a contextual neutralization of otherwise contrastive phonemes), since there is no contrast in syllable-final position between 11081: 23438: 23401: 23128: 23098: 23052: 23011: 22993: 22972: 22954: 22936: 22918: 22774: 22756: 22699: 22595: 22550: 22364: 22265: 21901: 21883: 21857: 21831: 21275: 21157: 21137: 17419: 16898: 2997:, but it is debated whether this phonemic interpretation remains accurate in light of contrasts found in loanword phonology. 2687:). Based on dialectal or colloquial forms like these, as well as the phonetic distance between plosive and affricate sounds, 22093:

Mester, R. Armin; Itô, Junko (1989), "Feature Predictability and Underspecification: Palatal Prosody in Japanese Mimetics",

21286:"Plosive (de-)voicing and f0 perturbations in Tokyo Japanese: Positional variation, cue enhancement, and contrast recovery." 2237:

as an underlyingly placeless consonant. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the underlying phonemic representation of

2187:

A common phonemic analysis treats all geminate obstruents as sequences starting with the same consonant: a "mora obstruent"

1164:. There is no context where the non-plosive pronunciations are consistently used, but they occur most often between vowels: 22329: 21953:

The Interface of Meaning and Form: A Collection of Essays in Commemoration of the 60th Birthday of Professor Minoru Nakaumi

21462: 9358:(there is also some use of and ). However, adapted forms show some fluctuation between and in this context, e.g. French 1004: 5221:

Long vowels are pronounced with around 2.5 or 3 times the phonetic duration of short vowels, but are considered to be two

24652: 9945:

In some cases, voiced geminate obstruents can optionally be replaced with the corresponding voiceless geminate phonemes:

5605:

after voiced consonants. Per Vance 2008, high vowels are not devoiced next to a voiced segment in careful pronunciation.

3161: 3043: 2514:

As a result of the neutralization, the historical spelling distinction between these sounds has been eliminated from the

970: 817: 682: 602: 550: 21770:"Linguopalatal contact contrasts in the production of Japanese consonants: Electropalatographic data from five speakers" 11137:

Historically, Sino-Japanese morphemes developed epenthetic vowels after most syllable-final consonants. This is usually

909:, coarticulated with the labial compression of that vowel. When not preceded by a pause, it often may be breathy-voiced 23159: 22317: 21745: 8902:, and in contexts where a morphological process such as verb inflection would place a coronal obstruent phoneme before 713:

Different linguists analyze the Japanese inventory of consonant phonemes in significantly different ways: for example,

22122: 10419:

and may variably be realized phonetically as (possibly due to spelling pronunciation) rather than as the long vowel .

4103:, 'platform'. Another old adaptation pattern was the replacement of foreign with before a vowel other than 3549:

was mentioned, but not officially recommended, by a 1991 cabinet directive on the use of kana to spell foreign words.

24136: 22483: 13794:

of た, だ, です and ない. Instead, たろ, だろ, でしょ and なかろ are perfunctorily used. This perfunctory listing may also extend to

9044:, continue to be used even for recent borrowings. In theory, pronunciations with can be represented by the spelling 6869:

The majority of syllables in spontaneous Japanese speech are 'light', that is, one mora long, with the form (C)(j)V.

1067: 24537: 21613:

Kawahara, Shigeto (2006), "A faithfulness ranking projected from a perceptibility scale: The case of in Japanese",

1916:

Alternatively, in an analysis that treats syllabification as distinctive, the moraic nasal can be interpreted as an

745:, arguing the use of vs. may be predictable if both phonological and morphological context is taken into account. 25271: 25243: 24962: 23268: 13545: 13512: 10204:, 'cold' as and . A 2020 study of geminate production in mimetic forms found that emphatically lengthened 5307:

pronounced in one syllable, and the double vowel consisting of the same two phonemes split between two syllables.

5278:

between vowels; sources differ on how they transcribe and describe the phonetic realization of hiatus in Japanese.

1128:

in word-initial position is a pitch offset on the following vowel: vowels after word-initial (but not word-medial)

608: 556: 22869:

Youngberg, Connor (2021a), "Representing the moraic nasal in Japanese: evidence from Tōkyō, Ōsaka and Kagoshima",

15456:

In contexts requiring specialized linguistic transcription of the sound, such as pronunciation dictionaries, the

10080:

in such forms varies between a lengthened sonorant sound and a sequence of a glottal stop followed by a sonorant.

5333: 3029:

both came to be pronounced as . (As a result, the sequences do not occur in native or Sino-Japanese vocabulary.)

2552:. The use of the historical or morphological spelling in these contexts does not indicate a phonetic distinction: 24916: 24911: 24437: 23971: 23669: 23656: 23195: 18854::827). In such a classification scheme, the plain counterparts of moras with a palatal glide are onsetless moras. 15379: 4321:

is not normally recognized as part of Japanese phonology (although some analysts have instead opted to interpret

1795: 34: 21943: 20854:| has the same effect on a following consonant; etymologically, this prefix is the assimilated form of the stem 13825: 5019:

in other languages, resulting in a less rounded sound. Lip protrusion was also found to be greater for Japanese

227:

in this category show a number of restrictions on structure that may be violated by vocabulary in other layers.

25085: 23867: 23220: 13790:

to disappear entirely. Dictionaries and grammar guides no longer list たら, だら, でせ and なから as, respectively, the

12230:, do not consistently undergo this change. Only a small number of Sino-Japanese characters have a reading with 166:) and loanwords from other languages. Different layers of vocabulary allow different possible sound sequences ( 15031: 15025: 3781:(to clarify that it is analyzed as a single phoneme, some linguists phonemically transcribe this affricate as 3402:, 'digital'.) Based on a study of type frequency in a lexicon and token frequency in a spoken corpus, 24926: 24642: 23827: 23792: 23423: 23210: 23152: 22322:

Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet

12311: 4958: 1245:

These weakened pronunciations can occur not only in the middle of a word, but also when a word starting with

999: 22792:

Vance, Timothy J. (2017), "The Japanese Syllable Debate: A Skeptical Look at Some Anti-Syllable Arguments",

22493: 22071:

Maekawa, Kikuo (2023), "Production of the utterance-final moraic nasal in Japanese: A real-time MRI study",

21554: 10588:-type adjectives, for example, and having three or more vowels in sequence within a word also occurs, as in 7452:

as hardly possible, stating that he and the majority of the informants he consulted judged examples such as

5995:). In the following table, the period represents a mora break, rather than the conventional syllable break. 2725:, but are in complementary distribution before the front vowels: only the palatalized version occurs before 25057: 24896: 24455: 24143: 23413: 23366: 23205: 21724: 10365:

Any pair of vowels can occur in sequence across morpheme boundaries, or within a morpheme in foreign words.

9056:

necessarily corresponds to how speakers phonetically realize the sequence. Foreign may also be adapted as

4918: 4900: 4066: 4014: 3875: 3850: 3776: 3348:

The sequences are found exclusively in recent loanwords; they have been assigned the novel kana spellings

2954:. Palatalized consonants could instead be interpreted as their own phonemes, in which case is composed of 2638: 2605: 2580: 2429: 1794:

There are a variety of competing phonemic analyses of the moraic nasal. It may be transcribed with the non-

1683: 993: 885: 812: 588: 580: 535: 441: 21524:

Ito, Junko; Mester, Armin (2015b), "Word formation and phonological processes", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

20855: 20851: 15616: 15515: 15444: 15432: 15008: 14989: 14970: 14959: 14953: 14912: 14906: 14900: 14894: 14890: 14886: 14882: 14861: 14855: 14836: 14830: 14811: 14800: 14794: 14766: 14760: 14754: 14748: 14744: 14740: 14736: 14702: 14680: 14661: 14642: 14631: 14625: 14619: 14613: 14607: 14588: 14582: 14576: 14533: 14527: 14521: 14515: 14509: 14505: 14501: 14497: 14463: 14439: 14428: 14422: 14408: 14384: 14378: 14355: 14346: 14340: 14312: 14306: 14300: 14294: 14290: 14286: 14282: 14256: 14250: 14244: 14237: 14229: 14217: 14211: 14204: 14180: 14174: 14168: 14161: 14149: 14112: 14089: 14048: 14012: 13993: 13970: 13954: 13950: 13943: 13935: 13931: 13754: 13748: 13742: 13736: 13730: 13703: 13622: 13564: 13535: 13529: 13451: 13446: 13441: 13436: 13417: 12727: 12581: 12577: 12379: 12352: 12344: 12340: 12336: 12332: 12286: 12282: 12278: 12274: 12270: 12266: 12262: 12239: 12231: 12227: 12223: 12219: 12196: 12188: 12184: 12180: 12176: 12172: 12168: 12145: 12137: 12133: 12110: 12092: 12088: 12078: 12074: 12060: 12056: 12052: 11485: 11481: 11477: 11473: 11469: 11465: 11457: 11453: 11449: 11445: 11441: 11410: 11405: 11400: 11393: 11389: 11385: 11381: 11377: 11373: 11369: 11286: 11142: 11138: 11131: 11115: 11111: 11107: 11103: 11099: 11095: 11091: 11065: 11061: 11057: 11049: 11045: 11041: 11037: 11003: 10978: 10974: 10970: 10966: 10962: 10954: 10950: 10910: 10906: 10902: 10862: 10858: 10854: 10836: 10832: 10825: 10821: 10802: 10798: 10779: 10771: 10767: 10763: 10707: 10656: 10558: 10552: 10530: 10524: 10513: 10509: 10505: 10501: 10497: 10493: 10485: 10481: 10477: 10473: 10469: 10433: 10429: 10416: 10412: 10393: 10377: 10369: 10344: 10328: 10312: 10296: 10286: 10278: 10270: 10260: 10242: 10232: 10213: 10205: 10177: 10173: 10123: 10089: 10084: 10077: 10049: 9932: 9928: 9924: 9920: 9916: 9912: 9908: 9765: 9686: 9679: 9675: 9671: 9661: 9657: 9653: 9649: 9645: 9641: 9637: 9629: 9623: 9616: 9609: 9602: 9598: 9586: 9578: 9574: 9568: 9564: 9556: 9544: 9540: 9533: 9525: 9521: 9517: 9474: 9470: 9434: 9430: 9426: 9418: 9414: 9407: 9400: 9393: 9389: 9369: 9365: 9355: 9351: 9347: 9343: 9256: 9252: 9248: 9244: 9240: 9229: 9225: 9221: 9217: 9210: 9206: 9199: 9195: 9191: 9187: 9183: 9179: 9175: 9171: 9163: 9159: 9155: 9147: 9139: 9132: 9124: 9116: 9112: 9065: 9057: 8914: 8903: 8899: 8895: 8887: 8883: 8876: 8872: 8868: 8853: 8848: 8839: 8834: 8826: 8821: 8609: 8604: 8596: 8590: 8584: 8578: 8572: 8566: 8560: 8554: 8549: 8541: 8535: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8513: 8507: 8502: 8497: 8489: 8483: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8461: 8455: 8450: 8445: 8437: 8431: 8425: 8420: 8415: 8409: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8385: 8379: 8373: 8368: 8363: 8357: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8333: 8327: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8305: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8281: 8275: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8253: 8247: 8242: 8237: 8229: 8223: 8217: 8212: 8207: 8201: 8195: 8190: 8185: 8177: 8171: 8165: 8159: 8153: 8147: 8141: 8135: 8130: 8122: 8116: 8110: 8105: 8100: 8094: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8070: 8064: 8058: 8053: 8048: 8042: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8018: 8012: 8006: 8001: 7996: 7990: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7967: 7961: 7956: 7951: 7946: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7921: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7879: 7840: 7832: 7823: 7803: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7624: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7589: 7585: 7474: 7470: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7083: 7082:

certain morphologically derived Yamato forms (including inflected verb forms where a suffix starting with

7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7050: 7034: 7030: 6962: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6924: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6834: 6823: 6813: 6802: 6781: 6770: 6760: 6749: 6739: 6728: 6707: 6696: 6686: 6675: 6665: 6654: 6633: 6622: 6612: 6601: 6580: 6569: 6559: 6548: 6538: 6527: 6517: 6506: 6496: 6485: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6392: 6383: 6362: 6346: 6328: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6175: 6171: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6109: 6082: 6055: 6028: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5917: 5879: 5857: 5835: 5805: 5777: 5749: 5731: 5708: 5685: 5651: 5620: 5609: 5554: 5546: 5542: 5517: 5494: 5471: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5421: 5398: 5375: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5341: 5337: 5304: 5296: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4980: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4932: 4926: 4912: 4737: 4594: 4409: 4401: 4381: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4280: 4104: 4076: 4072: 3988: 3924: 3917: 3882: 3869: 3860: 3856: 3836: 3832: 3824: 3820: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3732: 3728: 3706: 3696: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3617: 3613: 3558: 3504: 3474: 3470: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3326: 3321: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3224: 3218: 3196: 3190: 3168: 3155: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3106: 3100: 3078: 3072: 3050: 3037: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2979: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2921: 2908: 2886: 2880: 2869: 2843: 2837: 2815: 2809: 2787: 2781: 2759: 2753: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2700: 2692: 2672: 2612: 2599: 2590: 2586: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2532: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2493: 2489: 2480: 2476: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2425: 2421: 2399: 2393: 2389: 2380: 2374: 2370: 2361: 2355: 2351: 2339: 2325: 2321: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2300: 2292: 2284: 2279: 2272: 2250: 2238: 2234: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 1985: 1981: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1925: 1921: 1836: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1799: 1788: 1784: 1748: 1720: 1597: 1565: 1359: 1355: 1341: 1331: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1258: 1254: 1246: 1220: 1207: 1185: 1172: 1153: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1112: 1101: 1093: 1010: 984: 976: 953: 932:

varies greatly depending on environment and dialect. The prototypical and most common pronunciation is an

929: 891: 864: 860: 848: 827: 797: 779: 775: 771: 742: 730: 697: 331: 323: 319: 149: 139: 129: 107: 48: 44: 25266: 24790: 24770: 24574: 24527: 21326:

Hamano, Shoko (2000), "Voicing of Obstruents in Old Japanese: Evidence from the Sound-Symbolic Stratum",

15394: 15384: 11077: 10415:(as sequences of non-identical vowels) or (as long vowels). Sino-Japanese is historically derived from 7861: 4986: 4950: 4861: 4852: 4276: 4022: 2914: 1034: 920: 854: 840: 629: 617: 7600:

here as its own syllable, separate from the preceding vowel, while stating that a variant pronunciation

24906: 23964: 23805: 23341: 23291: 23225: 23200: 21814:

Kubozono, Haruo (2015a), "Introduction to Japanese phonetics and phonology", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

10958: 10504:, coalescence is not possible in all contexts, but only in adjective forms). The monophthongization of 6246: 4994: 4938: 2718: 1623: 1544: 675: 491: 478: 163: 24780: 22832:

Westbury, John R.; Hashi, Michiko (1997), "Lip-pellet positions during vowels and labial consonants",

14108: 13503: 9262:

In addition, unaffricated are sometimes used in recent loanwords. They can be represented in kana by

8922: 3677:, (more narrowly, ) can occur instead of for some speakers in contracted speech forms, such as for 25191: 25169: 24957: 23514: 23443: 23301: 23281: 22683:

Tateishi, Koichi (2017), Kaplan, Aaron; Kaplan, Abby; McCarvel, Miranda K.; Rubin, Edward J. (eds.),

16090: 15499:– each mora, with the exception of CjV clusters, being one kana – and are referred to in Japanese as 13829: 13424:

with another vowel that preceded it, creating a long vowel. These vowel fusions are not reflected in

11282: 10048:

A small number of foreign proper names have katakana spellings that would imply a pronunciation with

8918: 7054: 5820: 4992: 4984: 4956: 4948: 4936: 4916: 4875: 4342: 4334: 4064: 4020: 4012: 3873: 3848: 3774: 3159: 3041: 3006: 2912: 2636: 2603: 2578: 2432:

in Standard Japanese and in most (although not all) regional Japanese dialects. (Some dialects, e.g.

2242: 1803: 1770: 1762: 1712: 1681: 1652: 1621: 1589: 1557: 1211: 1178: 1176: 1076: 1065: 1054: 1043: 1032: 1021: 1002: 991: 968: 957: 945: 937: 918: 910: 883: 852: 838: 815: 804: 783: 594: 541: 391: 22853: 21382: 11036:, 'laughing'). In Yamato words, this gap results from the aforementioned change of original 8944:

seems to be a unique exception). Another rare exception, showing adaptation to (vowel raising), is

7057:

is almost never pronounced as a separate syllable; instead, it combines with a preceding stem-final

7037:

in this word, they seem to be pronounced in one syllable as a diphthong, making it a homophone with

4400:, 'music' ). It is debated whether onset constitutes a separate phoneme or an allophone of 4364:, is generally restricted to word-internal position, where it may occur either after a vowel (as in 3561:

are ever distinguished in pronunciation from in adapted forms, regardless of whether the spellings

1539:

Its pronunciation varies depending on the sound that follows it (including across a word boundary).

25226: 25164: 25154: 25118: 25016: 24967: 24891: 24866: 24475: 23837: 23519: 23453: 23418: 21188: 15523: 14157: 13684: 11376:-insertion in this context). Likewise, a moraic consonant often occurs between the emphatic prefix 11064:, which seems to be disproportionately common as the second consonant of a mimetic root. Likewise, 7766: 7740: 7697: 7671: 7645: 7191: 7158: 4283:: for example, there is no meaningful phonological or phonetic difference in pronunciation between 1078: 1062: 947: 912: 806: 251: 242:

peculiarities that cause some theorists to regard them as a separate layer of Japanese vocabulary.

236: 24532: 21312: 3553:

argues that the difference between and may be marginally contrastive for some speakers, whereas

2721:

counterparts. Pairs of palatalized and non-palatalized consonants contrast before the back vowels

24610: 23681: 23564: 23534: 23499: 23286: 23230: 23215: 22560: 22205:

Japanese vowels, consonants, syllables: Experimental phonetics research of articulatory movements

15369: 9536:

followed by a vowel is regularly pronounced without resyllabification in Sino-Japanese compounds.

7521:

state that compounds formed from words of this shape often exhibit variable accentuation, citing

3576:

The sequence (as opposed to either or ) also has some marginal use in loanwords. An example is

1045: 508: 497: 484: 23144: 17436:特別な音の書き表し方については,取決めを行わず,自由とすることとしたが,その中には,例えば,「スィ」｢ズィ｣｢グィ｣｢グェ｣｢グォ｣｢キェ｣｢ニェ｣｢ヒェ｣｢フョ｣｢ヴョ｣等の仮名が含まれる。 11409:

second, producing a voiceless geminate if the second is voiceless, and a sequence starting with

11006:

is rarely found in the middle of a Yamato morpheme (a small number of exceptions exist, such as

5972: 5962: 4071:

as an adaptation of foreign . Some older borrowed forms show adaptation of foreign to Japanese

2681:, 'dad', although these are marginal and nonstandard (the standard form of this word is 2475:

In accents with the merger, the phonetically variable sound can be transcribed phonemically as

24627: 23935: 23722: 23529: 23428: 22175:

Nasu, Akio (2015), "The phonological lexicon and mimetic phonology", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

22124:

Articulation of the Japanese Moraic Nasal: Place of Articulation, Assimilation, and L2 Transfer

11154: 10810: 9050:(mostly used to transcribe proper nouns), although it's not clear that the use of the spelling 4884: 2946:

In the analysis presented above, a sequence like is interpreted as containing three phonemes,

1213: 782:

is also lamino-alveolopalatal or prepalatal, and so can be transcribed as , or more broadly as

30: 24811: 21979:

A lip protrusion mechanism examined by magnetic resonance imaging and finite element modeling.

21769: 21285: 10636:

sound; these may be dropped in rapid speech. A fairly common construction exhibiting these is

25108: 24997: 24470: 24016: 24006: 23579: 23546: 23539: 23448: 23361: 23356: 22233: 21587: 21106: 21088: 21049: 15501: 15447:, and explains the nasal consonant in the surface phonetic form as a non-phonemic transition. 13425: 6314: 5958: 3689:'if one speaks'; Vance notes these could be dismissed as non-phonemic rapid speech variants. 1654: 1559: 1351: 1073: 1056: 1023: 988: 433: 426: 343: 327: 125: 22347:

Pintér, Gábor (2015), "The emergence of new consonant contrasts", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

21147: 12102:

The formation of a geminate also depends on the identity of the first and second consonant:

11086:

Words of foreign origin are systematically adapted to Japanese phonotactics by inserting an

7567:

reports a suggestion by Shin’ichi Tanaka (per personal communication) that the accentuation

5987:

may precede the vowel in "regular" moras (CjV). Some analyses posit a third "special" mora,

4629:, 'five', is pronounced with when it is used as part of a compound numeral, as in 1943:, 'three sheets', pronounced phonetically as , could be phonemically transcribed as 1120:, some overlap in voice onset time was observed. A secondary cue to the distinction between 25159: 24982: 24886: 24760: 24562: 24497: 24011: 23925: 23787: 23697: 23676: 23586: 23574: 23569: 23313: 23296: 22156: 15402:, the different distinctions of historical *zi, *di, *zu, *du in different regions of Japan 13413: 6447: 6298: 5920:(normally found as the first half of a geminate). This is also found in interjections like 5558: 5275: 4344: 1040: 1029: 835: 785: 514: 10984: 9216:

In dialects that show neutralization of the contrast, the merged phone can occur before

7089: 6245:

Traditionally, moras were divided into plain and palatal sets, the latter of which entail

8: 25208: 25090: 25062: 24977: 24557: 23915: 23822: 23800: 23757: 23742: 23707: 23651: 23596: 23591: 23460: 23346: 23323: 23263: 23032: 22494:"Patterns in Avoidance of Marked Segmental Configurations in Japanese Loanword Phonology" 15389: 15374: 15064:) exhibit a one-step or two-step sound change. Firstly, these use the continuative form, 13786:, must still be learnt separately. Furthermore, results of the above fusions caused some 10809:

sequences involving a nasal phoneme followed by an obstruent phoneme, which developed to

10411:

Within a Sino-Japanese morpheme, the only vowel sequences that can normally be found are

3800:

is argued to be supported by the stable use of the sequences in loanwords; in contrast,

1805: 1764: 1097: 573: 526: 461: 24502: 23111:

in Romanized Japanese", in Nishiyama, Kunio; Kishimoto, Hideki; Aldridge, Edith (eds.),

22313: 22160: 21515:

Ito, Junko; Mester, Armin (2015a), "Sino-Japanese phonology", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

12355:

respectively being added to the start of a following morpheme beginning with a vowel or

10806: 9060:

in some cases. For some speakers, the optional, colloquial coalescence of certain other

5461:

Avoidance of consecutive devoicing can be seen in pronunciations such as the following:

3009:

sibilants function, at least historically, as the palatalized counterparts of the four

1976:. As discussed above, geminate nasal consonants are normally analyzed as sequences of a 25238: 25179: 24987: 24921: 24806: 24519: 24261: 23812: 23556: 23551: 23506: 23465: 23253: 23179: 23134: 23087: 22854:"Speaker-specific place of articulation: Idiosyncratic targets for Japanese coda nasal" 22736: 22426: 22110: 21840:

Kubozono, Haruo (2015b), "Diphthongs and vowel coalescence", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

21630: 21493:

Itō, Junko; Mester, R. Armin (1995), "Japanese phonology", in Goldsmith, John A (ed.),

21441: 21210: 21193: 18810: 15409: 13429: 13421: 11568: 11493: 11207: 7923: 7053:

used as a suffix to form the dictionary form (or affirmative nonpast-tense form) of an

6911:

can be diphthongs, although some prior literature has included other sequences such as

6287: 4336: 3354:. (Loanwords borrowed before was widely tolerated usually replaced this sequence with 1973: 1772: 1591: 452: 386: 381: 289: 111: 24507: 24343: 24292: 23712: 22029:

Maekawa, Kikuo (2018) , "Weakening of Stop Articulation in Japanese Voiced Plosives",

21425: 25067: 25002: 24972: 24775: 24594: 24579: 24552: 24547: 24485: 24423: 24398: 24333: 24207: 24045: 24035: 24026: 23987: 23940: 23905: 23890: 23874: 23862: 23847: 23817: 23777: 23747: 23727: 23717: 23661: 23641: 23631: 23616: 23601: 23486: 23481: 23408: 23378: 23373: 23351: 23333: 23328: 23318: 23308: 23138: 23124: 23094: 23074: 23048: 23041: 23020: 23007: 22989: 22968: 22950: 22932: 22914: 22770: 22752: 22740: 22695: 22672: 22591: 22546: 22479: 22430: 22360: 22325: 22284:"Redefining Roundness, Protrusion and Compression: In the Case of Tokyo Japanese /u/" 22144: 21897: 21879: 21853: 21827: 21678: 21634: 21458: 21271: 21218: 21153: 21133: 18802: 16894: 15405: 11158: 10814: 10492:

Many long vowels historically developed from vowel sequences by coalescence, such as

10361:

Vowel sequences with no intervening consonant (VV sequences) occur in many contexts:

7757: 7731: 7688: 7662: 7636: 7555:

note that the pitch-based criterion for syllabifying VV sequences would suggest that

7182: 7149: 3010: 2671:'. There are also a small number of native forms with before a vowel other than 2515: 2484: 1649: 1543:

Before a plosive, affricate, nasal, or liquid, it is pronounced as a nasal consonant

801: 760: 413: 398: 365: 121: 81: 20: 24251: 24050: 23062: 22684: 21412:

Homma, Yayoi (1981), "Durational relationships between Japanese stops and vowels.",

18814: 18501: 11552:

and it is followed by a voiceless consonant, this mora is sometimes replaced by the

11413:

if the second is a voiced obstruent or nasal (e.g. hik- 'pull' + tate- 'stand' >

10953:

between vowels, resulting in being retained only as part of the geminate or after

6877:"Heavy" syllables (two moras long) may potentially take any of the following forms: 2469: 1294:(although the use of here may be declining for younger speakers). Across contexts, 25196: 25174: 24952: 24748: 24589: 24391: 24381: 24376: 24364: 24217: 24153: 24109: 23920: 23852: 23842: 23782: 23772: 23767: 23752: 23737: 23732: 23646: 23636: 23494: 23388: 23276: 23258: 23248: 23116: 22963:

Kubozono, Haruo (1999), "Chap. 2: Mora and syllable", in Tsujimura, Natsuko (ed.),

22896:, Studies in Generative Grammar, vol. 143, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 207–249 22878: 22841: 22820: 22728: 22664: 22633: 22575: 22513: 22460: 22418: 22391: 22352: 22224:

Examination of the [si] and [ʃi] Confusion by Japanese ESL Learners

22208: 22164: 22102: 22080: 22058: 22038: 22018: 21998: 21871: 21845: 21819: 21781: 21757: 21710: 21690: 21622: 21542: 21421: 21370: 21348: 21300: 21263: 21202: 21175: 18792: 18784: 15364: 15351: 6463: 6283: 2993:. The alveolar-palatal sibilants can be analyzed as the palatalized allophones of 2699:

disregards such forms as exceptional, and prefers analyzing and as allophones of

2307:. Alternatively, since the contrast between different obstruent consonants such as 1714: 1709: 1141: 1105: 975:

is a common variant in all conditions, particularly utterance-initially and before

933: 637: 408: 128:

where the position or absence of a pitch drop may determine the meaning of a word:

24717: 24312: 24256: 24094: 22517: 21374: 6427:, initial lowering seems to apply as usual to the first mora only, LH (low-high). 2518:

except in cases where a mora is repeated once voiceless and once voiced, or where

2488:

consonant: voiced affricates were found to occur on average 60% of the time after

964:", "a kind of weak plosive", and "an affricate with short friction, ". The apical 25221: 24881: 24876: 24871: 24584: 24357: 24268: 24168: 24129: 24124: 24085: 24065: 23930: 23910: 23895: 23857: 23762: 23702: 23626: 23611: 23606: 23396: 23383: 22981: 22816:

Cultural and Educational Contributions to Recent Phonological Changes in Japanese

22042: 21761: 21353: 16888: 16092: 15159:

prefix. The terms are also used in their full form, with notable examples being:

14153: 11567:

is based on the frequent alternation of these sounds in this context), forming a

11162: 9772:

processes that produce voiceless but not voiced geminate obstruents: e.g. Yamato

9320: 9310: 9295: 9285: 5966: 5282:

says it can be "a pause or a light glottal stop", and adopts the transcription .

3366:, and certain forms exhibiting these replacements continue to be used; likewise, 2691:

argues that the affricate is its own phoneme, represented by the non-IPA symbol

420: 403: 24350: 21910:

Lawrence, Wayne P. (1999), "Ha-gyōon no mae no sokuon - gendaigo ni okeru /Qh/"

21320:

Proceedings of the 2013 Annual Conference of the Canadian Linguistic Association

15359: 10842: 9547:; this can be interpreted as a special case of the more general sound change of 7513:, 'Green Car' (first-class car of a train) (syllabified per Kubozono as 7103: 5007:, or the vertical movement of the lips towards each other for the allophone of 3620:; these become or respectively before inflectional suffixes that start with : 25216: 24567: 24542: 24465: 24445: 24418: 24369: 24321: 24285: 24239: 24183: 24178: 24158: 23945: 23900: 22579: 22464: 22022: 21313:"Documenting phonological change: A comparison of two Japanese phonemic splits" 21304: 15132:, this combines with the preceding consonant, yielding a palatalized syllable. 14196: 13930:

One type of onbin caused certain onset consonants to be deleted, mainly before

12048: 11265: 5318:) and heterosyllabic vowel sequences; other analyses make no such distinction. 4794: 4790: 4786: 4573:, 'health' ) or at the start of a reduplicated mimetic morpheme (as in 3819:

It has alternatively been suggested that pairs like vs. could be analyzed as

1051: 1018: 764: 721:

recognizes 16, equivalent to Smith's 12 plus the following 4 (/j w ts ɴ/), and

717:

recognizes only 12 underlying consonants (/m p b n t d s dz r k ɡ h/), whereas

285: 19:

For assistance with IPA transcriptions of Japanese for Knowledge articles, see

22732: 22422: 22356: 22085: 21694: 21503: 21267: 20514: 15151:), which is because these terms are abbreviations of polite phrases ending in 11834:

Gemination can also affect Sino-Japanese morphemes that historically ended in

10789:, and morphemes that underlyingly start with a voiceless obstruent often have 10632:, which can occur in sequence, and may follow a word itself terminating in an 3301:, with the resulting merged phone varying between and . The contrast between 2872:

is normally described as (although some speakers do not distinguish from ):

1968: 25260: 25007: 24753: 24732: 24450: 24302: 24246: 24114: 24104: 24080: 24070: 24060: 23078: 22709: 21222: 14192: 12305: 11496:

analyses interpret this as the synchronic underlying form of the consonant.)

9178:

in this context is distinct phonemically and sometimes phonetically from the

5027:

in a 2005 MRI study and in a 1997 study using x-ray microbeam kinematic data.

4834: 4660: 3589: 3414:. Some analysts argue that the use of in loanwords shows that the change of 2668: 1779: 1014: 831: 368:

and complicates the phonemic analysis of these consonant sounds in Japanese.

88: 23113:

Topics in Theoretical Asian Linguistics: Studies in honor of John B. Whitman

22646:

Takayama, Tomoaki (2015), "Historical phonology", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

22133: 21875: 21849: 21823: 21665: 21533:

Ito, Junko; Mester, R. Armin (2018), "Tonal alignment and preaccentuation",

21497:, Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics, Blackwell Publishers, pp. 817–838 18573: 10757: 8925:

contain , as well as exhibiting in place of modern standard . As discussed

6327:, which can be marked in transcription by placing a downward-pointing arrow 1111:

A 2019 study of young adult speakers found that after a pause, word-initial

24992: 24821: 24386: 24280: 24224: 24193: 24188: 24001: 23036: 22945:

Haraguchi, Shosuke (1999), "Chap. 1: Accent", in Tsujimura, Natsuko (ed.),

22845: 22676: 22198:

Nihongo no boin, shiin, onsetsu: Chōon undō no jikken onseigaku-teki kenkyū

21642: 18806: 15337: 6324: 6320: 5822: 5817: 5541:

Devoicing does not only occur within words, but can also affect word-final

5037: 2433: 2244: 1917: 167: 73: 22614: 22395: 21960:

Lawrence, Wayne P. (2004), "High Vowels, Glides, and Japanese Phonology",

21715: 21626: 21546: 18513: 9421:

may cause changes to the start of a closely connected following morpheme:

5327: 4805: 3743:

There are several alternatives to the interpretation of as allophones of

3281:. (These analyses correspond to the representation of these sounds in the 1108:(greater aspiration) in accented syllables than in unaccented syllables. 334:

also came to exist in native Japanese words as a result of sound changes.

288:

monosyllabic morphemes, each generally represented in writing by a single

25047: 24275: 23120: 22338:

Otake, Takashi (2015), "Mora and mora-timing", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

21866:

Kubozono, Haruo (2015c), "Loanword phonology", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

21432:

Irwin, Mark (2008). "Homomorphemic Diffusion in Japanese Nonce Lexemes".

15443:

analyzes Tokyo Japanese as possessing underlying long nasal vowels, e.g.

12222:

before any voiceless obstruent, but some morphemes, such as the numerals

6890:(C)(j)V₁V₂, where V₁ is different from V₂. Sometimes notated as (C)(j)VJ. 5801: 4944: 4846: 4829: 4810: 2420:

The distinction between the voiced fricatives (originally allophones of

2233:) to write the first half of any geminate obstruent. Some analyses treat 1161: 1100:—less so than English stops, but more than those in Spanish. Word-medial 312: 22824: 21795: 21445: 18657: 16604: 14697: 9725:, 'Bach'), and rarely in Sino-Japanese or mixed compounds (e.g. 9678:: however, there were also at least some cases where it was followed by 9023:

The use of in loanwords is inconsistent: adapted pronunciations with (

7477:, citing forms where pitch accent is placed on the second vowel such as 3249:

Therefore, alveolo-palatal can be analyzed as positional allophones of

1028:

is a variant marked with vulgarity. Other reported variants include the

741:

analyzes the glides as non-syllabic variants of the high vowel phonemes

25076: 25042: 24851: 24846: 24841: 24836: 24831: 24722: 23047:, Linguistic Inquiry monographs (No. 15), Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 22668: 22002: 15470:

can be used to represent as opposed to . However, in ordinary writing

15457: 13949:

Another type of onbin resulted in the development of moraic consonants

12064: 11087: 9064:

to can produce in native forms, such as (a variant pronunciation of

6459: 5669:

Prosodically, vowel devoicing does not affect the mora count of a word.

5348: 4892: 4839: 1964: 308: 22883: 22694:, Somerville, Massachusetts: Cascadilla Proceedings Project: 529–535, 22238:

Working Papers of the Linguistics Circle of the University of Victoria

22213: 22168: 22114: 22063: 21989:

Maddieson, Ian (2005), "Bilabial and Labio-dental Fricatives in Ewe",

21786: 21746:"Voicing and Tongue-Palate Contact Differences in Japanese Obstruents" 21258:

Fujimoto, Masako (2015), "Vowel devoicing", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

21214: 21180: 20059: 20057: 20042: 19658: 18797: 13767:

is listed in inflection tables, a combination of it and the auxiliary

10277:

However, there are also reversed argot forms that show replacement of

6474:

there are also variations that are not produced by simple truncation:

1314:

Certain consonant sounds are called 'moraic' because they count for a

364:

exist in Japanese are tolerated, which has led to the introduction of

24856: 24785: 24765: 24707: 23175: 22814: 22638: 22382:

Poser, William J. (1990), "Evidence for Foot Structure in Japanese",

22283: 21679:"Boundary phenomena and variability in Japanese high vowel devoicing" 20319: 20317: 19027: 18788: 16207: 15399: 15135:

This is most prominent in certain everyday terms that derive from an

12356: 12081:) but were assimilated to the following consonant in compounds (e.g. 11231: 11094:) after a word-final consonant or between adjacent consonants. While 10957:. (The labial fricative could be found before all vowels up through 10905:

in other positions. In contrast, mimetic words can contain singleton

10790: 10699: 10372:

can be found within a morpheme in indigenous or Sino-Japanese words.

9863: 9597:(This place name has an alternative pronunciation with an epenthetic 9138:

In core vocabulary, can be analyzed as an allophonic realization of

9131:

Several Japanese consonants developed special phonetic values before

6302: 4869: 3695:

argues that alternations in verb forms do not prove is phonemically

2415: 1993: 1752: 1417:) can be interpreted as a syllable-final nasal consonant. Aside from 823: 726: 663: 99: 84: 24727: 24712: 23956: 22192: 21075: 16546: 16497: 14146: 10828:

occurs without restriction in Sino-Japanese and foreign vocabulary.

10424: 9306:

Older loanwords from French display adaptation of as and of as :

7784:

Some analyses recognize vowelless syllables in restricted contexts.

4135:

tends to be restricted in modern use to photographic films, whereas

3758:

Some interpretations agree with the analysis of as an allophone of

1769:, sometimes with the qualification that it is, or approaches, velar 1425:. It can be followed by a consonant, a vowel, or the end of a word: 25021: 24702: 24697: 24692: 24619: 24460: 23085:

Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990), "Japanese", in Comrie, Bernard (ed.),

22692:

Proceedings of the 34th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics

22404:"On the articulatory classification of (alveolo)palatal consonants" 22106: 21231:

Proceedings of the 30th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics

21206: 21062: 20998: 20054: 18777:

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition

17533: 15496: 15492: 15345: 14191:

is found predominantly in eastern dialects (including the standard

10835:

occurs only as a word-medial geminate (or equivalently, only after

9150:. This introduces a distinctive contrast between and ; therefore, 7872:

Phonotactically legal phoneme sequences, each counting as one mora

7857: 7853: 6290: 5992: 5300: 5040:

contrast: short vowels are phonemically distinct from long vowels:

4520:) or in borrowings that contained in the source language (such as 2221: 2208: 1385: 1372: 1335: 1157: 224: 94:

There is no overall consensus on the number of contrastive sounds (

40: 25136: 22207:] (in Japanese), Tokyo: National Language Research Institute, 20314: 20256: 19721: 18122: 16568: 11110:(used to adapt foreign word-final ) the epenthetic vowel is often 10961:, but was eventually debuccalized to before any vowel other than 10083:

Aside from loanwords, consonants that cannot normally occur after

3665:(marking the conditional), forming and respectively, as in for 3285:.) Most dialects show a merger in the pronunciation of underlying 983:, utterance-initially and intervocalically (that is, except after 223:

in Japanese, this category comprises inherited native vocabulary.

25113: 25052: 24669: 23174: 22929:

The tone pattern of Japanese: An autosegmental theory of tonology

20365: 20173: 19586: 19562: 19365: 19355: 19353: 18774: 18325: 16855: 16100: 11688:

for exceptional examples of geminate formation before a vowel).

11212: 11203: 11193: 11098:

is inserted after the majority of consonants, it is usual to use

8875:. These onsets normally can be found only before the back vowels 4063:

borrowed more recently than around 1890 fairly consistently show

3503:) (though this has also been used to transcribe original before 472: 95: 22299:

Ohta, Satoshi (1991), "Syllable and Mora Geometry in Japanese",

21581:(dissertation), Santa Cruz: University of California, Santa Cruz 21555:"Alternations and Distributional Patterns in Japanese Phonology" 20685: 20622: 18684: 16308: 16127: 12269:, but this is not systematic; many words show variation between 9255:) is complicated by the occurrence of before vowels other than 2712: 284:. These morphemes represent the Japanese phonetic adaptation of 25131: 24664: 24632: 22988:(4th ed.), Boston: Heinle & Heinle, Thomson Learning, 22783:

Vance, Timothy J. (2015), "Rendaku", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.),

21586:

Kawahara, Shigeto (2003), Phonological Society of Japan (ed.),

20873: 20109: 19967: 18384: 18382: 18315: 18313: 17262: 17101: 17099: 16967: 16267: 16231: 14240:. Similar vowel reduction and consonant assimilation occurred: 14025: 13969:

are named after their resulting mora. If the resulting mora is

13852:

In some cases, onbin changes occurred within a morpheme, as in

11553: 11199: 11166: 5971:

Japanese words have traditionally been analysed as composed of

5905: 4325:

as an innovative phoneme that exists for only a few speakers).

3261:

clusters before other vowels. For example, can be analyzed as

1346: 794:

reports its place of articulation as dentoalveolar or alveolar.

21384:

Postlexical Prosodic Structure and Vowel Devoicing in Japanese

20745: 20661: 20377: 20121: 19943: 19350: 19005: 19003: 18937: 18935: 16889:

Jeroen van de Weijer; Kensuke Nanjo; Tetsuo Nishihara (2005).

15898: 15826: 13802:, 書か and 書こ, so that it has enough vowels to justify the term 11296:

For example, adverbs built from a mimetic root and the suffix

10045:, both of which can make them sound like voiceless geminates. 6423:

the first two moras are LL (low-low). When the second mora is

3320:

While the diachronic origins of these sounds as allophones of

2253:

not followed by another obstruent. For example, can be found

1963:

There is a contrast between short (or singleton) and long (or

1144:(or prevoiced), but may become non-plosives through lenition. 1136:, even when the latter are phonetically devoiced. Word-medial 25126: 24674: 24637: 21976:

Li, Teng; Honda, Kiyoshi; Wei, Jianguo; Dang, Jianwu (2015),

21361:

Hattori, Shiro (1950), "Phoneme, Phone, and Compound Phone",

20897: 20733: 20490: 20466: 19523: 19453: 19451: 19449: 19447: 19445: 19443: 19441: 19439: 19414: 19412: 19410: 18585: 18098: 18018: 17979: 17441: 17250: 17067: 16416: 16414: 16412: 16243: 13819: 10648:, '...humbly send...'. More extreme examples follow: 9644:(this includes , and , which can be viewed as allophones of 9224:. Thus, for these dialects, can be phonemically analyzed as 7086:

is attached to a root ending in -VVC-, derived adjectives in

5550: 3406:

concludes that and have become about as contrastive before

1257:

as vs. , the use of plosive vs. non-plosive realizations of

294: 103: 22561:"The lingual articulation of devoiced /u/ in Tokyo Japanese" 21670:

Hana-bana (花々): A Festschrift for Junko Ito and Armin Mester

20781: 19955: 19849: 19847: 19808: 19179: 19177: 18732: 18674: 18672: 18621: 18537: 18379: 18310: 18274: 17933: 17931: 17852: 17850: 17848: 17354: 17352: 17274: 17238: 17195: 17096: 16990: 16988: 16986: 16984: 16982: 16955: 16640: 16628: 16320: 16219: 15701: 10600:, 'blue/green'. In phrases, sequences with multiple 2191:. In this analysis, , , can be phonemically transcribed as 1270:, plosive pronunciations occur at high (over 80%) rates for 24684: 22145:"Muscular hydrostat mechanism for lip protrusion in speech" 21955:], Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers (くろしお出版), pp. 967–977 21729:

voicing in Japanese — Experimental and diachronic insights"

21504:"Junko Ito, Armin Mester (UC Santa Cruz): Supersized Units" 21392:

Homma, Yayoi (1980), "Voice onset time in Japanese stops",

20598: 20222: 20220: 20207: 20205: 20203: 19622: 19511: 19487: 19382: 19380: 19338: 19138: 19015: 19000: 18932: 18833: 18633: 18440: 18438: 18436: 18354: 18352: 18110: 17634: 17586: 17521: 17226: 17055: 16616: 16526: 16524: 15910: 15886: 13927:(long vowel, sound change not reflected in kana spelling). 11048:, in intervocalic position. In mimetic words, intervocalic 9555:

Although usually not found at the start of a word, initial

7608:, also exists. Ito and Mester consider the syllabification 7029:, 'person'); despite the morpheme boundary between 6377:'), even though a distinction is not perceived between 6294: 5999: 4341:

can occur as an onset in place of the voiced velar plosive

3282: 2962:. A third alternative is analyzing ~ as rising diphthongs ( 729:

of other phonemes, at least in native words. In loanwords,

188: 21241:

Adaptation and Transmission in Japanese Loanword Phonology

20909: 20721: 20709: 20502: 20413: 20401: 20341: 20304: 20302: 20190: 20188: 20133: 19931: 19919: 19895: 19699: 19697: 19682: 19436: 19407: 19285: 19237: 19054: 19044: 19042: 18720: 18708: 18406: 18088: 18086: 18084: 17475: 17473: 17471: 17400: 17171: 16765: 16472: 16470: 16409: 16286: 16284: 16282: 16255: 16070: 16068: 16066: 16064: 15850: 15637: 15635: 15260:

Other forms like this are found in polite speech, such as

13536:ʷaɾapa+mu→ʷaɾapamu→ʷaɾaɸamu→ʷaɾaʷau→ʷaɾaʷɔː→ʷaɾaʷoː→ʷaɾaoː 11082:

Sino-Japanese vocabulary § Rimes (medials and finals)

10762:

In Yamato vocabulary, certain consonant phonemes, such as

10604:

sounds are most common, due to the direct object particle

10452:, 'gear', but an alternative form of this word is 10281:

with (likely by influence from its spelling with a small

9652:); in other words, before voiceless obstruents other than 5011:. They suggest that the perceptual impression of Japanese 2498:

plosive vs. non-plosive pronunciations of the voiced stops

21676: 21030: 20885: 20817: 20793: 20757: 20649: 20562: 20454: 19859: 19844: 19772: 19610: 19598: 19574: 19535: 19499: 19326: 19273: 19249: 19174: 19162: 19150: 18905: 18756: 18744: 18669: 18663: 18579: 18519: 18507: 18462: 18178: 18168: 18166: 18164: 18151: 18149: 18059: 18057: 17967: 17955: 17928: 17874: 17862: 17845: 17835: 17833: 17782: 17728:

Yuzawa, Tadayuki; Matsuzaki, Hiroshi (25 October 2004). "

17687: 17685: 17646: 17574: 17562: 17552: 17550: 17548: 17485: 17458: 17456: 17349: 17339: 17337: 17159: 17135: 17086: 17084: 17082: 16979: 16867: 16845: 16843: 16782: 16780: 16676: 16183: 15939: 15937: 14195:

taught to foreigners), while western ones (including the

10758:

Distribution of consonant phonemes based on word position

7839:; see above) due to the placement of the pitch accent on 7722:

in this context, can be kept, as in the following words:

4147:

is used for other senses of "film" such as movie films.

2503:; however, the overall rate of fricative realizations of 1298:

generally has a higher rate of plosive realizations than

21363:

Gengo Kenkyu: Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan

21191:(1950), "Studies in colloquial Japanese IV: Phonemics", 20950: 20948: 20805: 20574: 20538: 20432: 20430: 20428: 20353: 20289: 20287: 20285: 20283: 20217: 20200: 20161: 20085: 20018: 20008: 20006: 19907: 19883: 19871: 19832: 19784: 19377: 19114: 19078: 18978: 18976: 18974: 18922: 18920: 18597: 18561: 18489: 18479: 18477: 18433: 18423: 18421: 18369: 18367: 18349: 18337: 18042: 17996: 17994: 17918: 17916: 17891: 17889: 17818: 17794: 17770: 17709: 17216: 17214: 17212: 17210: 17183: 17043: 16792: 16736: 16652: 16580: 16521: 16385: 16171: 16117: 16115: 16036: 16034: 16032: 16030: 16028: 15976: 15974: 15972: 15761: 15749: 15725: 15439:

analyzes it as a placeless non-consonantal nasal glide.

14088:

was triggered in verb conjugation when any of the morae

13416:, multiple vowel changes took place. Notably, the vowel 11068:

never occurs in the middle of a Sino-Japanese morpheme.

9243:; thus can be analyzed as an allophonic realization of 7584:

has a pronunciation where the pitch accent is placed on

7061:

to form the long vowel , or with a preceding stem-final

3592:'. In many cases a variant adaptation with exists. 3513:, 'switch' , as an alternative to the spellings 1990:

gemination is mostly restricted by Japanese phonotactics

1421:, it is found only after a vowel, which is phonetically 98:), but common approaches recognize at least 12 distinct 22967:, Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 31–61, 22711:

The phonological derivation and behvior of nasal glides

22657:

Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers

22143:

Murano, Emi Z.; Stone, Maureen; Honda, Kiyoshi (2005),

21739:(1), Indiana University Linguistics Club Working Papers 21228: 20639: 20637: 20610: 20550: 20299: 20185: 20097: 20030: 19820: 19796: 19738: 19736: 19694: 19670: 19664: 19646: 19552: 19550: 19463: 19397: 19395: 19304: 19302: 19300: 19090: 19039: 18988: 18947: 18821: 18250: 18081: 18069: 17742:(in Japanese). Asakura Publishing Co., Ltd. p. 65. 17697: 17658: 17622: 17468: 17298: 17111: 17031: 17009: 17007: 17005: 17003: 16919: 16755: 16753: 16751: 16700: 16592: 16467: 16455: 16426: 16397: 16296: 16279: 16061: 15970: 15968: 15966: 15964: 15962: 15960: 15958: 15956: 15954: 15952: 15802: 15792: 15790: 15788: 15689: 15679: 15677: 15647: 15632: 11468:

is produced when a verb root that underlyingly ends in

11444:

is produced when a verb root that underlyingly ends in

11271: 9626:('entirely; totally', an expression of exasperation) → 8917:, was lost in the current standard language, but some 7826:

to constitute its own syllable in the exceptional form

4279:, the pronunciation is normally not distinguished from 3923:

In loanwords, can occur before other vowels or before

3804:

is somewhat unstable (it may be variably replaced with

3661:

in verb forms may undergo coalescence with a following

2424:) and the voiced affricates (originally allophones of 1132:

start out with a higher pitch compared to vowels after

22949:, Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 1–30, 21338: 20865: 20697: 20478: 20389: 20232: 19261: 18881: 18857: 18696: 18394: 18298: 18238: 18226: 18214: 18161: 18146: 18134: 18054: 17901: 17830: 17806: 17682: 17545: 17453: 17364: 17334: 17322: 17310: 17286: 17123: 17079: 17019: 16943: 16931: 16907: 16840: 16816: 16777: 16724: 16712: 16574: 16556: 16509: 16487: 16485: 16445: 16443: 16441: 16375: 16373: 16371: 16195: 16051: 16049: 16015: 16013: 15986: 15934: 15922: 15874: 15862: 15713: 14415:

resulted in what is now known to foreign learners as "

13296: 13290: 13284: 12249: 12206: 12155: 12120: 11841: 11825: 11778: 11731: 11547: 11535: 11523: 11511: 11125: 10990: 10944: 10932: 10920: 10896: 10884: 10872: 10848: 10643: 10627: 10611: 10595: 10570: 10542: 10459: 10447: 10403: 10387: 10348: 10338: 10332: 10322: 10316: 10306: 10300: 10290: 10264: 10254: 10236: 10226: 10199: 10187: 10071: 10059: 10019: 10007: 9993: 9981: 9967: 9955: 9894: 9876: 9838: 9822: 9795: 9779: 9750: 9732: 9714: 9696: 9508: 9496: 9484: 9460: 9444: 9102: 9090: 9078: 9035: 9011: 8995: 8979: 8967: 8951: 8935: 7817: 7771: 7745: 7702: 7676: 7650: 7544: 7532: 7508: 7496: 7484: 7427: 7415: 7403: 7391: 7379: 7367: 7329: 7316: 7295: 7282: 7261: 7248: 7227: 7214: 7196: 7163: 7109: 7095: 7044: 7024: 7012: 7000: 6988: 6976: 6956: 6221: 6186: 6155: 6120: 6093: 6066: 6039: 5939: 5927: 5891: 5869: 5847: 5787: 5722: 5698: 5632: 5591: 5579: 5567: 5528: 5505: 5482: 5432: 5409: 5386: 5261: 5242: 5208: 5192: 5174: 5158: 5140: 5124: 5106: 5090: 5072: 5056: 4717: 4703: 4636: 4624: 4605: 4580: 4564: 4552: 4527: 4505: 4477: 4462: 4391: 4371: 4142: 4130: 4118: 4098: 4086: 4054: 4038: 4006: 3982: 3970: 3958: 3946: 3934: 3912: 3894: 3583: 3532: 3520: 3484: 3460: 3448: 3397: 3385: 3236: 3208: 3180: 3118: 3090: 3062: 2933: 2898: 2855: 2827: 2799: 2771: 2662: 2650: 2624: 2165: 2140: 2113: 2088: 2061: 2036: 1938: 1903: 1887: 1869: 1853: 1783:

realizations were observed only after the back vowels

1733: 1699: 1670: 1639: 1610: 1578: 1511: 1476: 1441: 1325: 1249:

follows a vowel-final word with no intervening pause.

1232: 1197: 21655:, or geminate obstruents", in Kubozono, Haruo (ed.), 21644:

Japanese loanword devoicing revisited: A rating study

20960: 20945: 20933: 20921: 20829: 20769: 20442: 20425: 20329: 20280: 20268: 20003: 19991: 19979: 19634: 19475: 19225: 19201: 19189: 18971: 18959: 18917: 18893: 18869: 18645: 18474: 18418: 18364: 18286: 18030: 18006: 17991: 17943: 17913: 17886: 17758: 17610: 17207: 17147: 16159: 16112: 16025: 15814: 15773: 15664: 15662: 11399:

Another example where either a voiceless geminate or

10995:, although as a personal name it is still pronounced 10793:

that start with a voiced obstruent in the context of

8867:

A Japanese syllable can start with the palatal glide

7005:, 'doctor' (itself composed of the morphemes 6981:, 'dentist' is morphologically a compound of 5557:

is frequently devoiced in the common sentence-ending

3905:

According to some descriptions, the initial sound of

2729:, and only the non-palatalized version occurs before 2695:(also interpreted to include before ). In contrast, 23107:

Vance, Timothy J. (2018), "The inexorable spread of

23031: 22806:

Irregular Phonological Marking of Japanese Compounds

22719:

Tsuchida, Ayako (2001), "Japanese vowel devoicing",

22685:"More Arguments against Japanese as a Mora Language" 22450: 21677:

Kilbourn-Ceron, Oriana; Sonderegger, Morgan (2017),

21588:"On a Certain Type of Hiatus Resolution in Japanese" 21579:

Loanword phonology in Japanese and optimality theory

20673: 20634: 20586: 20526: 20244: 19760: 19748: 19733: 19709: 19547: 19424: 19392: 19314: 19297: 19213: 19126: 19102: 19066: 18609: 18549: 18525: 18450: 18262: 18202: 18190: 17746: 17670: 17509: 17497: 17388: 17376: 17000: 16828: 16804: 16748: 16688: 16664: 16356: 16344: 16133: 15949: 15838: 15785: 15674: 15327: 14267:

can occur in the following historical environments:

13939: 13826:

Japanese grammar § Euphonic changes (音便, onbin)

11504:

When the second mora of a Sino-Japanese morpheme is

10909:, either word-initially or word-medially. Singleton 9061: 8631:

Marginal combinations mostly found in Western loans

7049:, 'defeated person'. Likewise, the morpheme 5349:/i u/ between voiceless consonants or before a pause 5311: 4935:

is a close near-back vowel with the lips unrounded (

4027:

are distinguished before other vowels (e.g. English

39:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see 23063:"Glottal opening for Japanese voiceless consonants" 23025:

The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese

22714:(PhD thesis), Massachusetts Institute of Technology 21165: 17598: 16482: 16438: 16368: 16332: 16106: 16046: 16010: 15998: 15408:, a variant of Standard Japanese influenced by the 13957:in certain circumstances in native Japanese words. 9071:The sequences occur only in recent loans, such as 3314: 326:in Japanese (starting from approximately 800 AD in 23086: 23040: 22751:, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 22049:Maekawa, Kikuo (2020), "Remarks on Japanese /w/", 21486:The Phonetics and Phonology of Geminate Consonants 21017: 21015: 21013: 21011: 21009: 21007: 20972: 20850::104–105) points out that the "intensive" prefix | 15737: 15659: 15026:Japanese grammar § Polite forms of adjectives 12047:Most morphemes exhibiting this change derive from 10356: 9437:, as shown by the different pronunciation of 輩 in 9205:Outside of loanwords, and do not occur, because 7822:, 'several billion'; Vance also considers 6949:For example, some speakers may pronounce the word 5808:(or equivalently, before a syllable-final nasal). 5031: 4975:. In contradiction to the preceding descriptions, 1354:. A competing approach rejects the transcriptions 70:This article includes inline links to audio files. 23060: 22411:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 22135:Geminated Liquids in Japanese: A production study 22073:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 21918:-row sounds: /Qh/ in contemporary Japanese], 21804: 21553:Ito, Junko; Mester, Armin; Padgett, Jaye (2001), 21483: 21470: 20371: 20179: 20048: 19592: 14920:In certain expressions formed with the particles 13867:, which underwent two sound changes from earlier 11169:exist; the Japanese term for sandhi generally is 10820:Yamato and mimetic words almost never start with 10423:When the first of two vowels in a VV sequence is 10076:, 'Cellini'. The phonetic realization of 9143: 6966:non-identical vowels to occur within a morpheme. 5299:that adds a mora to the preceding vowel sound (a 4641:, 'twenty-five' (accented as ), although 2643:can occur before other vowels: examples include 2409: 280:argue reflects a restriction in size to a single 25258: 22324:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–119, 22149:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 22142: 21552: 20115: 18104: 17424:Agency for Cultural Affairs, Government of Japan 11264:in standard Japanese, the resulting spelling is 10973:was eventually lost before any vowel other than 10516:to or is a feature of colloquial male speech. 9907:The most frequent geminated voiced obstruent is 9660:, due to the historical development of Japanese 9236: 7456:to be questionably well-formed in comparison to 5770: 4537: 4515: 3771: 3770:), but treat as the palatalized allophone of a 3378:can be found instead of in some forms, such as 987:), the lateral variant is better described as a 102:(as many as 21 in some analyses) and 5 distinct 53:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters 23115:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 287–302, 23089:The major languages of east and south-east Asia 22478:(in Japanese) (2nd ed.), Tokyo: Sanseido, 22227:(Master of Arts thesis), University of Victoria 21725:"On the interaction of fortition, lenition and 21703:Proceedings of the Annual Meetings on Phonology 21510:. MIT Department of Linguistics and Philosophy. 21004: 17727: 15604: 15577: 15549: 15306: 15291: 15276: 15261: 15242: 15227: 15210: 15195: 15178: 15163: 15118: 15103: 15088: 15065: 15050: 15035: 14936: 14921: 14779: 14561: 14546: 14393: 14363: 14325: 14131: 14116: 14093: 14067: 14059: 14033: 14023: 13997: 13978: 13913: 13898: 13883: 13868: 13853: 13835: 13808:Japanese godan and ichidan verbs#Godan vs yodan 13772: 13711: 13682: 13543: 13510: 13488: 13473: 13458: 13394: 13379: 13362: 13346: 13331: 13314: 13275: 13260: 13243: 13227: 13212: 13195: 13176: 13160: 13141: 13125: 13106: 13090: 13075: 13057: 13041: 13023: 13005: 12990: 12972: 12956: 12938: 12920: 12905: 12887: 12871: 12856: 12360: 12317: 12067:after them when pronounced in isolation (e.g., 11285:. In this context, sequences of a moraic nasal 11250: 11235: 11216: 11170: 9528:) as the result of historic sound changes (see 9469:, 'one's senior'. This does not affect 4661:festival for children aged seven, five or three 4380:, 'baldness' ) or after a moraic nasal 4350: 4299: 4284: 4261: 4246: 4231: 4216: 4201: 4186: 4171: 4156: 4150: 3842: 3433:are not established even in loanwords. English 349: 257: 209: 194: 22654: 22608:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 292–320 22524: 21975: 21723:Kitagawa, Yoshihisa; Albin, Aaron Lee (2023), 20859: 20323: 20063: 18116: 17736: 17729: 15598: 15584: 15556: 15477: 15471: 15465: 15313: 15298: 15283: 15268: 15249: 15234: 15217: 15202: 15185: 15170: 15125: 15110: 15095: 15072: 15057: 15042: 14943: 14928: 14786: 14599: 14568: 14553: 14400: 14370: 14332: 14212:kapi+te→kapite→kaɸite→kaʷite→kaute→kɔːte→koːte 14138: 14123: 14100: 14074: 14053: 14040: 14017: 14004: 13985: 13920: 13905: 13890: 13875: 13860: 13842: 13779: 13720: 13693: 13554: 13519: 13495: 13480: 13465: 13388: 13373: 13356: 13340: 13325: 13308: 13269: 13254: 13237: 13221: 13206: 13189: 13170: 13154: 13135: 13119: 13100: 13084: 13069: 13051: 13035: 13015: 12999: 12984: 12966: 12950: 12930: 12914: 12899: 12881: 12865: 12850: 12808: 12798: 12792: 12782: 12762: 12752: 12746: 12736: 12704: 12686: 12676: 12666: 12656: 12637: 12620: 12610: 12600: 12590: 12554: 12536: 12526: 12516: 12506: 12486: 12468: 12458: 12448: 12438: 12418: 12408: 12398: 12388: 12367: 12324: 12303: 12257: 12243: 12214: 12200: 12163: 12149: 12128: 12114: 12082: 12068: 12031: 12021: 12007: 11992: 11982: 11968: 11953: 11947: 11938: 11932: 11923: 11914: 11907: 11898: 11889: 11883: 11874: 11868: 11859: 11850: 11835: 11819: 11810: 11804: 11792: 11786: 11772: 11763: 11757: 11745: 11739: 11725: 11716: 11710: 11698: 11692: 11668: 11662: 11653: 11647: 11635: 11629: 11614: 11608: 11599: 11593: 11581: 11575: 11562: 11556: 11541: 11529: 11517: 11505: 11432: 11426: 11425:'support', tsuk- 'stab' + das- 'put out' > 11420: 11414: 11363: 11357: 11351: 11345: 11339: 11333: 11327: 11321: 11315: 11309: 11303: 11297: 11257: 11242: 11223: 11177: 11161:. Nevertheless, Japanese exhibits a number of 11119: 11031: 11025: 11019: 11013: 11007: 10982: 10938: 10926: 10914: 10890: 10878: 10866: 10840: 10784: 10716: 10665: 10637: 10621: 10605: 10589: 10564: 10536: 10453: 10441: 10397: 10381: 10248: 10220: 10193: 10181: 10163: 10157: 10151: 10145: 10139: 10133: 10127: 10117: 10111: 10105: 10099: 10093: 10065: 10053: 10013: 10001: 9987: 9975: 9961: 9949: 9888: 9870: 9848: 9832: 9816: 9805: 9789: 9773: 9744: 9726: 9708: 9690: 9667: 9502: 9490: 9478: 9454: 9438: 9269: 9263: 9096: 9084: 9072: 9051: 9045: 9030: 9024: 9005: 8989: 8973: 8961: 8945: 8930: 8926: 8907: 7827: 7811: 7795:may produce syllabic fricatives or affricates. 7579: 7538: 7526: 7502: 7490: 7478: 7421: 7409: 7397: 7385: 7373: 7361: 7323: 7310: 7289: 7276: 7255: 7242: 7221: 7208: 7101: 7087: 7038: 7018: 7006: 6994: 6982: 6970: 6950: 6387: 6378: 6366: 6350: 6340: 6254: 6215: 6180: 6149: 6114: 6087: 6060: 6033: 5933: 5921: 5908: 5885: 5863: 5841: 5781: 5757: 5738: 5716: 5692: 5655: 5626: 5585: 5573: 5561: 5522: 5499: 5476: 5426: 5403: 5380: 5255: 5236: 5226:differently from an intrinsically long vowel: 5202: 5186: 5168: 5152: 5134: 5118: 5100: 5084: 5066: 5050: 4983:as rounded and propose that the transcription 4711: 4697: 4664: 4654: 4648: 4642: 4630: 4618: 4599: 4574: 4558: 4546: 4521: 4499: 4486: 4471: 4456: 4431: 4425: 4419: 4413: 4385: 4365: 4357: 4306: 4291: 4268: 4253: 4238: 4223: 4208: 4193: 4178: 4163: 4136: 4124: 4112: 4092: 4080: 4048: 4032: 4000: 3976: 3964: 3952: 3940: 3928: 3906: 3888: 3839:is otherwise forbidden in Japanese phonology. 3738: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3700: 3577: 3568: 3562: 3544: 3538: 3526: 3514: 3508: 3490: 3478: 3454: 3442: 3391: 3379: 3373: 3367: 3361: 3355: 3349: 3257:, or as the surface realization of underlying 3230: 3202: 3174: 3112: 3084: 3056: 2927: 2892: 2849: 2821: 2793: 2765: 2682: 2676: 2656: 2644: 2618: 2572: 2536: 2523: 2264: 2226: 2213: 2174: 2159: 2149: 2134: 2122: 2107: 2097: 2082: 2070: 2055: 2045: 2030: 1932: 1897: 1881: 1863: 1847: 1727: 1693: 1664: 1633: 1604: 1572: 1523: 1505: 1489: 1470: 1454: 1435: 1410: 1400: 1390: 1377: 1319: 1226: 1191: 356: 300: 264: 216: 201: 153: 143: 133: 23972: 23160: 22831: 22101:(2), Linguistic Society of America: 258–293, 21780:(2), The Acoustical Society of Japan: 84–91, 21722: 21401:The bulletin of the Phonetic Society of Japan 19961: 18128: 16973: 16961: 16213: 13798:verbs as well, for example 書く may have "two" 12312:Late Middle Japanese § Medial gemination 10913:also occurs freely in foreign words, such as 10616:(which comes after a word) being realized as 1931:Thus, depending on the analysis, a word like 22785:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 22648:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 22558: 22501:Proceedings of GLOW in Asia IX: Main Session 22349:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 22340:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 22281: 22248: 22177:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 21896:, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 21868:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 21842:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 21816:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 21663: 21657:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 21651:Kawahara, Shigeto (2015), "The phonetics of 21526:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 21517:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 21260:Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology 19628: 18690: 16586: 11440:In verb conjugation, the voiceless geminate 11302:may display root-internal gemination, as in 11056:proposes that the usual outcome of original 10273:(form produced in a reversing language game) 9674:was followed over 98% of the time by one of 9359: 9154:recognizes as a distinct consonant phoneme 7788: 4976: 3000: 1092:At the start of a word, the voiceless stops 966:alveolar or postalveolar lateral approximant 16:Phonological system of the Japanese language 23006:, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 22707: 22507: 21488:, Oxford University Press, pp. 283–320 21021: 18048: 16634: 15436: 14971:kami+na+tuki→kaminaduki→kannaduki→kannazuki 11499: 9670:found that in a Japanese newspaper corpus, 9142:. However, in words of foreign origin, the 8891: 7515:su.pe.in.ka.ze, rin.ka.an.hai, gu.ri.in.sha 5332:Japanese vowels are sometimes phonetically 2950:, with a complex onset cluster of the form 2254: 115: 72:If you have trouble playing the files, see 23979: 23965: 23167: 23153: 22890: 22868: 22851: 22559:Shaw, Jason A.; Kawahara, Shigeto (2018), 21938:Lawrence, Wayne (2001), "The phonology of 21809:, Republic of Korea: Dongam Publishing Co. 21523: 21514: 21248: 20915: 20879: 20751: 20727: 20628: 20568: 20419: 20407: 20383: 20127: 19973: 19949: 19937: 19925: 19457: 19418: 19359: 19291: 19243: 19060: 16646: 16562: 16547:National Language Research Institute (1990 15707: 15491:Moras are represented orthographically in 15440: 14534:tanomi+taru→tanomitaru→tanoudaru→tanoːdaru 13755:nakaɾa+mu→nakaɾamu→nakaɾau→nakaɾɔː→nakaɾoː 11380:and a following consonant: its allomorphs 10373: 7552: 5274:In the above transcription, represents a 4430:, 'one thousand and five' versus 3595: 1980:followed by a non-moraic nasal, e.g. , = 1858:, 'the end of the coldest season' 753: 703: 699: 277: 22980: 22944: 22926: 22911:Japanese Phonology: A Functional Approach 22882: 22819:(PhD thesis). The University of Arizona. 22637: 22623: 22603: 22590:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 22585: 22282:Nogita, Akitsugu; Yamane, Noriko (2019), 22249:Nogita, Akitsugu; Yamane, Noriko (2015), 22212: 22127:(PhD thesis), City University of New York 22120: 22092: 22084: 22062: 21988: 21865: 21839: 21813: 21797:Mechanisms of Vowel Devoicing in Japanese 21785: 21714: 21532: 21501: 21492: 21352: 21179: 21152:, Springer Science & Business Media, 21036: 21022:Yamaguchi, Akiho; 秋山, 守英 (1 March 2001). 20811: 20799: 20739: 20655: 20496: 20472: 20460: 19865: 19853: 19616: 19604: 19580: 19568: 19541: 19529: 19517: 19493: 19386: 19371: 19344: 19255: 19183: 19156: 18851: 18796: 18184: 18024: 17868: 17652: 17580: 17491: 17358: 17073: 16994: 16730: 16658: 16598: 16530: 16290: 15719: 15653: 15641: 15019: 14156:, and the remaining consonant eventually 13487:) notably fused with the last vowel of a 9589:may also be used in some loanword forms: 9532:). Aside from these isolated exceptions, 9425:Within a bimorphemic Sino-Japanese word, 9364:'stage', in addition to being adapted as 9342:used after word-final or pre-consonantal 9115:in analyses where is not interpreted as 7836: 7710:There are exceptions to this shortening: 7613: 7518: 7466: 6896: 5811: 5645: 5283: 4418:, 'big sheet of glass') versus ( 3991:is not distinguished from (e.g. English 3650: 2706: 2696: 1908:, 'becoming a member of a group' 1253:found that, as with the pronunciation of 830:with little to no rounding, while a 2020 23019: 22962: 22908: 22871:Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics 22812: 22796:, MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 84, 22718: 22682: 22645: 22626:Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics 22401: 22351:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 121–165, 22183: 22131: 22031:Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan 21959: 21937: 21909: 21870:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 313–361, 21844:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 215–249, 21767: 21750:Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan 21743: 21650: 21640: 21612: 21585: 21576: 21566:Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan 21380: 21341:Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan 21262:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 167–214, 21257: 21237: 21127: 20787: 20544: 20508: 20436: 20359: 20347: 20308: 20262: 20238: 20211: 20194: 20167: 20155: 20151: 20139: 20091: 20079: 20036: 20024: 19913: 19889: 19838: 19814: 19802: 19703: 19688: 19676: 18639: 18627: 18603: 18567: 18543: 18495: 18468: 18444: 18412: 18388: 18358: 18343: 18331: 18319: 18280: 18075: 17985: 17824: 17800: 17715: 17703: 17640: 17479: 17280: 17256: 17244: 17189: 16718: 16503: 16314: 16302: 16086: 16074: 15992: 15916: 15904: 15880: 15868: 15844: 15535:In content, all examples are taken from 14175:kapi+te→kapite→kaɸite→kaʷite→kaʷte→katte 11388:are in complementary distribution, with 11230:. In cases where this combines with the 10465: 10180:can occur in emphatic pronunciations of 10037: 9689:is found only in recent loanwords (e.g. 9167: 7835:(alternatively analyzed as containing a 7810:where it occurs word-initially, such as 6961:, 'flame' with a heterosyllabic 6884:(C)(j)VQ (ending in a short vowel + /Q/) 6881:(C)(j)VN (ending in a short vowel + /N/) 4804: 4793:, with an intermediate frequency in the 4439: 3987:, 'fusion'). Even in loanwords, 3139:came to be pronounced as , and original 3021:came to be pronounced as , and original 2468:. Yet others merge all four, e.g. north 2344:Analysis with double consonant phonemes 1547:to the place of the following consonant: 980: 834:study found it is better described as a 822:or something between the two, or as the 791: 738: 22606:Constraints in Phonological Acquisition 22251:"Japanese moraic dorsalized nasal stop" 22070: 22048: 22028: 22008: 21891: 21700: 21664:Kawahara, Shigeto; Shaw, Jason (2018), 21360: 21283: 21130:Japanese Phonetics: Theory and Practice 20993: 20991: 20989: 20987: 20847: 20763: 20703: 20691: 20616: 20604: 20556: 20520: 20484: 20395: 20293: 20103: 20075: 20012: 19279: 19267: 19048: 19033: 19021: 19009: 18994: 18953: 18941: 18839: 18827: 18714: 18702: 18664:Kilbourn-Ceron & Sonderegger (2017) 18580:Kilbourn-Ceron & Sonderegger (2017) 18520:Kilbourn-Ceron & Sonderegger (2017) 18508:Kilbourn-Ceron & Sonderegger (2017) 18400: 18304: 18244: 18232: 18220: 18172: 18155: 18140: 18063: 17937: 17907: 17839: 17812: 17788: 17527: 17447: 17165: 17129: 17090: 17061: 17037: 17025: 16949: 16937: 16849: 16822: 16786: 16771: 16670: 16622: 16610: 16550: 16515: 16420: 16273: 16261: 16249: 16237: 16225: 16189: 16177: 16165: 16121: 16040: 16004: 15820: 15755: 15731: 15695: 15683: 15428: 14960:nokoɾi+no+juki→nokoɾinojuki→nokonnojuki 11106:after (but usually not after ). After 7473:sequences are generally syllabified as 7440:accepts superheavy syllables ending in 7076: 6928: 6466:, and shortened forms of longer words. 6428: 5913:, suggesting it is identified with the 5279: 4768: 3859:and can be analyzed as an allophone of 3692: 3554: 2703:, not as a distinct affricate phoneme. 2688: 1988:. In the case of non-nasal consonants, 1250: 25259: 23001: 22787:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 397–441 22650:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 621–650 22540: 22377:, Foris Publications, pp. 167–186 22346: 22342:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 493–523 22294:, Phonological Society of Japan: 59–66 22231: 22220: 22186:The Segment in Phonetics and Phonology 22179:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 253–288 21528:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 363–395 21519:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 253–288 21325: 21145: 20715: 20523:, pp. 16–17, 60, 69, 93, 100–102. 19901: 19401: 18887: 18875: 18863: 18555: 17691: 17592: 17462: 17394: 17343: 17328: 17292: 17268: 17232: 17220: 17201: 17153: 16884: 16882: 16694: 15518:, following the conventional usage of 12316:Sandhi also occurs much less often in 11480:is followed by a suffix starting with 11456:is followed by a suffix starting with 11372:does not undergo either gemination or 11053: 9386: 9339: 9338:In both old and recent loanwords, the 7779: 6646:With formation of a moraic obstruent: 6259:, 'Japan') may be analyzed as 5914: 5310:Any pair of short vowels may occur in 4789:, but more common in the northeastern 4349:in certain conditions. Onset , called 3550: 2975: 1291: 23986: 23960: 23148: 23106: 22803: 22791: 22782: 22764: 22749:An Introduction to Japanese Phonology 22746: 22708:Trigo Ferré, Rosario Lorenza (1988), 22612: 22470: 22381: 22372: 22337: 22311: 21818:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 1–40, 21800:(PhD thesis), University of Edinburgh 21793: 21502:Itō, Junko; Mester, R. Armin (2013). 21452: 21431: 21411: 21391: 21187: 20978: 20966: 20954: 20939: 20927: 20903: 20891: 20835: 20823: 20775: 20448: 20335: 20274: 19997: 19985: 19877: 19826: 19790: 19778: 19766: 19754: 19742: 19727: 19715: 19652: 19640: 19481: 19469: 19332: 19320: 19308: 19231: 19219: 19207: 19195: 19168: 19144: 19132: 19120: 19108: 19096: 19084: 19072: 18982: 18965: 18926: 18911: 18899: 18762: 18750: 18738: 18726: 18678: 18651: 18615: 18591: 18531: 18483: 18456: 18427: 18373: 18292: 18268: 18256: 18208: 18196: 18092: 18036: 18012: 18000: 17973: 17961: 17949: 17922: 17895: 17880: 17856: 17776: 17764: 17752: 17676: 17664: 17628: 17616: 17568: 17556: 17539: 17515: 17503: 17406: 17382: 17304: 17177: 17141: 17117: 17105: 17049: 17013: 16925: 16913: 16873: 16861: 16834: 16810: 16798: 16759: 16742: 16706: 16682: 16542: 16491: 16476: 16461: 16449: 16432: 16403: 16391: 16379: 16362: 16350: 16338: 16326: 16201: 16153: 16149: 16145: 16055: 16019: 15980: 15943: 15928: 15892: 15856: 15832: 15808: 15796: 15779: 15767: 15536: 11392:used before voiceless consonants and 10169: 10168:, 'dreadful'. Similarly, per 9942:after phonemically voiced geminates. 9331: 9151: 9122: 7799: 7593: 7356: 7344: 6927:, when they occur within a morpheme. 6847: 6469:For example, the hypocoristic suffix 6415:(the latter part of a long vowel) or 5991:, the second part of a long vowel (a 5599: 5290:In addition, a double vowel may bear 4814: 4809:The vowels of Standard Japanese on a 4536:, 'England', from Portuguese 4313:. Thus, a phonemic contrast between * 3828: 3674: 3673:'if (I) win.' On the other hand, per 3437:is still normally adapted as before 3422:; others argue that pronunciation of 2717:Most consonants possess phonetically 2257:, or before a sonorant in forms with 2000: 1892:, 'solicitation; inducement' 722: 718: 714: 23061:Sawashima, M.; Miyazaki, S. (1973), 22965:The Handbook of Japanese Linguistics 22947:The Handbook of Japanese Linguistics 22852:Yamane, Noriko; Gick, Bryan (2010), 22491: 22298: 22194:National Language Research Institute 22174: 21659:, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 43–77 21310: 21284:Gao, Jiayin; Arai, Takayuki (2019), 20984: 20679: 20667: 20643: 20592: 20580: 20532: 20250: 20226: 19556: 19505: 19430: 17604: 17370: 17316: 15743: 15668: 14620:aɾiɡataku→aɾiɡatau→aɾiɡatɔː→aɾiɡatoː 14228:was triggered when any of the morae 13407:1. usually not reflected in spelling 11736:, 'outside of school campus' 11272:Yamato gemination or prenasalization 11071: 9769: 8843:(geminates the following consonant) 7627:in loanwords such as the following: 7564: 7437: 6400: 6319:Standard Japanese has a distinctive 5315: 4797:(which includes the Tokyo dialect). 4498:common in older borrowings (such as 4328: 3403: 3135:came to be pronounced as , original 3017:came to be pronounced as , original 1778:closure or constriction. A study of 1309: 43:. For the distinction between , 22375:Studies in Compensatory Lengthening 22188:, Wiley Blackwell, pp. 180–198 21495:The Handbook of Phonological Theory 21387:(PhD thesis), University of Toronto 17731:第6章「バイオリン」か，「ヴァイオリン」カ？【外来語の表記と発音】 16879: 16107:Arai, Warner & Greenberg (2007) 14606:of an adjective lost the consonant 14407:of an adjective lost the consonant 14218:ipi+te→ipite→iɸite→iʷite→iute→juːte 12331:, where, most commonly, a terminal 10977:.) The few non-mimetic words where 10965:, resulting in the modern Japanese 10440:has been borrowed into Japanese as 9146:can occur before vowels other than 8923:pre-modern versions of the language 7537:, 'U-turn percentage', and 6593:From first mora, with lengthening: 6477:Truncation to the first two moras: 4514:, 'organ', from Portuguese 4333:For some speakers, the velar nasal 3772:voiceless coronal affricate phoneme 2585:can be analyzed as an allophone of 2497: 1958: 1751:, or voiceless fricative , it is a 1087: 13: 22902: 22318:International Phonetic Association 21251:A History of the Japanese Language 16893:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 150. 14181:ipi+te→ipite→iɸite→iʷite→iʷte→itte 11148: 10392:, 'husband and wife', and 9158:, and interprets as phonemically 8906:, the coronal is replaced with an 6872: 6720:With formation of a moraic nasal: 5963:Mora (linguistics) § Japanese 2436:, retain the distinctions between 928:Realization of the liquid phoneme 14: 25283: 22721:Journal of East Asian Linguistics 22051:ICU Working Papers in Linguistics 21991:UC Berkeley PhonLab Annual Report 21774:Acoustical Science and Technology 21473:Journal of East Asian Linguistics 21328:Journal of East Asian Linguistics 21238:Crawford, Clifford James (2009), 21168:Acoustical Science and Technology 21111:Online Japanese Accent Dictionary 21093:Online Japanese Accent Dictionary 20372:Itô, Kitagawa & Mester (1996) 20180:Ito, Kubozono & Mester (2017) 20049:Kubozono, Itô & Mester (2009) 19593:Kubozono, Itô & Mester (2009) 16613:, pp. 200, 206–207, 209–210. 15464:-series kana to represent : thus 14245:pumi+te→pumite→pumute→punde→ɸunde 14203:triggered by the historical mora 11846:and that now end in long vowels: 11153:Japanese morphology is generally 10043:weakening process mentioned above 8890:never occurs. All consonants are 5291: 4899: 4883: 4874: 4860: 4851: 4155:Although spellings with the kana 2966:), in which case is composed of 1977: 1422: 1340:, and a mora obstruent consonant 1290:is often pronounced instead as a 748: 681: 674: 644: 628: 616: 607: 601: 593: 587: 579: 555: 549: 540: 534: 513: 507: 496: 490: 483: 477: 460: 451: 440: 432: 425: 173: 164:Latin-based vocabulary in English 21434:Japanese Language and Literature 21099: 21081: 21068: 21055: 21042: 20841: 20145: 20116:Ito, Mester & Padgett (2001) 20069: 18845: 18768: 18105:Murano, Stone & Honda (2005) 17721: 17412: 15570: 15542: 15529: 15508: 15485: 15450: 15344: 15330: 14703:kaɡapuɾi→kaubuɾi→kɔːbuɾi→koːbuɾi 14698:compounds of Old Japanese pi₁to₂ 14528:jami+te→yamite→jaude→jɔːde→joːde 14440:tate+maturu→tatematuru→taimaturu 14111:) was followed by the consonant 13737:daɾa+mu→daɾamu→daɾau→daɾɔː→daɾoː 13731:taɾa+mu→taɾamu→taɾau→taɾɔː→taɾoː 13530:kaka+mu→kakamu→kakau→kakɔː→kakoː 12136:before any voiceless obstruent ( 12106: 11291:emphatically lengthened variants 10652: 10520: 9453:, 'one's junior' versus 9380: 9375: 8871:or with a consonant followed by 7866: 7714:seems to never be affected, and 7620:bears accent on its first mora. 7351:is often indistinguishable from 7114:) as well as in many loanwords. 6798: 6724: 6650: 6597: 6481: 5831: 5681: 5616: 5465: 5369: 5230: 5044: 4676: 3865: 3789:). In this sort of analysis, = 3622: 3332: 3269:. Likewise, can be analyzed as 3151: 3147:both came to be pronounced as : 3033: 2978:argues for the cluster analysis 2876: 2749: 2745:, as in the following examples: 2595: 2452:, while others distinguish only 2332: 2278:Another approach dispenses with 2008: 1826: 1552: 1429: 1371:The moraic nasal or mora nasal ( 1202:, 'to behave violently' 1168: 998:rather than an approximant. The 952:. Utterance-initially and after 800:is traditionally described as a 245: 120:"delay"). Only limited types of 62: 23004:A reference grammar of Japanese 21535:Journal of Japanese Linguistics 21120: 16536: 16139: 16080: 15422: 15380:Japanese language and computers 15034:(used before the polite copula 14626:pajaku→pajaku→ɸajau→hajɔː→hajoː 14145:). In such an environment, the 14109:Japanese conjugation#Verb bases 13940:vowel sequences, or long vowels 13504:Japanese conjugation#Verb bases 12829: 10357:Vowel sequences and long vowels 9636:In native Japanese vocabulary, 9501:, 'new invention', and 7847: 7718:, although often replaced with 7489:, 'Spanish influenza', 6308: 6238: 5795: 5032:Long vowels and vowel sequences 3835:on the basis that the sequence 3473:is normally adapted as before 3429:In contrast to , the sequences 2868:The palatalized counterpart of 1366: 1282:, probably because word-medial 733:sometimes occur phonemically. 35:International Phonetic Alphabet 22894:Perspectives on Element Theory 22794:Proceedings of GLOW in Asia XI 22769:, Cambridge University Press, 21311:Hall, Kathleen Currie (2013), 20870:, 'hit, beat, strike'. 14681:oto+pito→otopito→otouto→otoːto 14516:omopi+te→omopite→omoute→omoːte 14236:was followed by the consonant 14115:(for example in the auxiliary 13749:masje+mu→masjemu→masjeu→masjoː 13743:desje+mu→desjemu→desjeu→desjoː 11484:. (At the end of a verb stem, 11462:-te, -ta, -tari, -tara, -tatte 11293:of single voiced obstruents). 9939: 9571: 'several hundred years' 9251:(with merely an allophone of 7792: 7571:implies the syllable division 7334:, 'Vienna, (s)he said' 7118:Apparent superheavy syllables 6395:when pronounced in isolation. 6361:') clearly contrasts with 6303:tends to be of the same length 6226:, 'national treasury' 4614:, 'striped pattern' . 3095:, 'letter, character' 2410:Voiced affricate vs. fricative 311:, and native readings, called 1: 22616:Natural Phonology of Japanese 22586:Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990), 22518:10.21437/Interspeech.2010-450 21672:, UC Santa Cruz: Festschrifts 21426:10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30971-4 21375:10.11435/gengo1939.1950.16_92 21253:. Cambridge University Press. 19036:, pp. 251–257, 261, 263. 17542:, pp. 76, 81, 83–85, 92. 17426:. Agency for Cultural Affairs 15626: 13834:Another prominent feature is 12347:when derived from historical 11268:rather than purely phonemic. 11052:is also uncommon: therefore, 10749:'let's cover Eastern Europe' 10042: 9935:in this context is sporadic. 9761:, 'terrible slump'). 9413:In Sino-Japanese vocabulary, 9406:In general, the moraic nasal 9385:If analyzed as phonemes, the 9239:occurs only before the vowel 9111:: they can be interpreted as 7616:, the superheavy syllable in 7604:, with a superheavy syllable 7549:, 'McLean Building'. 7131:Morphologically complex forms 6794:From two non-adjacent moras: 6263:, dissected into four moras: 5771:Sociolinguistics of devoicing 4485:, 'but' and the word 3653:notes that in casual speech, 2328:in syllable-final position). 1000:retroflex lateral approximant 371: 25123:Kanji pronunciation sources 24897:Katakana Phonetic Extensions 22931:, Tokyo, Japan: Kaitakusha, 22545:, McGraw-Hill Professional, 22043:10.24467/onseikenkyu.22.1_21 21762:10.24467/onseikenkyu.18.2_63 21354:10.24467/onseikenkyu.20.1_77 20324:Schourup & Tamori (1992) 20078:, pp. 70, 136), citing 20064:Tamaoka & Makioka (2004) 16864:, pp. 110–112, 223–225. 16506:, pp. 96, 103, 312–313. 16089:employs a different symbol, 14662:opi+te→opite→opute→oute→oːte 14632:utukusiku→utukusiu→utukusjuː 14579:, even in eastern dialects: 14381:in certain honorific verbs: 13912:(historical vowel change) → 13704:sje+mu→sjemu→sjeu→sjoː→sijoː 11202:is prominently exhibited in 10824:. In contrast, word-initial 10797:. In addition, word-initial 10794: 9668:Tamaoka & Makioka (2004) 9548: 9144:voiceless bilabial fricative 6856: 5967:Isochrony § Mora timing 5596:, '(Will you) go?'. 5321: 4967:and palatalized consonants ( 4682:in the middle of a morpheme 4669:(a night of the full moon). 4590: 4277:transcriptions into Japanese 4275:are commonly used in narrow 4151:Voiced labiodental fricative 3843:Voiceless bilabial fricative 2519: 2479:, though some analyze it as 2255:at the end of an exclamation 1747:Before a vowel, approximant 813:labialized velar approximant 7: 25232:Speculative fiction writers 24791:Transcription into Japanese 23402:Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect 22927:Haraguchi, Shosuke (1977), 22201:日本語の母音，子音，音節: 調音運動の実験音声学的研究 22138:(PhD thesis), UC Santa Cruz 21945:Imi to katachi no intāfeisu 21249:Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010). 20866: 19962:Kitagawa & Albin (2023) 18129:Westbury & Hashi (1997) 16974:Kitagawa & Albin (2023) 16962:Kitagawa & Albin (2023) 16214:Kitagawa & Albin (2023) 15605: 15578: 15550: 15395:Transcription into Japanese 15385:Japanese language education 15323: 15307: 15292: 15277: 15262: 15243: 15228: 15211: 15196: 15179: 15164: 15119: 15104: 15089: 15066: 15051: 15036: 14937: 14922: 14780: 14562: 14547: 14394: 14364: 14326: 14251:jobi+te→jobite→jomute→jonde 14132: 14117: 14094: 14068: 14060: 14034: 14024: 13998: 13979: 13914: 13899: 13884: 13869: 13854: 13836: 13773: 13712: 13683: 13544: 13511: 13489: 13474: 13459: 13395: 13380: 13363: 13347: 13332: 13315: 13297: 13291: 13285: 13276: 13261: 13244: 13228: 13213: 13196: 13177: 13161: 13142: 13126: 13107: 13091: 13076: 13058: 13042: 13024: 13006: 12991: 12973: 12957: 12939: 12921: 12906: 12888: 12872: 12857: 12726:First syllable ending with 12576:First syllable ending with 12378:First syllable ending with 12361: 12339:on one morpheme results in 12318: 12250: 12207: 12156: 12121: 11842: 11830:, 'academic degree' 11826: 11783:, 'farewell dinner' 11779: 11732: 11561:(whose spelling as a small 11548: 11536: 11524: 11512: 11276:Certain processes, such as 11251: 11236: 11217: 11171: 11126: 11078:Transcription into Japanese 10991: 10945: 10933: 10921: 10897: 10885: 10873: 10849: 10644: 10628: 10612: 10596: 10571: 10543: 10460: 10448: 10404: 10388: 10349: 10339: 10333: 10323: 10317: 10307: 10301: 10291: 10265: 10255: 10237: 10231:, 'cut model' 10227: 10200: 10188: 10072: 10060: 10020: 10008: 9994: 9982: 9968: 9956: 9895: 9877: 9839: 9823: 9796: 9780: 9751: 9733: 9715: 9697: 9593:~ 'N'Djamena (proper noun)' 9509: 9497: 9485: 9461: 9445: 9429:is regularly replaced with 9368:, has a variant adaptation 9237:voiceless coronal affricate 9209:were affricated to before 9103: 9091: 9079: 9036: 9012: 8996: 8980: 8968: 8952: 8936: 8862: 7862:Transcription into Japanese 7818: 7772: 7746: 7703: 7677: 7651: 7546:makuriiꜜnkan ~ makuriꜜinkan 7545: 7534:yuutaaꜜnritsu~yuutaꜜanritsu 7533: 7509: 7497: 7485: 7428: 7416: 7404: 7392: 7380: 7368: 7330: 7317: 7296: 7283: 7262: 7253:, 'enter-GERUNDIVE' 7249: 7228: 7215: 7197: 7164: 7110: 7096: 7045: 7025: 7013: 7001: 6989: 6977: 6957: 6240: 6222: 6187: 6156: 6121: 6094: 6067: 6040: 5940: 5928: 5892: 5870: 5848: 5788: 5723: 5699: 5633: 5592: 5580: 5568: 5529: 5506: 5483: 5433: 5410: 5387: 5262: 5243: 5209: 5193: 5175: 5159: 5141: 5125: 5107: 5091: 5073: 5057: 4971:), and possibly also after 4822:Vowel phonemes of Japanese 4718: 4704: 4688:at the start of a morpheme, 4637: 4625: 4606: 4581: 4565: 4553: 4528: 4506: 4494:, 'approximately'. 4478: 4463: 4392: 4372: 4351: 4300: 4285: 4262: 4247: 4232: 4217: 4202: 4187: 4172: 4157: 4143: 4131: 4119: 4099: 4087: 4055: 4039: 4007: 3983: 3971: 3959: 3947: 3935: 3913: 3895: 3785:or with the non-IPA symbol 3739:Competing phonemic analyses 3584: 3543:and its voiced counterpart 3533: 3521: 3485: 3461: 3449: 3398: 3386: 3309:is also neutralized before 3237: 3209: 3181: 3119: 3091: 3063: 2934: 2899: 2856: 2832:, 'fried dumpling' 2828: 2800: 2772: 2663: 2651: 2625: 2573:Voiceless coronal affricate 2522:occurs in a compound word: 2166: 2141: 2114: 2089: 2062: 2037: 1939: 1904: 1888: 1874:, 'metallic taste' 1870: 1854: 1734: 1704:, 'three trillion' 1700: 1671: 1640: 1611: 1579: 1512: 1477: 1442: 1419:certain marginal exceptions 1326: 1233: 1198: 1147: 350: 258: 210: 195: 10: 25288: 24150:Nagano-Yamanashi-Shizuoka 23002:Martin, Samuel E. (1975), 22913:, München: Lincom Europa, 22909:Akamatsu, Tsutomu (2000), 22804:Vance, Timothy J. (2022). 22765:Vance, Timothy J. (2008), 22747:Vance, Timothy J. (1987), 22580:10.1016/j.wocn.2017.09.007 22492:Sano, Shin-ichiro (2013), 22465:10.1016/j.wocn.2006.01.002 22023:10.1016/j.wocn.2010.03.001 21892:Labrune, Laurence (2012), 21641:Kawahara, Shigeto (2011), 21305:10.1016/j.wocn.2019.100932 21132:, München: Lincom Europa, 21128:Akamatsu, Tsutomu (1997), 19629:Kawahara & Shaw (2018) 18691:Shaw & Kawahara (2018) 16587:Nogita & Yamane (2015) 15460:diacritic can be added to 15360:Gemination § Japanese 15155:, sometimes with a polite 15023: 14990:kami+sasi→kamisasi→kanzasi 14954:sakaɾi+ni→sakaɾini→sakanni 14589:kopi+te→kopite→koute→koːte 14583:topi+te→topite→toute→toːte 14522:jobi+te→jobite→joude→joːde 14411:. This particular type of 14169:toɾi+te→toɾite→toɾte→totte 13946:with the preceding vowel. 13830:Onbin in verb conjugations 13823: 13817: 12301: 11685: 11277: 11191: 11187: 11075: 10853:. In Sino-Japanese words, 10547:, 'painful, ouch' 9743:, 'ten stitches', 9529: 9513:, 'question mark'. 9489:, 'total defeat', 7851: 7789:Kawahara & Shaw (2018) 7436:in most styles of speech. 6938:'well with a pulley' from 6312: 5956: 5947: 5762:, 'while erasing' 5353:In general, a high vowel ( 5325: 5266:, 'foster parent' 5222: 4977:Nogita & Yamane (2019) 4747:consistent nasal speakers 4722:, 'overseas trip' 4075:before a vowel other than 2710: 2413: 2396: > before ) 2377: > before ) 2358: > before ) 1315: 1278:, but less frequently for 341: 337: 273: 249: 234: 230: 186: 124:are permitted. There is a 18: 25207: 25147: 25099: 24941: 24799: 24741: 24683: 24618: 24609: 24518: 24493: 24484: 24436: 24409: 24332: 24206: 24034: 24025: 23994: 23883: 23690: 23474: 23241: 23186: 22613:Smith, R. Edward (1980). 22423:10.1017/S0025100312000199 22402:Recasens, Daniel (2013), 22357:10.1515/9781614511984.167 22232:Nogita, Akitsugu (2016). 22221:Nogita, Akitsugu (2010), 22086:10.1017/S0025100321000050 21894:The Phonology of Japanese 21768:Kochetov, Alexei (2018), 21744:Kochetov, Alexei (2014), 21695:10.1007/s11049-017-9368-x 21577:Katayama, Motoko (1998), 21381:Hirayama, Manami (2009), 21268:10.1515/9781614511984.167 20860: 20670:, pp. 261, 266, 280. 20265:, pp. 559, 561, 565. 18049:Sano & Ooigawa (2010) 17737: 17730: 15599: 15585: 15557: 15522:for lengthened vowels in 15478: 15472: 15466: 15314: 15299: 15284: 15269: 15250: 15235: 15218: 15203: 15186: 15171: 15126: 15111: 15096: 15073: 15058: 15043: 14993: 14974: 14944: 14929: 14840: 14815: 14812:ʷo+pito→ʷopito→ʷotto→otto 14787: 14706: 14684: 14665: 14646: 14643:ʷo+pito→ʷopito→ʷouto→oːto 14600: 14569: 14554: 14467: 14443: 14401: 14371: 14333: 14139: 14124: 14101: 14075: 14054: 14041: 14018: 14005: 13986: 13921: 13906: 13891: 13876: 13861: 13843: 13780: 13721: 13694: 13665: 13652: 13639: 13626: 13623:mi+mu→mimu→miu→mjoː→mijoː 13607: 13594: 13581: 13568: 13555: 13520: 13496: 13481: 13466: 13389: 13374: 13357: 13341: 13326: 13309: 13270: 13255: 13238: 13222: 13207: 13190: 13171: 13155: 13136: 13120: 13101: 13085: 13070: 13052: 13036: 13016: 13000: 12985: 12967: 12951: 12931: 12915: 12900: 12882: 12866: 12851: 12809: 12799: 12793: 12783: 12763: 12753: 12747: 12737: 12705: 12687: 12677: 12667: 12657: 12638: 12621: 12611: 12601: 12591: 12555: 12537: 12527: 12517: 12507: 12487: 12469: 12459: 12449: 12439: 12419: 12409: 12399: 12389: 12368: 12325: 12304: 12258: 12244: 12215: 12201: 12164: 12150: 12129: 12115: 12091: > Japanese 12083: 12077: > Japanese 12069: 12032: 12022: 12008: 11993: 11983: 11969: 11954: 11948: 11939: 11933: 11924: 11915: 11908: 11899: 11890: 11884: 11875: 11869: 11860: 11851: 11836: 11820: 11811: 11805: 11793: 11787: 11773: 11764: 11758: 11746: 11740: 11726: 11717: 11711: 11699: 11693: 11669: 11663: 11654: 11648: 11636: 11630: 11615: 11609: 11600: 11594: 11582: 11576: 11563: 11557: 11542: 11530: 11518: 11506: 11258: 11243: 11224: 11178: 11120: 11032: 11030:, 'coughing' and 11026: 11020: 11014: 11008: 10983: 10981:occurs initially include 10939: 10927: 10915: 10891: 10879: 10867: 10841: 10731: 10718: 10717: 10680: 10667: 10666: 10638: 10622: 10620:and the honorific prefix 10606: 10590: 10565: 10537: 10454: 10442: 10398: 10382: 10289:would be atypical: e.g. 10249: 10221: 10194: 10182: 10164: 10152: 10140: 10128: 10118: 10112: 10106: 10100: 10098:, 'in disorder', 10094: 10066: 10054: 10014: 10002: 9988: 9976: 9962: 9950: 9889: 9871: 9833: 9817: 9790: 9774: 9745: 9727: 9709: 9691: 9503: 9491: 9479: 9455: 9439: 9279: 9270: 9264: 9097: 9085: 9073: 9052: 9046: 9031: 9025: 9006: 8990: 8974: 8962: 8946: 8931: 8919:dialects (such as Kyushu) 8852: 8838: 8825: 8815: 8630: 7812: 7761: 7753: 7735: 7727: 7692: 7684: 7666: 7658: 7640: 7632: 7539: 7527: 7503: 7501:, 'Lincoln Cup', 7491: 7479: 7422: 7410: 7398: 7386: 7374: 7362: 7324: 7311: 7300:, 'like Doraemon' 7290: 7277: 7256: 7243: 7222: 7209: 7186: 7178: 7153: 7145: 7125: 7122: 7102: 7100:, or derived demonyms in 7088: 7039: 7019: 7007: 6995: 6983: 6971: 6951: 6401:heavy (bimoraic) syllable 6388: 6379: 6367: 6351: 6341: 6331:after the accented mora. 6255: 6249:of the consonant element. 6216: 6181: 6150: 6115: 6088: 6061: 6034: 5934: 5922: 5909: 5886: 5864: 5842: 5782: 5758: 5739: 5717: 5693: 5627: 5586: 5574: 5562: 5523: 5500: 5477: 5427: 5404: 5381: 5256: 5237: 5203: 5187: 5169: 5153: 5135: 5119: 5101: 5085: 5067: 5051: 4800: 4754:consistent stop speakers 4741: 4732: 4712: 4698: 4687: 4665: 4655: 4649: 4643: 4631: 4619: 4600: 4575: 4559: 4547: 4522: 4500: 4487: 4472: 4457: 4432: 4426: 4420: 4414: 4386: 4366: 4358: 4307: 4292: 4269: 4254: 4239: 4224: 4209: 4194: 4179: 4164: 4137: 4125: 4113: 4093: 4081: 4049: 4033: 4001: 3977: 3975:, 'form'), and ( 3965: 3953: 3941: 3929: 3907: 3889: 3831:objects to analyses like 3812:), and other consonant + 3685:'if one waits', and for 3578: 3569: 3563: 3545: 3539: 3527: 3515: 3509: 3491: 3479: 3455: 3443: 3392: 3380: 3374: 3368: 3362: 3356: 3350: 3231: 3203: 3175: 3123:, 'acquaintance' 3113: 3085: 3057: 3001:Alveolo-palatal sibilants 2928: 2893: 2850: 2822: 2794: 2766: 2677: 2657: 2645: 2619: 2537: 2524: 2265: 2227: 2214: 2175: 2160: 2150: 2135: 2123: 2118:, 'one year old' 2108: 2098: 2083: 2071: 2056: 2046: 2031: 1933: 1898: 1882: 1864: 1848: 1818:before a vowel or before 1728: 1694: 1665: 1634: 1605: 1583:, 'three sheets' 1573: 1524: 1506: 1490: 1471: 1455: 1436: 1423:nasalized in this context 1391: 1378: 1320: 1227: 1192: 767:). are laminal alveolar. 696: 357: 301: 292:, taken into Japanese as 281: 265: 217: 202: 182: 154: 144: 138:, 'chopsticks'), 134: 25017:Sino-Japanese vocabulary 24476:Yokohama Pidgin Japanese 22813:Watanabe, Seiji (2009). 22529: 22475: 22473:Nihongo Onseigaku Nyūmon 22200: 21964: 21947: 21922: 21911: 21683:Nat Lang Linguist Theory 21666:"Persistence of prosody" 21597: 21561: 21396: 21146:Aoyama, Katsura (2001), 20916:Ito & Mester (2015a) 20880:Ito & Mester (2015b) 20752:Ito & Mester (2015a) 20728:Ito & Mester (2015a) 20694:, pp. 60–62, 75–76. 20420:Ito & Mester (2015a) 20128:Ito & Mester (2015a) 19974:Ito & Mester (2015a) 19950:Ito & Mester (2015a) 19938:Ito & Mester (2015a) 19926:Ito & Mester (2015a) 19458:Ito & Mester (2015b) 19419:Ito & Mester (2015b) 19360:Ito & Mester (2015b) 19061:Ito & Mester (2015b) 18334:, pp. 171–172, 179. 17271:, pp. 137–138, 148. 16563:Yamane & Gick (2010) 16317:, pp. 153, 331–332. 16276:, pp. 59, 133, 135. 16240:, pp. 25–29, 33–34. 16216:, pp. 5, 7, 19, 23. 15708:Ito & Mester (2015a) 15415: 14837:sau+soku→sausoku→sassoku 13960: 13847:, euphonic sound change) 13813: 13428:, particularly that for 12297: 11500:Sino-Japanese gemination 11488:descends from original * 11290: 10472:are not pronounced like 10285:kana) in contexts where 9707:, '(van) Gogh', 9543:is sometimes changed to 9235:In core vocabulary, the 9190:as a gap). In any case, 8908:alveolo-palatal sibilant 8892:phonetically palatalized 7807: 7553:Ito & Mester (2015b) 7017:, 'medical' and 5952: 5804:before the moraic nasal 5179:, 'destruction' 5077:, 'grandmother' 4742:sometimes , sometimes ~ 4690:in the middle of a word 3762:and as an allophone of 3283:Japanese spelling system 2655:, 'zeitgeist'; 2258: 2241:might be a glottal stop 1989: 1675:, 'three years' 1615:, 'three times' 1418: 1266:or after a pause; after 366:new spelling conventions 278:Ito & Mester (2015a) 252:Sino-Japanese vocabulary 237:Japanese sound symbolism 25272:Phonologies by language 24963:Godan and ichidan verbs 24781:Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai 23434:Regional North American 23043:Japanese Tone Structure 22733:10.1023/A:1011221225072 22301:Tsukuba English Studies 22264:: 75–84, archived from 22132:Morimoto, Maho (2020), 21914:[Gemination before 21876:10.1515/9781614511984.1 21850:10.1515/9781614511984.1 21824:10.1515/9781614511984.1 20906:, pp. 58, 189–190. 20800:Mester & Itô (1989) 20656:Itō & Mester (1995) 19569:Itō & Mester (2013) 19542:Ito & Mester (2018) 19494:Itō & Mester (2013) 19372:Itō & Mester (2013) 19345:Itō & Mester (2013) 19157:Starr & Shih (2017) 18594:, pp. 78, 100–101. 17581:Itō & Mester (1995) 17359:Itō & Mester (1995) 16995:Itō & Mester (1995) 16329:, pp. 96–101, 240. 15720:Starr & Shih (2017) 15654:Itō & Mester (1995) 15642:Itō & Mester (1995) 15370:Japanese writing system 14307:ojoɡi+te→ojoɡite→ojoide 13565:je+mu→jemu→jeu→joː→ejoː 12234:that is in common use. 12162:Systematically becomes 12127:Systematically becomes 11344:'bored, disappointed', 10811:prenasalized consonants 10480:is not pronounced like 10436:. For example, English 9198:do not contrast before 9166:as a gap. In contrast, 7519:Ito & Mester (2018) 7420:, 'script' and 6453: 6301:language, as each mora 6253:Thus, the disyllabic ( 5328:Elision § Japanese 5247:, 'sugar shop' 4685:at the start of a word 4091:, 'coffee' and 3669:'if (I) lend' and for 3596:Alternations involving 2635:In loanwords, however, 2516:modern written standard 1738:, 'third base' 1485:, 'oppression' 1450:, 'sound wave' 754:Details of articulation 31:phonetic transcriptions 23868:Dialects and varieties 23429:Received Pronunciation 23269:American Sign Language 22846:10.1006/jpho.1997.0050 22767:The Sounds of Japanese 22588:The Languages of Japan 22512:. pp. 1545–1548. 22510:Proc. Interspeech 2010 22471:Saito, Yoshio (2005), 22155:(3_Supplement): 2023, 22121:Mizoguchi, Ai (2019), 21794:Kondo, Mariko (1997), 21318:, in Luo, Shan (ed.), 19665:Broselow et al. (2012) 18852:Itō & Mester (1995 18741:, pp. 56, 96, 99. 16252:, pp. 24, 27, 33. 16097:, for the lateral tap. 15907:, pp. 93, 95, 98. 15895:, pp. 78, 82, 84. 15611:writings recorded the 15591:above which undergoes 15563:below which undergoes 15032:polite adjective forms 15020:Polite adjective forms 15009:ma+naka→manaka→mannaka 14862:ma+siɾo→masiɾo→massiɾo 14801:iki+te→ikite→iite→itte 11433: 11427: 11421: 11415: 11364: 11358: 11352: 11346: 11340: 11334: 11328: 11322: 11316: 11310: 11304: 11298: 11012:, 'overflow', 10785: 10778:The voiced obstruents 10370:/aioiuiieaeoeueioaouo/ 10158: 10146: 10134: 10104:, 'worn out', 10064:, 'Allah' and 9850: 9807: 9608: 9399: 9360: 9324: 9314: 9299: 9289: 7828: 7808:marginal circumstances 7580: 7266:, 'Sendai-ite' 6993:, 'tooth' and 6191:, 'deep blue' 5896:, 'cormorant' 5812:Glottal stop insertion 5743:, 'check out' 5656: 5646:Phonetics of devoicing 5533:, 'to kindle' 5487:, 'strangely' 5111:, 'reduction' 4991:is more accurate than 4818: 4727:inconsistent speakers 4653:(a male given name), 4538: 4516: 3951:, 'ferry'), ( 3723: 3717: 3711: 3701: 3390:, 'radio' and 3313:in most dialects (see 3013:obstruents . Original 2707:Palatalized consonants 2683: 2550:|iti+tukeru| 2170:, 'inference' 2145:, 'good luck' 2066:, 'worsening' 1680:lamino-alveolopalatal 1411: 1401: 917:rather than voiceless 116: 28:This article contains 25068:Court lady language ( 24538:Southern Amami Ōshima 24471:Yilan Creole Japanese 23093:, London: Routledge, 22986:A Course in Phonetics 22541:Seward, Jack (1992), 22396:10.1353/lan.1990.0031 22312:Okada, Hideo (1999), 21942:: A prefix is born", 21929:] (in Japanese), 21716:10.3765/amp.v4i0.3978 21627:10.1353/lan.2006.0146 21547:10.1515/jjl-2018-0014 21455:Loanwords in Japanese 21050:Nihon Kokugo Daijiten 20631:, pp. 35, 42–43. 19147:, pp. 86, 88–89. 17450:, pp. 65–66, 99. 17204:, pp. 78–79, 83. 16228:, pp. 25, 29–32. 16190:Gao & Arai (2019) 16178:Gao & Arai (2019) 16166:Gao & Arai (2019) 16122:Gao & Arai (2019) 15859:, pp. 75–76, 87. 15482:can represent either. 15254:, (It is) auspicious) 15139:-adjective ending in 15024:Further information: 13824:Further information: 13706:（せむ → せう → しょう → しよう） 13426:historical kana usage 12302:Further information: 12187:. Otherwise, remains 11130:, 'cake' use 11076:Further information: 10259:, 'bat' 10192:, 'fast' and 10122:, 'thin') or 9923:. In borrowed words, 9640:is found only before 9615:The moraic obstruent 9477:remains unchanged in 9170:prefers the analysis 7852:Further information: 7523:guriꜜinsha~guriiꜜnsha 7287:, 'Londoner', 7219:, 'pass-PAST' 7073:to form a diphthong. 6315:Japanese pitch accent 6125:, 'hugeness' 5959:On (Japanese prosody) 5957:Further information: 5510:, 'historic' 5197:, 'district' 5036:All vowels display a 4808: 4708:, 'baldness' 4440:Distribution of vs. 3927:. Examples include ( 3573:are used in writing. 1352:place of articulation 1237:, 'baldness' 1009:is also found before 936:tap, either alveolar 344:Loanwords in Japanese 328:Early Middle Japanese 148:, 'bridge'), 24887:Small Kana Extension 24498:Eastern Old Japanese 24137:Northern Izu Islands 23121:10.1075/la.250.14van 23033:Pierrehumbert, Janet 22834:Journal of Phonetics 22568:Journal of Phonetics 22453:Journal of Phonetics 22288:Phonological Studies 22258:Phonological Studies 22011:Journal of Phonetics 21912:ハ行音の前の促音:現代語における/Qh/ 21602:Phonological Studies 21453:Irwin, Mark (2011), 21414:Journal of Phonetics 21293:Journal of Phonetics 20882:, pp. 367, 370. 20066:, pp. 540, 542. 20051:, pp. 955, 972. 19976:, pp. 295, 297. 19508:, pp. 168, 177. 18729:, pp. 206, 209. 18131:, pp. 413, 417. 17988:, pp. 129, 325. 17738:音声・音韻探究法日本語音声へのいざない 17595:, pp. 139, 150. 17409:, pp. 165, 181. 17259:, pp. 629, 631. 17235:, pp. 135, 148. 16625:, pp. 133, 162. 14913:sini+te→sinite→sinde 14907:tobi+te→tobite→tonde 14901:jomi+te→jomite→jonde 14767:kupi+te→kupite→kutte 14755:kati+te→katite→katte 14392:When the historical 14347:juki+te→jukite→juite 14313:sasi+te→sasite→saite 14301:kaki+te→kakite→kaite 14257:sini+te→sinite→sinde 13757:（なからむ → なからう → なかろう） 13414:Late Middle Japanese 12063:, which developed a 12051:morphemes ending in 11060:in this context was 10959:Late Middle Japanese 10901:), alternating with 9815:) and Sino-Japanese 9664:from Old Japanese . 9601:inserted before the 9186:(which would leave * 7232:, 'Tokyoite' 7077:Superheavy syllables 6448:dialects of Japanese 5838: > ~ 5608:The non-high vowels 5095:, 'dubious' 4769:Sociolinguistics of 3963:, 'fan'), ( 3939:, 'fin'), ( 3847:In core vocabulary, 3477:(i.e. with katakana 3469:. Likewise, English 3441:(i.e. with katakana 3109: > ~ 2938:, 'hundred' 2577:In core vocabulary, 2179:, three moras long) 2102:, three moras long) 2075:, three moras long) 1644:, 'healthy' 1463:, three moras long) 1030:alveolar approximant 836:bilabial approximant 74:Knowledge Media help 24438:Pidgins and creoles 23793:Proto-Indo-European 23439:White South African 23027:, The Hague: Mouton 22161:2005ASAJ..118.2023M 21733:IULC Working Papers 21369:(16): 92–108, 163, 20894:, pp. 170–171. 20826:, pp. 171–173. 20790:, pp. 549–550. 20754:, pp. 293–295. 20742:, pp. 328–332. 20607:, pp. 102–103. 20583:, pp. 260–261. 20499:, pp. 226–227. 20475:, pp. 225–228. 20386:, pp. 224–225. 20326:, pp. 137–138. 20229:, pp. 245–246. 20130:, pp. 298–299. 19952:, pp. 304–305. 19904:, pp. 121–122. 19817:, pp. 163–176. 19781:, pp. 80, 229. 19730:, §3.1.4.2.5, §5.6. 19532:, pp. 341–342. 19362:, pp. 375–376. 19335:, pp. 174–175. 19171:, pp. 117–118. 19024:, pp. 162–164. 19012:, pp. 154–155. 18944:, pp. 182–183. 18914:, pp. 147–150. 18842:, pp. 143–144. 18765:, pp. 223–224. 18753:, pp. 222–225. 18693:, pp. 101–102. 18681:, pp. 208–209. 18630:, pp. 169–170. 18546:, pp. 184–186. 18391:, pp. 171–172. 18322:, pp. 177–178. 18283:, pp. 167–168. 18027:, pp. 171–173. 17976:, pp. 217–219. 17883:, pp. 219–220. 17859:, pp. 214–222. 17571:, pp. 228–229. 17530:, pp. 103–104. 17283:, pp. 633–634. 17247:, pp. 632–633. 17144:, pp. 229–232. 17064:, pp. 100–102. 16891:Voicing in Japanese 16801:, pp. 99, 107. 16774:, pp. 135–136. 16745:, pp. 105–107. 16575:Hashi et al. (2014) 16423:, pp. 133–134. 16394:, pp. 101–102. 16264:, pp. 132–135. 16134:Riney et al. (2007) 15919:, pp. 101–103. 15770:, pp. 225–226. 15710:, pp. 289–290. 15390:Japanese literature 15375:Japanese honorifics 14696:）and in many other 14377:lost the consonant 14224:On the other hand, 12837: 10969:phoneme. The glide 10110:, 'shaky', 9764:Voiced obstruents ( 9581: 'such thing' 7873: 7837:superheavy syllable 7806:is syllabic in the 7793:high vowel deletion 7780:Vowelless syllables 7321:, 'Wiener', 7119: 4823: 3855:occurs only before 3410:as they are before 3185:, 'doctor' 3131:Likewise, original 2903:, 'person' 2259:emphatic gemination 2127:, four moras long) 2093:, 'genius' 1498:, four moras long) 1140:are normally fully 158:, 'edge'). 126:pitch accent system 25267:Japanese phonology 25239:Classical Japanese 25086:Gender differences 24922:Extended shinjitai 23109:⟨ou⟩ 23021:McCawley, James D. 22858:Canadian Acoustics 22669:10.3758/BF03195600 22003:10.5070/P74r49g6qx 21927:Japanese philology 21457:, John Benjamins, 21394:Onsei Gakkai Kaihō 20718:, p. 213-218. 20154::537–538), citing 19880:, pp. 84, 87. 19793:, pp. 80, 82. 19123:, pp. 85, 89. 19087:, pp. 82, 84. 18717:, pp. 36, 39. 18642:, pp. 52, 59. 17964:, p. 218-219. 17779:, pp. 75, 85. 17643:, pp. 91, 94. 17076:, p. 164–165. 17052:, pp. 23, 41. 16649:, pp. 24, 31. 16635:Trigo Ferré (1988) 16479:, pp. 97, 99. 16464:, pp. 76, 96. 16435:, pp. 99–100. 16406:, pp. 96, 99. 16192:, pp. 12, 32. 15811:, pp. 74–114. 15734:, pp. 13, 20. 15476:are not used, and 15473:か゚, き゚, く゚, け゚, こ゚ 15467:か゚, き゚, く゚, け゚, こ゚ 15437:Trigo Ferré (1988) 15410:Ryukyuan languages 15239:, Congratulations) 15190:, (I am) grateful) 14967:In certain nouns: 14808:In certain nouns: 14639:In certain nouns: 14460:In certain nouns: 14436:In certain verbs: 14429:utukusiki→utukusii 14293:, was followed by 13942:by coalescence of 13751:（ませむ → ませう → ましょう） 13745:（でせむ → でせう → でしょう） 13430:classical Japanese 12835: 12369:天皇: てん + おう → てんのう 11569:geminate consonant 11208:consonant mutation 11163:morphophonological 11018:, 'duck', 10857:occurs only after 10575:, 'great' 10408:, 'happy'. 10144:, 'long', 9770:morphophonological 9220:as well as before 9109:fusion, duet, tuba 8960:(less common than 7871: 7559:is syllabified as 7117: 6160:, 'today' 6098:, 'child' 6071:, 'world' 5874:, 'shore' 5637:, 'heart' 5600:Atypical devoicing 5572:and polite suffix 5437:, 'grass' 5129:, 'leech' 4821: 4819: 3637:'lend' (negative) 3626:'wait' (negative) 3337:vs. foreign ": --> 3213:, 'fifty' 2804:, 'pulse' 2154:, two moras long) 2050:, two moras long) 1531:, two moras long) 1519:, 'three' 1015:Shitamachi dialect 122:consonant clusters 25254: 25253: 24958:Verb conjugations 24937: 24936: 24605: 24604: 24486:Japonic languages 24432: 24431: 24424:Okinawan Japanese 23988:Japanese language 23954: 23953: 23444:Standard Canadian 23180:world's languages 23130:978-90-272-0172-0 23100:978-0-415-04739-5 23054:978-0-262-16109-1 23013:978-0-300-01813-4 22995:978-0-15-507319-7 22974:978-0-631-20504-3 22956:978-0-631-20504-3 22938:978-0-87040-371-2 22920:978-3-89586-544-2 22884:10.5334/gjgl.1099 22776:978-0-5216-1754-3 22758:978-0-88706-360-2 22701:978-1-57473-471-3 22597:978-0-521-36070-8 22552:978-0-8442-8495-8 22366:978-1-61451-252-3 22214:10.15084/00001212 22169:10.1121/1.4785760 22064:10.34577/00004625 21903:978-0-19-954583-4 21885:978-1-61451-252-3 21859:978-1-61451-252-3 21833:978-1-61451-252-3 21787:10.1250/ast.39.84 21277:978-1-61451-252-3 21233:, pp. 98–108 21181:10.1250/ast.28.46 21159:978-0-7923-7216-5 21139:978-3-89586-095-9 20766:, pp. 30–32. 20629:Frellesvig (2010) 20569:Frellesvig (2010) 20511:, pp. 53–54. 20408:Youngberg (2021b) 20384:Youngberg (2021b) 20350:, pp. 46–51. 20142:, pp. 62–65. 19829:, pp. 85–88. 19691:, pp. 71–72. 19655:, pp. 75–76. 19520:, pp. 13–14. 19472:, pp. 72–73. 19292:Youngberg (2021b) 19282:, pp. 53–56. 19244:Youngberg (2021b) 19099:, pp. 84–85. 18510:, §5.2, 5.3, 6.3. 18415:, pp. 55–56. 18259:, pp. 59–60. 18095:, pp. 54–56. 17940:, pp. 79–80. 17791:, pp. 78–79. 17667:, pp. 78–80. 17631:, pp. 19–20. 17373:, pp. 9, 12. 17319:, pp. 11–12. 17307:, pp. 80–83. 17168:, pp. 55–56. 17120:, pp. 28–29. 16976:, pp. 16–18. 16916:, pp. 85–86. 16900:978-3-11-019768-6 16647:Youngberg (2021a) 16637:, pp. 44–47. 16204:, pp. 76–78. 16180:, pp. 22–25. 15946:, pp. 87–88. 15931:, pp. 82–84. 15758:, pp. 96–98. 15698:, pp. 13–14. 15595:. Early Christian 15441:Youngberg (2021a) 15406:Okinawan Japanese 15079:, which exhibits 14831:opi+te→opite→otte 14761:aɾi+te→aɾite→atte 14575:were followed by 13739:（だらむ → だらう → だろう） 13733:（たらむ → たらう → たろう） 13538:（笑はむ → 笑わう → 笑おう） 13532:（書かむ → 書かう → 書こう） 13404: 13403: 12836:Spelling changes 12293: 12292: 11234:mergers, notably 11072:Epenthetic vowels 10831:In Yamato words, 10753: 10752: 10698:'let's chase the 10645:o o-okuri-shimasu 10579: 10578: 10561: > 10555: > 10533: > 10527: > 10434:/ijaijouwaejaowa/ 10374:Youngberg (2021b) 10156:, 'hot', 10116:, 'dry', 9516:Some words where 9387:moraic consonants 9182:found in foreign 8860: 8859: 7770: 7744: 7701: 7675: 7649: 7340: 7339: 7195: 7162: 6942:'wheel, car' and 6899:argues that only 6843: 6842: 6790: 6789: 6716: 6715: 6642: 6641: 6589: 6588: 6464:clipped compounds 6233: 6232: 6044:, 'tail' 5900: 5899: 5882: > 5860: > 5766: 5765: 5641: 5640: 5623: > 5537: 5536: 5441: 5440: 5414:, 'deer' 5391:, 'shoe' 5270: 5269: 5217: 5216: 5213:, 'void' 5163:, 'city' 5145:, 'heel' 5061:, 'aunt' 4909: 4908: 4764: 4763: 4329:Velar nasal onset 4047: > 4031: > 3999: > 3903: 3902: 3885: > 3647: 3646: 3453:). An example is 3360:or (more rarely) 3245: 3244: 3227: > 3221: > 3199: > 3193: > 3171: > 3127: 3126: 3103: > 3081: > 3075: > 3067:, 'salt' 3053: > 2942: 2941: 2924: > 2889: > 2883: > 2864: 2863: 2846: > 2840: > 2818: > 2812: > 2790: > 2784: > 2762: > 2756: > 2633: 2632: 2629:, 'next' 2615: > 2405: 2404: 2183: 2182: 2041:, 'dirt' 1992:to the voiceless 1912: 1911: 1742: 1741: 1535: 1534: 1310:Moraic consonants 1241: 1240: 1223: > 1188: > 1063:lateral fricative 711: 710: 318:The moraic nasal 290:Chinese character 21:Help:IPA/Japanese 25279: 25197:Polivanov system 25058:Honorific speech 24953:Japanese grammar 24616: 24615: 24491: 24490: 24032: 24031: 23981: 23974: 23967: 23958: 23957: 23806:Kerkrade dialect 23419:General American 23169: 23162: 23155: 23146: 23145: 23141: 23110: 23103: 23092: 23081: 23057: 23046: 23028: 23016: 22998: 22982:Ladefoged, Peter 22977: 22959: 22941: 22923: 22897: 22887: 22886: 22865: 22848: 22828: 22809: 22800: 22788: 22779: 22761: 22743: 22715: 22704: 22689: 22679: 22651: 22642: 22641: 22639:10.5334/gjgl.355 22620: 22609: 22600: 22582: 22565: 22555: 22537: 22521: 22504: 22498: 22488: 22467: 22447: 22446: 22445: 22439: 22433:, archived from 22408: 22398: 22378: 22369: 22343: 22334: 22331:978-0-52163751-0 22308: 22295: 22278: 22277: 22276: 22270: 22255: 22245: 22228: 22217: 22216: 22189: 22180: 22171: 22139: 22128: 22117: 22089: 22088: 22067: 22066: 22045: 22025: 22005: 21985: 21984: 21972: 21956: 21934: 21906: 21888: 21862: 21836: 21810: 21801: 21790: 21789: 21764: 21740: 21719: 21718: 21697: 21673: 21660: 21647: 21637: 21609: 21592: 21582: 21573: 21549: 21529: 21520: 21511: 21498: 21489: 21480: 21467: 21464:978-90-2720592-6 21449: 21428: 21408: 21388: 21377: 21357: 21356: 21335: 21322: 21317: 21307: 21290: 21280: 21254: 21245: 21234: 21225: 21184: 21183: 21162: 21142: 21115: 21114: 21103: 21097: 21096: 21085: 21079: 21072: 21066: 21059: 21053: 21046: 21040: 21037:Kubozono (2015b) 21034: 21028: 21027: 21019: 21002: 20995: 20982: 20976: 20970: 20964: 20958: 20952: 20943: 20937: 20931: 20925: 20919: 20913: 20907: 20901: 20895: 20889: 20883: 20877: 20871: 20869: 20863: 20862: 20857: 20853: 20845: 20839: 20833: 20827: 20821: 20815: 20812:Kubozono (2015a) 20809: 20803: 20797: 20791: 20785: 20779: 20773: 20767: 20761: 20755: 20749: 20743: 20740:Kubozono (2015c) 20737: 20731: 20725: 20719: 20713: 20707: 20701: 20695: 20689: 20683: 20677: 20671: 20665: 20659: 20653: 20647: 20641: 20632: 20626: 20620: 20614: 20608: 20602: 20596: 20590: 20584: 20578: 20572: 20566: 20560: 20554: 20548: 20542: 20536: 20530: 20524: 20518: 20512: 20506: 20500: 20497:Kubozono (2015b) 20494: 20488: 20482: 20476: 20473:Kubozono (2015b) 20470: 20464: 20461:Kubozono (2015c) 20458: 20452: 20446: 20440: 20434: 20423: 20417: 20411: 20405: 20399: 20393: 20387: 20381: 20375: 20369: 20363: 20357: 20351: 20345: 20339: 20333: 20327: 20321: 20312: 20306: 20297: 20291: 20278: 20272: 20266: 20260: 20254: 20248: 20242: 20236: 20230: 20224: 20215: 20209: 20198: 20192: 20183: 20177: 20171: 20165: 20159: 20149: 20143: 20137: 20131: 20125: 20119: 20113: 20107: 20101: 20095: 20089: 20083: 20073: 20067: 20061: 20052: 20046: 20040: 20034: 20028: 20022: 20016: 20010: 20001: 19995: 19989: 19983: 19977: 19971: 19965: 19959: 19953: 19947: 19941: 19935: 19929: 19923: 19917: 19911: 19905: 19899: 19893: 19887: 19881: 19875: 19869: 19866:Shinohara (2004) 19863: 19857: 19854:Shinohara (2004) 19851: 19842: 19836: 19830: 19824: 19818: 19812: 19806: 19800: 19794: 19788: 19782: 19776: 19770: 19764: 19758: 19752: 19746: 19740: 19731: 19725: 19719: 19713: 19707: 19701: 19692: 19686: 19680: 19674: 19668: 19662: 19656: 19650: 19644: 19638: 19632: 19626: 19620: 19617:Kubozono (2015c) 19614: 19608: 19605:Kubozono (2015c) 19602: 19596: 19590: 19584: 19581:Kubozono (2015c) 19578: 19572: 19566: 19560: 19554: 19545: 19539: 19533: 19530:Kubozono (2015c) 19527: 19521: 19518:Kubozono (2015a) 19515: 19509: 19503: 19497: 19491: 19485: 19479: 19473: 19467: 19461: 19455: 19434: 19428: 19422: 19416: 19405: 19399: 19390: 19387:Kubozono (2015a) 19384: 19375: 19369: 19363: 19357: 19348: 19342: 19336: 19330: 19324: 19318: 19312: 19306: 19295: 19289: 19283: 19277: 19271: 19265: 19259: 19256:Kubozono (2015a) 19253: 19247: 19241: 19235: 19229: 19223: 19217: 19211: 19205: 19199: 19193: 19187: 19184:Shinohara (2004) 19181: 19172: 19166: 19160: 19154: 19148: 19142: 19136: 19130: 19124: 19118: 19112: 19106: 19100: 19094: 19088: 19082: 19076: 19070: 19064: 19058: 19052: 19046: 19037: 19031: 19025: 19019: 19013: 19007: 18998: 18992: 18986: 18980: 18969: 18963: 18957: 18951: 18945: 18939: 18930: 18924: 18915: 18909: 18903: 18897: 18891: 18885: 18879: 18873: 18867: 18861: 18855: 18849: 18843: 18837: 18831: 18825: 18819: 18818: 18800: 18789:10.1037/a0024491 18783:(6): 1458–1473. 18772: 18766: 18760: 18754: 18748: 18742: 18736: 18730: 18724: 18718: 18712: 18706: 18700: 18694: 18688: 18682: 18676: 18667: 18661: 18655: 18649: 18643: 18637: 18631: 18625: 18619: 18613: 18607: 18601: 18595: 18589: 18583: 18577: 18571: 18565: 18559: 18553: 18547: 18541: 18535: 18529: 18523: 18517: 18511: 18505: 18499: 18493: 18487: 18481: 18472: 18466: 18460: 18454: 18448: 18442: 18431: 18425: 18416: 18410: 18404: 18398: 18392: 18386: 18377: 18371: 18362: 18356: 18347: 18341: 18335: 18329: 18323: 18317: 18308: 18302: 18296: 18290: 18284: 18278: 18272: 18266: 18260: 18254: 18248: 18242: 18236: 18230: 18224: 18218: 18212: 18206: 18200: 18194: 18188: 18185:Shibatani (1990) 18182: 18176: 18170: 18159: 18153: 18144: 18138: 18132: 18126: 18120: 18117:Li et al. (2015) 18114: 18108: 18102: 18096: 18090: 18079: 18073: 18067: 18061: 18052: 18046: 18040: 18034: 18028: 18025:Shibatani (1990) 18022: 18016: 18010: 18004: 17998: 17989: 17983: 17977: 17971: 17965: 17959: 17953: 17947: 17941: 17935: 17926: 17920: 17911: 17905: 17899: 17893: 17884: 17878: 17872: 17869:Shibatani (1990) 17866: 17860: 17854: 17843: 17837: 17828: 17822: 17816: 17810: 17804: 17798: 17792: 17786: 17780: 17774: 17768: 17762: 17756: 17750: 17744: 17743: 17740: 17739: 17733: 17732: 17725: 17719: 17713: 17707: 17701: 17695: 17689: 17680: 17674: 17668: 17662: 17656: 17653:Maddieson (2005) 17650: 17644: 17638: 17632: 17626: 17620: 17614: 17608: 17602: 17596: 17590: 17584: 17578: 17572: 17566: 17560: 17554: 17543: 17537: 17531: 17525: 17519: 17513: 17507: 17501: 17495: 17492:Shibatani (1990) 17489: 17483: 17477: 17466: 17460: 17451: 17445: 17439: 17438: 17433: 17431: 17416: 17410: 17404: 17398: 17392: 17386: 17380: 17374: 17368: 17362: 17356: 17347: 17341: 17332: 17326: 17320: 17314: 17308: 17302: 17296: 17290: 17284: 17278: 17272: 17266: 17260: 17254: 17248: 17242: 17236: 17230: 17224: 17218: 17205: 17199: 17193: 17187: 17181: 17175: 17169: 17163: 17157: 17151: 17145: 17139: 17133: 17127: 17121: 17115: 17109: 17103: 17094: 17088: 17077: 17074:Shibatani (1990) 17071: 17065: 17059: 17053: 17047: 17041: 17035: 17029: 17023: 17017: 17011: 16998: 16992: 16977: 16971: 16965: 16959: 16953: 16947: 16941: 16935: 16929: 16923: 16917: 16911: 16905: 16904: 16886: 16877: 16871: 16865: 16859: 16853: 16847: 16838: 16832: 16826: 16820: 16814: 16808: 16802: 16796: 16790: 16784: 16775: 16769: 16763: 16757: 16746: 16740: 16734: 16731:Mizoguchi (2019) 16728: 16722: 16716: 16710: 16704: 16698: 16692: 16686: 16680: 16674: 16668: 16662: 16659:Shibatani (1990) 16656: 16650: 16644: 16638: 16632: 16626: 16620: 16614: 16608: 16602: 16599:Mizoguchi (2019) 16596: 16590: 16584: 16578: 16572: 16566: 16560: 16554: 16549::514), cited in 16540: 16534: 16531:Shibatani (1990) 16528: 16519: 16513: 16507: 16501: 16495: 16489: 16480: 16474: 16465: 16459: 16453: 16447: 16436: 16430: 16424: 16418: 16407: 16401: 16395: 16389: 16383: 16377: 16366: 16360: 16354: 16348: 16342: 16336: 16330: 16324: 16318: 16312: 16306: 16300: 16294: 16291:Kubozono (2015a) 16288: 16277: 16271: 16265: 16259: 16253: 16247: 16241: 16235: 16229: 16223: 16217: 16211: 16205: 16199: 16193: 16187: 16181: 16175: 16169: 16163: 16157: 16148::276–277), also 16143: 16137: 16131: 16125: 16119: 16110: 16104: 16098: 16096: 16084: 16078: 16072: 16059: 16053: 16044: 16038: 16023: 16017: 16008: 16002: 15996: 15990: 15984: 15978: 15947: 15941: 15932: 15926: 15920: 15914: 15908: 15902: 15896: 15890: 15884: 15878: 15872: 15866: 15860: 15854: 15848: 15842: 15836: 15835:, §2.3.2.1, 3.1. 15830: 15824: 15818: 15812: 15806: 15800: 15794: 15783: 15777: 15771: 15765: 15759: 15753: 15747: 15741: 15735: 15729: 15723: 15717: 15711: 15705: 15699: 15693: 15687: 15681: 15672: 15666: 15657: 15651: 15645: 15639: 15620: 15618: 15610: 15608: 15602: 15601: 15590: 15588: 15587: 15581: 15574: 15568: 15562: 15560: 15559: 15553: 15546: 15540: 15533: 15527: 15517: 15512: 15506: 15489: 15483: 15481: 15480: 15475: 15474: 15469: 15468: 15454: 15448: 15446: 15434: 15426: 15365:Japanese grammar 15354: 15352:Languages portal 15349: 15348: 15340: 15335: 15334: 15333: 15319: 15317: 15316: 15310: 15304: 15302: 15301: 15295: 15289: 15287: 15286: 15280: 15274: 15272: 15271: 15265: 15255: 15253: 15252: 15246: 15240: 15238: 15237: 15231: 15223: 15222:, (It is) early) 15221: 15220: 15214: 15208: 15206: 15205: 15199: 15191: 15189: 15188: 15182: 15176: 15174: 15173: 15167: 15131: 15129: 15128: 15122: 15116: 15114: 15113: 15107: 15101: 15099: 15098: 15092: 15078: 15076: 15075: 15069: 15063: 15061: 15060: 15054: 15048: 15046: 15045: 15039: 15010: 15004: 14991: 14985: 14972: 14961: 14955: 14949: 14947: 14946: 14940: 14934: 14932: 14931: 14925: 14914: 14908: 14902: 14896: 14893:was followed by 14892: 14888: 14884: 14863: 14857: 14851: 14838: 14832: 14826: 14813: 14802: 14796: 14793:was followed by 14792: 14790: 14789: 14783: 14768: 14762: 14756: 14750: 14747:was followed by 14746: 14742: 14738: 14717: 14704: 14695: 14682: 14676: 14663: 14657: 14644: 14633: 14627: 14621: 14615: 14609: 14605: 14603: 14602: 14590: 14584: 14578: 14574: 14572: 14571: 14565: 14559: 14557: 14556: 14550: 14535: 14529: 14523: 14517: 14511: 14508:was followed by 14507: 14503: 14499: 14478: 14465: 14454: 14441: 14430: 14424: 14410: 14406: 14404: 14403: 14397: 14386: 14380: 14376: 14374: 14373: 14367: 14357: 14348: 14342: 14339:was followed by 14338: 14336: 14335: 14329: 14314: 14308: 14302: 14296: 14292: 14288: 14284: 14258: 14252: 14246: 14239: 14231: 14219: 14213: 14206: 14182: 14176: 14170: 14163: 14151: 14144: 14142: 14141: 14135: 14130:or the particle 14129: 14127: 14126: 14120: 14114: 14106: 14104: 14103: 14097: 14091: 14080: 14078: 14077: 14071: 14065: 14063: 14057: 14056: 14050: 14046: 14044: 14043: 14037: 14031: 14029: 14021: 14020: 14014: 14010: 14008: 14007: 14001: 13995: 13991: 13989: 13988: 13982: 13972: 13956: 13952: 13945: 13938:, which created 13937: 13933: 13926: 13924: 13923: 13917: 13911: 13909: 13908: 13902: 13896: 13894: 13893: 13887: 13881: 13879: 13878: 13872: 13866: 13864: 13863: 13857: 13848: 13846: 13845: 13839: 13785: 13783: 13782: 13776: 13763:Thus, while the 13756: 13750: 13744: 13738: 13732: 13726: 13724: 13723: 13717: 13705: 13699: 13697: 13696: 13690: 13676: 13663: 13650: 13637: 13624: 13618: 13605: 13592: 13579: 13566: 13560: 13558: 13557: 13551: 13537: 13531: 13525: 13523: 13522: 13516: 13501: 13499: 13498: 13492: 13486: 13484: 13483: 13477: 13471: 13469: 13468: 13462: 13453: 13448: 13443: 13438: 13419: 13400: 13398: 13392: 13391: 13385: 13383: 13377: 13376: 13370: 13369: 13366: 13360: 13359: 13352: 13350: 13344: 13343: 13337: 13335: 13329: 13328: 13322: 13321: 13318: 13312: 13311: 13300: 13294: 13288: 13281: 13279: 13273: 13272: 13266: 13264: 13258: 13257: 13251: 13250: 13247: 13241: 13240: 13233: 13231: 13225: 13224: 13218: 13216: 13210: 13209: 13203: 13202: 13199: 13193: 13192: 13187:medial or final 13182: 13180: 13174: 13173: 13166: 13164: 13158: 13157: 13152:medial or final 13147: 13145: 13139: 13138: 13131: 13129: 13123: 13122: 13112: 13110: 13104: 13103: 13096: 13094: 13088: 13087: 13081: 13079: 13073: 13072: 13063: 13061: 13055: 13054: 13047: 13045: 13039: 13038: 13029: 13027: 13022: 13019: 13018: 13011: 13009: 13003: 13002: 12996: 12994: 12988: 12987: 12978: 12976: 12970: 12969: 12962: 12960: 12954: 12953: 12944: 12942: 12937: 12934: 12933: 12926: 12924: 12918: 12917: 12911: 12909: 12903: 12902: 12893: 12891: 12885: 12884: 12877: 12875: 12869: 12868: 12862: 12860: 12854: 12853: 12838: 12834: 12816: 12815: 12802: 12801: 12796: 12795: 12786: 12785: 12770: 12769: 12756: 12755: 12750: 12749: 12740: 12739: 12729: 12712: 12711: 12694: 12693: 12680: 12679: 12670: 12669: 12660: 12659: 12644: 12643: 12627: 12626: 12614: 12613: 12604: 12603: 12594: 12593: 12583: 12579: 12562: 12561: 12544: 12543: 12530: 12529: 12520: 12519: 12510: 12509: 12494: 12493: 12476: 12475: 12462: 12461: 12452: 12451: 12442: 12441: 12426: 12425: 12412: 12411: 12402: 12401: 12392: 12391: 12381: 12373: 12371: 12370: 12364: 12354: 12346: 12342: 12338: 12334: 12330: 12328: 12327: 12321: 12309: 12308: 12288: 12284: 12280: 12276: 12272: 12268: 12264: 12261: 12260: 12253: 12247: 12246: 12241: 12233: 12229: 12225: 12221: 12218: 12217: 12210: 12204: 12203: 12198: 12190: 12186: 12182: 12178: 12174: 12170: 12167: 12166: 12159: 12153: 12152: 12147: 12139: 12135: 12132: 12131: 12124: 12118: 12117: 12112: 12107: 12094: 12090: 12086: 12085: 12080: 12076: 12072: 12071: 12062: 12058: 12054: 12035: 12034: 12025: 12024: 12016: > 12011: 12010: 11996: 11995: 11986: 11985: 11977: > 11972: 11971: 11957: 11956: 11951: 11950: 11942: 11941: 11936: 11935: 11928: > 11927: 11926: 11918: 11917: 11911: 11910: 11902: 11901: 11893: 11892: 11887: 11886: 11878: 11877: 11872: 11871: 11864: > 11863: 11862: 11854: 11853: 11845: 11839: 11838: 11829: 11823: 11822: 11814: 11813: 11808: 11807: 11799: 11798: 11790: 11789: 11782: 11776: 11775: 11767: 11766: 11761: 11760: 11752: 11751: 11743: 11742: 11735: 11729: 11728: 11720: 11719: 11714: 11713: 11705: 11704: 11696: 11695: 11676: 11675: 11666: 11665: 11657: 11656: 11651: 11650: 11642: 11641: 11633: 11632: 11622: 11621: 11612: 11611: 11603: 11602: 11597: 11596: 11588: 11587: 11579: 11578: 11566: 11565: 11560: 11559: 11551: 11545: 11544: 11539: 11533: 11532: 11527: 11521: 11520: 11515: 11509: 11508: 11487: 11483: 11479: 11475: 11471: 11467: 11459: 11455: 11451: 11447: 11443: 11436: 11430: 11424: 11418: 11412: 11407: 11402: 11396:used elsewhere. 11395: 11391: 11387: 11383: 11379: 11375: 11371: 11367: 11361: 11355: 11349: 11343: 11337: 11331: 11325: 11319: 11313: 11307: 11301: 11288: 11283:verb conjugation 11263: 11261: 11260: 11254: 11248: 11246: 11245: 11239: 11229: 11227: 11226: 11220: 11183: 11181: 11180: 11174: 11144: 11141:, in some cases 11140: 11133: 11129: 11123: 11122: 11117: 11113: 11109: 11105: 11101: 11097: 11093: 11067: 11063: 11059: 11051: 11047: 11043: 11039: 11035: 11034: 11029: 11028: 11023: 11022: 11017: 11016: 11011: 11010: 11005: 10994: 10988: 10987: 10980: 10976: 10972: 10968: 10964: 10956: 10952: 10948: 10942: 10941: 10936: 10930: 10929: 10924: 10918: 10917: 10912: 10908: 10904: 10900: 10894: 10893: 10888: 10882: 10881: 10876: 10870: 10869: 10864: 10860: 10856: 10852: 10846: 10845: 10838: 10834: 10827: 10823: 10804: 10800: 10788: 10781: 10773: 10769: 10765: 10745: 10744: 10742: 10729: 10709: 10708:/toː.oː.o.oː.oː/ 10694: 10693: 10691: 10678: 10658: 10653: 10647: 10641: 10640: 10631: 10625: 10624: 10615: 10609: 10608: 10599: 10593: 10592: 10574: 10568: 10567: 10560: 10554: 10546: 10540: 10539: 10532: 10526: 10521: 10515: 10511: 10507: 10503: 10499: 10495: 10487: 10483: 10479: 10475: 10471: 10468:, the sequences 10463: 10457: 10456: 10451: 10445: 10444: 10435: 10431: 10418: 10414: 10407: 10401: 10400: 10395: 10391: 10385: 10384: 10379: 10371: 10352: 10346: 10342: 10336: 10330: 10326: 10320: 10314: 10310: 10304: 10298: 10294: 10288: 10280: 10272: 10268: 10262: 10258: 10252: 10251: 10244: 10240: 10234: 10230: 10224: 10223: 10215: 10207: 10203: 10197: 10196: 10191: 10185: 10184: 10179: 10175: 10167: 10166: 10161: 10155: 10154: 10149: 10143: 10142: 10137: 10131: 10130: 10125: 10121: 10120: 10115: 10114: 10109: 10108: 10103: 10102: 10097: 10096: 10091: 10086: 10079: 10075: 10069: 10068: 10063: 10057: 10056: 10051: 10023: 10017: 10016: 10011: 10005: 10004: 9997: 9991: 9990: 9985: 9979: 9978: 9971: 9965: 9964: 9959: 9953: 9952: 9934: 9930: 9926: 9922: 9918: 9914: 9910: 9898: 9892: 9891: 9881:('slugger') vs. 9880: 9874: 9873: 9857: 9846: 9836: 9835: 9830: 9820: 9819: 9814: 9803: 9793: 9792: 9787: 9777: 9776: 9767: 9760: 9748: 9747: 9742: 9730: 9729: 9724: 9712: 9711: 9706: 9694: 9693: 9688: 9681: 9677: 9673: 9663: 9659: 9655: 9651: 9647: 9643: 9639: 9631: 9625: 9618: 9611: 9604: 9600: 9588: 9580: 9576: 9570: 9566: 9558: 9546: 9542: 9535: 9527: 9523: 9519: 9512: 9506: 9505: 9500: 9494: 9493: 9488: 9486:kan+zen#hai+boku 9482: 9481: 9476: 9472: 9468: 9458: 9457: 9452: 9442: 9441: 9436: 9432: 9428: 9420: 9416: 9409: 9402: 9395: 9391: 9371: 9367: 9363: 9357: 9353: 9349: 9345: 9340:epenthetic vowel 9281: 9273: 9272: 9267: 9266: 9258: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9242: 9231: 9227: 9223: 9219: 9212: 9208: 9201: 9197: 9193: 9189: 9185: 9181: 9177: 9174:and argues that 9173: 9165: 9161: 9157: 9149: 9141: 9134: 9126: 9118: 9114: 9106: 9100: 9099: 9094: 9088: 9087: 9082: 9076: 9075: 9067: 9059: 9055: 9054: 9049: 9048: 9039: 9034: 9033: 9028: 9027: 9015: 9009: 9008: 8999: 8993: 8992: 8983: 8977: 8976: 8971: 8965: 8964: 8955: 8949: 8948: 8939: 8934: 8933: 8916: 8905: 8901: 8897: 8889: 8885: 8878: 8874: 8870: 8856: 8850: 8841: 8836: 8829: 8823: 8612: 8606: 8599: 8593: 8587: 8581: 8575: 8569: 8563: 8557: 8551: 8544: 8538: 8532: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8510: 8504: 8499: 8492: 8486: 8480: 8474: 8469: 8464: 8458: 8452: 8447: 8440: 8434: 8428: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8406: 8400: 8395: 8388: 8382: 8376: 8370: 8365: 8360: 8354: 8348: 8343: 8336: 8330: 8324: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8302: 8296: 8291: 8284: 8278: 8272: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8250: 8244: 8239: 8232: 8226: 8220: 8214: 8209: 8204: 8198: 8192: 8187: 8180: 8174: 8168: 8162: 8156: 8150: 8144: 8138: 8132: 8125: 8119: 8113: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8091: 8085: 8080: 8073: 8067: 8061: 8055: 8050: 8045: 8039: 8033: 8028: 8021: 8015: 8009: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7987: 7981: 7976: 7969: 7964: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7916: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7896: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7874: 7870: 7842: 7834: 7831: 7825: 7821: 7815: 7814: 7805: 7775: 7765: 7763: 7755: 7749: 7739: 7737: 7729: 7721: 7717: 7713: 7706: 7696: 7694: 7686: 7680: 7670: 7668: 7660: 7654: 7644: 7642: 7634: 7626: 7614:Kubozono (2015c) 7607: 7603: 7599: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7548: 7542: 7541: 7536: 7530: 7529: 7512: 7506: 7505: 7500: 7494: 7493: 7488: 7482: 7481: 7476: 7472: 7467:Kubozono (2015c) 7459: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7431: 7425: 7424: 7419: 7413: 7412: 7407: 7401: 7400: 7395: 7389: 7388: 7383: 7377: 7376: 7371: 7365: 7364: 7333: 7327: 7326: 7320: 7314: 7313: 7299: 7293: 7292: 7286: 7280: 7279: 7265: 7259: 7258: 7252: 7246: 7245: 7231: 7225: 7224: 7218: 7212: 7211: 7200: 7190: 7188: 7180: 7167: 7157: 7155: 7147: 7120: 7116: 7113: 7107: 7106: 7099: 7093: 7092: 7085: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7052: 7048: 7042: 7041: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7022: 7021: 7016: 7010: 7009: 7004: 6998: 6997: 6992: 6986: 6985: 6980: 6974: 6973: 6964: 6960: 6954: 6953: 6945: 6941: 6937: 6926: 6922: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6897:Kubozono (2015a) 6836: 6825: 6815: 6804: 6799: 6783: 6772: 6762: 6751: 6741: 6730: 6725: 6709: 6698: 6688: 6677: 6667: 6656: 6651: 6635: 6624: 6614: 6603: 6598: 6582: 6571: 6561: 6550: 6540: 6529: 6519: 6508: 6498: 6487: 6482: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6394: 6391: 6390: 6385: 6382: 6381: 6376: 6375: 6370: 6369: 6364: 6360: 6359: 6354: 6353: 6348: 6344: 6343: 6330: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6257: 6244: 6225: 6219: 6218: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6190: 6184: 6183: 6177: 6173: 6159: 6153: 6152: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6124: 6118: 6117: 6111: 6097: 6091: 6090: 6084: 6070: 6064: 6063: 6057: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6030: 6000: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5943: 5937: 5936: 5931: 5925: 5924: 5919: 5915:moraic obstruent 5912: 5911: 5895: 5889: 5888: 5881: 5873: 5867: 5866: 5859: 5852:, 'yen' 5851: 5845: 5844: 5837: 5832: 5826: 5807: 5791: 5785: 5784: 5779: 5761: 5760: 5751: 5742: 5741: 5733: 5726: 5720: 5719: 5710: 5702: 5696: 5695: 5687: 5682: 5659: 5653: 5636: 5630: 5629: 5622: 5617: 5611: 5595: 5589: 5588: 5583: 5577: 5576: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5556: 5548: 5544: 5532: 5526: 5525: 5519: 5509: 5503: 5502: 5496: 5486: 5480: 5479: 5473: 5466: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5436: 5430: 5429: 5423: 5413: 5407: 5406: 5400: 5390: 5384: 5383: 5377: 5370: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5343: 5339: 5306: 5298: 5284:Shibatani (1990) 5265: 5259: 5258: 5246: 5240: 5239: 5231: 5212: 5206: 5205: 5196: 5190: 5189: 5178: 5172: 5171: 5162: 5156: 5155: 5144: 5138: 5137: 5128: 5122: 5121: 5110: 5104: 5103: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5060: 5054: 5053: 5045: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4990: 4982: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4954: 4942: 4934: 4928: 4922: 4914: 4903: 4887: 4878: 4864: 4855: 4824: 4820: 4781: 4780: 4776: 4739: 4721: 4715: 4714: 4707: 4701: 4700: 4677: 4668: 4667: 4658: 4657: 4652: 4651: 4646: 4645: 4640: 4634: 4633: 4628: 4622: 4621: 4613: 4603: 4602: 4596: 4593:and begins with 4588: 4578: 4577: 4572: 4562: 4561: 4556: 4550: 4549: 4541: 4535: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4513: 4503: 4502: 4493: 4492: 4484: 4475: 4474: 4469: 4460: 4459: 4452: 4451: 4447: 4435: 4434: 4429: 4428: 4423: 4422: 4417: 4416: 4411: 4403: 4399: 4389: 4388: 4383: 4379: 4369: 4368: 4363: 4361: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4340: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4310: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4295: 4294: 4288: 4282: 4274: 4272: 4271: 4265: 4259: 4257: 4256: 4250: 4244: 4242: 4241: 4235: 4229: 4227: 4226: 4220: 4214: 4212: 4211: 4205: 4199: 4197: 4196: 4190: 4184: 4182: 4181: 4175: 4169: 4167: 4166: 4160: 4146: 4140: 4139: 4134: 4128: 4127: 4122: 4116: 4115: 4106: 4102: 4096: 4095: 4090: 4084: 4083: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4042: 4036: 4035: 4026: 4018: 4010: 4004: 4003: 3990: 3986: 3980: 3979: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3962: 3956: 3955: 3950: 3944: 3943: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3926: 3919: 3916: 3910: 3909: 3899:, 'lid' 3898: 3892: 3891: 3884: 3879: 3872: > 3871: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3838: 3834: 3826: 3822: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3720: 3714: 3708: 3704: 3698: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3651:Shibatani (1990) 3643:'lend' (polite) 3632:'wait' (polite) 3623: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3607: 3603: 3587: 3581: 3580: 3572: 3571: 3566: 3565: 3560: 3548: 3547: 3542: 3541: 3536: 3530: 3529: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3512: 3511: 3506: 3494: 3493: 3488: 3482: 3481: 3476: 3472: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3452: 3446: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3401: 3395: 3394: 3389: 3383: 3382: 3377: 3376: 3371: 3370: 3365: 3364: 3359: 3358: 3353: 3352: 3345: 3344: 3340: 3328: 3323: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3241:, 'tea' 3240: 3234: 3233: 3226: 3220: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3198: 3192: 3184: 3178: 3177: 3170: 3165: 3158: > 3157: 3152: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3108: 3102: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3080: 3074: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3052: 3047: 3040: > 3039: 3034: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2981: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2923: 2918: 2911: > 2910: 2902: 2896: 2895: 2888: 2882: 2877: 2871: 2860:, 'fog' 2859: 2853: 2852: 2845: 2839: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2817: 2811: 2803: 2797: 2796: 2789: 2783: 2776:, 'sea' 2775: 2769: 2768: 2761: 2755: 2750: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2702: 2697:Shibatani (1990) 2694: 2686: 2680: 2679: 2674: 2666: 2660: 2659: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2642: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2614: 2609: 2602: > 2601: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2568: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2544: 2543: 2534: 2531: 2530: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2495: 2491: 2482: 2478: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2427: 2423: 2401: 2395: 2391: 2382: 2376: 2372: 2363: 2357: 2353: 2341: 2333: 2327: 2323: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2298: 2290: 2281: 2274: 2270: 2268: 2267: 2252: 2248: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2230: 2229: 2219: 2217: 2216: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2178: 2177: 2169: 2163: 2162: 2153: 2152: 2144: 2138: 2137: 2126: 2125: 2117: 2111: 2110: 2101: 2100: 2092: 2086: 2085: 2074: 2073: 2065: 2059: 2058: 2049: 2048: 2040: 2034: 2033: 2009: 1987: 1983: 1959:Moraic obstruent 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1936: 1935: 1927: 1923: 1907: 1901: 1900: 1891: 1885: 1884: 1873: 1867: 1866: 1857: 1851: 1850: 1838: 1827: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1801: 1790: 1786: 1776: 1768: 1750: 1737: 1731: 1730: 1722: 1718: 1703: 1697: 1696: 1687: 1674: 1668: 1667: 1658: 1643: 1637: 1636: 1627: 1614: 1608: 1607: 1599: 1595: 1582: 1576: 1575: 1567: 1563: 1553: 1530: 1529: 1518: 1509: 1508: 1497: 1496: 1484: 1474: 1473: 1462: 1461: 1449: 1439: 1438: 1430: 1416: 1414: 1406: 1404: 1396: 1394: 1393: 1383: 1381: 1380: 1361: 1357: 1343: 1333: 1330:): a mora nasal 1329: 1323: 1322: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1260: 1256: 1248: 1236: 1230: 1229: 1222: 1217: 1210: > 1209: 1201: 1195: 1194: 1187: 1182: 1175: > 1174: 1169: 1155: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1114: 1106:voice onset time 1103: 1095: 1088:Voice onset time 1082: 1071: 1060: 1049: 1038: 1027: 1012: 1008: 997: 986: 978: 974: 963: 955: 951: 944:or postalveolar 943: 931: 924: 916: 908: 906: 905: 904: 902: 893: 889: 881: 879: 878: 877: 875: 866: 862: 858: 850: 844: 829: 821: 810: 799: 789: 781: 777: 773: 744: 732: 707: 685: 678: 648: 632: 620: 611: 605: 597: 591: 583: 559: 553: 544: 538: 517: 511: 500: 494: 487: 481: 464: 455: 444: 436: 429: 376: 375: 362: 360: 359: 353: 333: 325: 321: 306: 304: 303: 270: 268: 267: 261: 222: 220: 219: 213: 207: 205: 204: 198: 157: 156: 151: 147: 146: 141: 137: 136: 131: 119: 109: 66: 65: 50: 46: 25287: 25286: 25282: 25281: 25280: 25278: 25277: 25276: 25257: 25256: 25255: 25250: 25203: 25148:Transliteration 25143: 25119:Sound symbolism 25095: 25077:Role language ( 25036:from Portuguese 24968:Irregular verbs 24946: 24944: 24933: 24882:Kana Supplement 24877:Kana Extended-B 24872:Kana Extended-A 24795: 24771:Historical kana 24737: 24679: 24658:by stroke count 24649:Kanji radicals 24643:by stroke count 24601: 24514: 24480: 24456:Hawaiian Creole 24428: 24405: 24328: 24202: 24021: 23990: 23985: 23955: 23950: 23879: 23833:Scottish Gaelic 23686: 23530:Standard Modern 23470: 23277:Modern Standard 23237: 23182: 23173: 23131: 23108: 23101: 23084: 23067:Annual Bulletin 23055: 23014: 22996: 22975: 22957: 22939: 22921: 22905: 22903:Further reading 22900: 22777: 22759: 22702: 22687: 22598: 22563: 22553: 22531: 22496: 22486: 22477: 22443: 22441: 22437: 22406: 22367: 22332: 22274: 22272: 22268: 22253: 22202: 21982: 21966: 21949: 21924: 21913: 21904: 21886: 21860: 21834: 21599: 21590: 21563: 21465: 21398: 21315: 21288: 21278: 21160: 21140: 21123: 21118: 21105: 21104: 21100: 21087: 21086: 21082: 21073: 21069: 21060: 21056: 21047: 21043: 21035: 21031: 21020: 21005: 20996: 20985: 20977: 20973: 20965: 20961: 20953: 20946: 20938: 20934: 20926: 20922: 20918:, pp. 298. 20914: 20910: 20902: 20898: 20890: 20886: 20878: 20874: 20846: 20842: 20834: 20830: 20822: 20818: 20810: 20806: 20798: 20794: 20788:Kawahara (2006) 20786: 20782: 20774: 20770: 20762: 20758: 20750: 20746: 20738: 20734: 20726: 20722: 20714: 20710: 20702: 20698: 20690: 20686: 20678: 20674: 20666: 20662: 20654: 20650: 20642: 20635: 20627: 20623: 20615: 20611: 20603: 20599: 20591: 20587: 20579: 20575: 20567: 20563: 20555: 20551: 20545:Takayama (2015) 20543: 20539: 20531: 20527: 20519: 20515: 20509:Akamatsu (1997) 20507: 20503: 20495: 20491: 20483: 20479: 20471: 20467: 20459: 20455: 20447: 20443: 20437:Kawahara (2003) 20435: 20426: 20418: 20414: 20406: 20402: 20394: 20390: 20382: 20378: 20370: 20366: 20360:Akamatsu (1997) 20358: 20354: 20348:Morimoto (2020) 20346: 20342: 20334: 20330: 20322: 20315: 20309:Kawahara (2015) 20307: 20300: 20292: 20281: 20273: 20269: 20263:Kawahara (2006) 20261: 20257: 20249: 20245: 20239:Kawahara (2011) 20237: 20233: 20225: 20218: 20214:, pp. 1–2. 20212:Kawahara (2011) 20210: 20201: 20195:Kawahara (2015) 20193: 20186: 20178: 20174: 20168:Kawahara (2006) 20166: 20162: 20156:Katayama (1998) 20150: 20146: 20140:Crawford (2009) 20138: 20134: 20126: 20122: 20114: 20110: 20102: 20098: 20092:Lawrence (2001) 20090: 20086: 20074: 20070: 20062: 20055: 20047: 20043: 20037:Kawahara (2015) 20035: 20031: 20025:Tateishi (2017) 20023: 20019: 20011: 20004: 19996: 19992: 19984: 19980: 19972: 19968: 19960: 19956: 19948: 19944: 19936: 19932: 19924: 19920: 19914:Watanabe (2009) 19912: 19908: 19900: 19896: 19890:Watanabe (2009) 19888: 19884: 19876: 19872: 19864: 19860: 19852: 19845: 19839:Watanabe (2009) 19837: 19833: 19825: 19821: 19815:Watanabe (2009) 19813: 19809: 19803:Watanabe (2009) 19801: 19797: 19789: 19785: 19777: 19773: 19765: 19761: 19753: 19749: 19741: 19734: 19726: 19722: 19714: 19710: 19704:Crawford (2009) 19702: 19695: 19689:Crawford (2009) 19687: 19683: 19677:Crawford (2009) 19675: 19671: 19663: 19659: 19651: 19647: 19639: 19635: 19627: 19623: 19615: 19611: 19603: 19599: 19591: 19587: 19579: 19575: 19567: 19563: 19555: 19548: 19540: 19536: 19528: 19524: 19516: 19512: 19504: 19500: 19492: 19488: 19480: 19476: 19468: 19464: 19456: 19437: 19429: 19425: 19417: 19408: 19400: 19393: 19385: 19378: 19370: 19366: 19358: 19351: 19343: 19339: 19331: 19327: 19319: 19315: 19307: 19298: 19290: 19286: 19278: 19274: 19266: 19262: 19258:, pp. 5–6. 19254: 19250: 19242: 19238: 19230: 19226: 19218: 19214: 19206: 19202: 19194: 19190: 19182: 19175: 19167: 19163: 19159:, pp. 6–8. 19155: 19151: 19143: 19139: 19131: 19127: 19119: 19115: 19107: 19103: 19095: 19091: 19083: 19079: 19071: 19067: 19059: 19055: 19047: 19040: 19032: 19028: 19020: 19016: 19008: 19001: 18997:, pp. 154. 18993: 18989: 18981: 18972: 18964: 18960: 18952: 18948: 18940: 18933: 18925: 18918: 18910: 18906: 18898: 18894: 18890:, pp. 7–8. 18886: 18882: 18874: 18870: 18866:, pp. 1–2. 18862: 18858: 18850: 18846: 18838: 18834: 18826: 18822: 18773: 18769: 18761: 18757: 18749: 18745: 18737: 18733: 18725: 18721: 18713: 18709: 18701: 18697: 18689: 18685: 18677: 18670: 18662: 18658: 18650: 18646: 18640:Hirayama (2009) 18638: 18634: 18626: 18622: 18614: 18610: 18602: 18598: 18590: 18586: 18578: 18574: 18566: 18562: 18554: 18550: 18542: 18538: 18530: 18526: 18518: 18514: 18506: 18502: 18496:Tsuchida (2001) 18494: 18490: 18482: 18475: 18469:Tsuchida (2001) 18467: 18463: 18455: 18451: 18445:Fujimoto (2015) 18443: 18434: 18426: 18419: 18413:Hirayama (2009) 18411: 18407: 18399: 18395: 18389:Fujimoto (2015) 18387: 18380: 18372: 18365: 18359:Tsuchida (2001) 18357: 18350: 18344:Fujimoto (2015) 18342: 18338: 18332:Fujimoto (2015) 18330: 18326: 18320:Fujimoto (2015) 18318: 18311: 18303: 18299: 18291: 18287: 18281:Fujimoto (2015) 18279: 18275: 18267: 18263: 18255: 18251: 18243: 18239: 18231: 18227: 18219: 18215: 18207: 18203: 18195: 18191: 18183: 18179: 18171: 18162: 18154: 18147: 18139: 18135: 18127: 18123: 18115: 18111: 18103: 18099: 18091: 18082: 18076:Akamatsu (1997) 18074: 18070: 18062: 18055: 18047: 18043: 18035: 18031: 18023: 18019: 18011: 18007: 17999: 17992: 17986:Akamatsu (1997) 17984: 17980: 17972: 17968: 17960: 17956: 17948: 17944: 17936: 17929: 17921: 17914: 17906: 17902: 17894: 17887: 17879: 17875: 17867: 17863: 17855: 17846: 17838: 17831: 17825:Akamatsu (1997) 17823: 17819: 17811: 17807: 17801:Akamatsu (1997) 17799: 17795: 17787: 17783: 17775: 17771: 17763: 17759: 17751: 17747: 17726: 17722: 17716:Watanabe (2009) 17714: 17710: 17704:Crawford (2009) 17702: 17698: 17690: 17683: 17675: 17671: 17663: 17659: 17651: 17647: 17641:Watanabe (2009) 17639: 17635: 17627: 17623: 17615: 17611: 17603: 17599: 17591: 17587: 17579: 17575: 17567: 17563: 17555: 17546: 17538: 17534: 17526: 17522: 17514: 17510: 17502: 17498: 17490: 17486: 17480:Crawford (2009) 17478: 17469: 17461: 17454: 17446: 17442: 17429: 17427: 17418: 17417: 17413: 17405: 17401: 17393: 17389: 17381: 17377: 17369: 17365: 17357: 17350: 17342: 17335: 17327: 17323: 17315: 17311: 17303: 17299: 17291: 17287: 17281:Takayama (2015) 17279: 17275: 17267: 17263: 17257:Takayama (2015) 17255: 17251: 17245:Takayama (2015) 17243: 17239: 17231: 17227: 17219: 17208: 17200: 17196: 17190:Nasukawa (2015) 17188: 17184: 17176: 17172: 17164: 17160: 17152: 17148: 17140: 17136: 17128: 17124: 17116: 17112: 17104: 17097: 17089: 17080: 17072: 17068: 17060: 17056: 17048: 17044: 17036: 17032: 17024: 17020: 17012: 17001: 16993: 16980: 16972: 16968: 16960: 16956: 16948: 16944: 16936: 16932: 16924: 16920: 16912: 16908: 16901: 16887: 16880: 16872: 16868: 16860: 16856: 16852:, pp. 135. 16848: 16841: 16833: 16829: 16825:, pp. 132. 16821: 16817: 16813:, pp. 106. 16809: 16805: 16797: 16793: 16785: 16778: 16770: 16766: 16758: 16749: 16741: 16737: 16729: 16725: 16719:Akamatsu (1997) 16717: 16713: 16705: 16701: 16693: 16689: 16681: 16677: 16669: 16665: 16657: 16653: 16645: 16641: 16633: 16629: 16621: 16617: 16609: 16605: 16597: 16593: 16585: 16581: 16573: 16569: 16561: 16557: 16541: 16537: 16529: 16522: 16514: 16510: 16504:Akamatsu (1997) 16502: 16498: 16490: 16483: 16475: 16468: 16460: 16456: 16448: 16439: 16431: 16427: 16419: 16410: 16402: 16398: 16390: 16386: 16378: 16369: 16361: 16357: 16349: 16345: 16337: 16333: 16325: 16321: 16315:Akamatsu (1997) 16313: 16309: 16303:Akamatsu (1997) 16301: 16297: 16289: 16280: 16272: 16268: 16260: 16256: 16248: 16244: 16236: 16232: 16224: 16220: 16212: 16208: 16200: 16196: 16188: 16184: 16176: 16172: 16164: 16160: 16144: 16140: 16132: 16128: 16120: 16113: 16105: 16101: 16087:Akamatsu (1997) 16085: 16081: 16075:Akamatsu (1997) 16073: 16062: 16054: 16047: 16039: 16026: 16018: 16011: 16003: 15999: 15993:Recasens (2013) 15991: 15987: 15979: 15950: 15942: 15935: 15927: 15923: 15917:Akamatsu (1997) 15915: 15911: 15905:Akamatsu (1997) 15903: 15899: 15891: 15887: 15881:Kochetov (2018) 15879: 15875: 15869:Kochetov (2014) 15867: 15863: 15855: 15851: 15845:Nasukawa (2015) 15843: 15839: 15831: 15827: 15819: 15815: 15807: 15803: 15795: 15786: 15778: 15774: 15766: 15762: 15754: 15750: 15742: 15738: 15730: 15726: 15718: 15714: 15706: 15702: 15694: 15690: 15682: 15675: 15667: 15660: 15652: 15648: 15640: 15633: 15629: 15624: 15623: 15596: 15582: 15575: 15571: 15554: 15547: 15543: 15534: 15530: 15513: 15509: 15490: 15486: 15455: 15451: 15427: 15423: 15418: 15350: 15343: 15336: 15331: 15329: 15326: 15311: 15296: 15281: 15266: 15247: 15232: 15215: 15207:, Good morning) 15200: 15183: 15168: 15123: 15108: 15093: 15083:, dropping the 15070: 15055: 15040: 15028: 15022: 14941: 14926: 14784: 14597: 14573:, "to request") 14566: 14551: 14398: 14368: 14330: 14136: 14121: 14098: 14072: 14051: 14038: 14015: 14002: 13983: 13963: 13918: 13903: 13888: 13873: 13858: 13840: 13832: 13822: 13816: 13777: 13718: 13691: 13552: 13517: 13493: 13478: 13463: 13410: 13387: 13372: 13367: 13355: 13339: 13324: 13319: 13307: 13282: 13268: 13253: 13248: 13236: 13220: 13205: 13200: 13188: 13169: 13153: 13134: 13118: 13117:auxiliary verb 13099: 13083: 13082: 13068: 13050: 13034: 13020: 13014: 12998: 12997: 12983: 12965: 12949: 12935: 12929: 12913: 12912: 12898: 12880: 12864: 12863: 12849: 12832: 12365: 12362:ten + ō → tennō 12322: 12314: 12300: 11502: 11437:'thrust out'). 11274: 11255: 11240: 11221: 11196: 11190: 11175: 11151: 11149:Morphophonology 11090:vowel (usually 11084: 11074: 10760: 10657:/hoː.oː.o.o.oː/ 10476:. The sequence 10466:Kawahara (2003) 10432:may sound like 10359: 10295:'trumpet' 10038:Kawahara (2006) 10024:, 'bed' 9998:, 'dog' 9972:, 'bad' 9613: 9404: 9383: 9378: 9168:Watanabe (2009) 9129: 9062:vowel sequences 9016:) from English 9000:) from English 8984:) from English 8956:) from English 8865: 8855: 8842: 8828: 8611: 8598: 8592: 8586: 8580: 8574: 8568: 8562: 8556: 8543: 8537: 8531: 8515: 8509: 8491: 8485: 8479: 8463: 8457: 8439: 8433: 8427: 8411: 8405: 8387: 8381: 8375: 8359: 8353: 8335: 8329: 8323: 8307: 8301: 8283: 8277: 8271: 8255: 8249: 8231: 8225: 8219: 8203: 8197: 8179: 8173: 8167: 8161: 8155: 8149: 8143: 8137: 8124: 8118: 8112: 8096: 8090: 8072: 8066: 8060: 8044: 8038: 8020: 8014: 8008: 7992: 7986: 7963: 7942: 7869: 7864: 7850: 7782: 7322: 7288: 7254: 7220: 7079: 6875: 6873:Heavy syllables 6859: 6456: 6373: 6372: 6357: 6356: 6317: 6311: 5969: 5955: 5950: 5814: 5798: 5773: 5724:Nishi-shinbashi 5648: 5602: 5351: 5330: 5324: 5034: 4813:. Adapted from 4803: 4791:Tohoku dialects 4787:Kansai dialects 4782: 4778: 4774: 4772: 4771: 4689: 4659:(the name of a 4453: 4449: 4445: 4443: 4442: 4355: 4331: 4304: 4289: 4266: 4251: 4236: 4221: 4206: 4191: 4176: 4161: 4153: 3845: 3741: 3681:'saying', for 3609: 3605: 3601: 3599: 3598: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3336: 3335: 3007:alveolo-palatal 3003: 2989:cannot precede 2715: 2709: 2575: 2418: 2412: 2262: 2224: 2211: 1974:unreleased stop 1961: 1650:lamino-alveolar 1408: 1398: 1397:, romanized as 1388: 1375: 1369: 1312: 1150: 1090: 981:Akamatsu (1997) 979:. According to 900: 897: 896: 894: 873: 870: 869: 867: 792:Recasens (2013) 756: 751: 739:Lawrence (2004) 393: 374: 354: 346: 340: 298: 262: 254: 248: 239: 233: 214: 199: 191: 185: 176: 79: 78: 77: 67: 63: 58: 57: 56: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 25285: 25275: 25274: 25269: 25252: 25251: 25249: 25248: 25247: 25246: 25236: 25235: 25234: 25224: 25219: 25213: 25211: 25205: 25204: 25202: 25201: 25200: 25199: 25189: 25188: 25187: 25182: 25177: 25172: 25167: 25162: 25151: 25149: 25145: 25144: 25142: 25141: 25140: 25139: 25134: 25129: 25121: 25116: 25111: 25105: 25103: 25097: 25096: 25094: 25093: 25088: 25083: 25074: 25065: 25060: 25055: 25050: 25045: 25040: 25039: 25038: 25033: 25019: 25014: 25008:Native words ( 25005: 25000: 24995: 24990: 24985: 24980: 24975: 24970: 24965: 24960: 24955: 24949: 24947: 24942: 24939: 24938: 24935: 24934: 24932: 24931: 24930: 24929: 24924: 24919: 24914: 24909: 24901: 24900: 24899: 24894: 24889: 24884: 24879: 24874: 24869: 24861: 24860: 24859: 24854: 24849: 24844: 24839: 24834: 24826: 24825: 24824: 24816: 24815: 24814: 24803: 24801: 24797: 24796: 24794: 24793: 24788: 24783: 24778: 24773: 24768: 24763: 24758: 24757: 24756: 24745: 24743: 24739: 24738: 24736: 24735: 24730: 24725: 24720: 24715: 24710: 24705: 24700: 24695: 24689: 24687: 24681: 24680: 24678: 24677: 24672: 24667: 24662: 24661: 24660: 24655: 24647: 24646: 24645: 24635: 24630: 24624: 24622: 24613: 24611:Writing system 24607: 24606: 24603: 24602: 24600: 24599: 24598: 24597: 24592: 24587: 24582: 24572: 24571: 24570: 24565: 24560: 24555: 24550: 24545: 24540: 24535: 24524: 24522: 24516: 24515: 24513: 24512: 24511: 24510: 24500: 24494: 24488: 24482: 24481: 24479: 24478: 24473: 24468: 24466:Pseudo-Chinese 24463: 24458: 24453: 24448: 24446:Bamboo English 24442: 24440: 24434: 24433: 24430: 24429: 24427: 24426: 24421: 24419:Amami Japanese 24415: 24413: 24407: 24406: 24404: 24403: 24396: 24395: 24394: 24389: 24384: 24379: 24374: 24373: 24372: 24355: 24354: 24353: 24340: 24338: 24330: 24329: 24327: 24326: 24319: 24318: 24317: 24316: 24315: 24307: 24306: 24305: 24290: 24289: 24288: 24283: 24278: 24266: 24265: 24264: 24259: 24254: 24249: 24237: 24236: 24235: 24234: 24233: 24230: 24214: 24212: 24204: 24203: 24201: 24200: 24199: 24198: 24197: 24196: 24191: 24186: 24181: 24173: 24172: 24171: 24163: 24162: 24161: 24156: 24141: 24140: 24139: 24134: 24133: 24132: 24127: 24119: 24118: 24117: 24112: 24107: 24092: 24091: 24090: 24089: 24088: 24083: 24075: 24074: 24073: 24068: 24063: 24048: 24042: 24040: 24029: 24023: 24022: 24020: 24019: 24014: 24009: 24004: 23998: 23996: 23992: 23991: 23984: 23983: 23976: 23969: 23961: 23952: 23951: 23949: 23948: 23943: 23938: 23933: 23928: 23923: 23918: 23913: 23908: 23903: 23898: 23893: 23887: 23885: 23881: 23880: 23878: 23877: 23872: 23871: 23870: 23860: 23855: 23850: 23845: 23840: 23838:Serbo-Croatian 23835: 23830: 23825: 23820: 23815: 23810: 23809: 23808: 23803: 23795: 23790: 23785: 23780: 23775: 23770: 23765: 23760: 23755: 23750: 23745: 23740: 23735: 23730: 23725: 23720: 23715: 23710: 23705: 23700: 23694: 23692: 23688: 23687: 23685: 23684: 23679: 23674: 23673: 23672: 23664: 23659: 23654: 23649: 23644: 23639: 23634: 23629: 23624: 23619: 23614: 23609: 23604: 23599: 23594: 23589: 23584: 23583: 23582: 23577: 23572: 23567: 23559: 23554: 23549: 23544: 23543: 23542: 23537: 23532: 23524: 23523: 23522: 23517: 23509: 23504: 23503: 23502: 23497: 23489: 23484: 23478: 23476: 23472: 23471: 23469: 23468: 23463: 23458: 23457: 23456: 23451: 23446: 23441: 23436: 23431: 23426: 23421: 23416: 23406: 23405: 23404: 23399: 23391: 23386: 23381: 23376: 23371: 23370: 23369: 23364: 23359: 23354: 23349: 23344: 23336: 23331: 23326: 23321: 23316: 23311: 23306: 23305: 23304: 23299: 23294: 23289: 23284: 23279: 23271: 23266: 23261: 23256: 23251: 23245: 23243: 23239: 23238: 23236: 23235: 23234: 23233: 23228: 23223: 23218: 23213: 23208: 23198: 23193: 23187: 23184: 23183: 23172: 23171: 23164: 23157: 23149: 23143: 23142: 23129: 23104: 23099: 23082: 23058: 23053: 23029: 23017: 23012: 22999: 22994: 22978: 22973: 22960: 22955: 22942: 22937: 22924: 22919: 22904: 22901: 22899: 22898: 22888: 22866: 22849: 22840:(4): 405–419, 22829: 22810: 22801: 22789: 22780: 22775: 22762: 22757: 22744: 22727:(3): 225–245, 22716: 22705: 22700: 22680: 22663:(3): 531–547, 22652: 22643: 22632:(1) 93: 1–34, 22621: 22610: 22601: 22596: 22583: 22556: 22551: 22538: 22522: 22505: 22489: 22484: 22468: 22459:(3): 439–443, 22448: 22399: 22379: 22370: 22365: 22344: 22335: 22330: 22309: 22296: 22279: 22246: 22229: 22218: 22190: 22181: 22172: 22140: 22129: 22118: 22107:10.2307/415333 22090: 22079:(1): 189–212, 22068: 22046: 22026: 22017:(3): 360–374, 22006: 21997:(1): 199–215, 21986: 21973: 21957: 21935: 21907: 21902: 21889: 21884: 21863: 21858: 21837: 21832: 21811: 21802: 21791: 21765: 21741: 21720: 21698: 21674: 21661: 21648: 21638: 21621:(3): 536–574, 21610: 21583: 21574: 21550: 21541:(2): 195–222, 21530: 21521: 21512: 21499: 21490: 21481: 21468: 21463: 21450: 21429: 21420:(3): 273–281, 21409: 21389: 21378: 21358: 21336: 21323: 21308: 21281: 21276: 21255: 21246: 21235: 21226: 21207:10.2307/410409 21189:Bloch, Bernard 21185: 21163: 21158: 21143: 21138: 21124: 21122: 21119: 21117: 21116: 21098: 21080: 21067: 21054: 21041: 21039:, p. 226. 21029: 21026:. Meiji Shoin. 21003: 20983: 20971: 20969:, p. 160. 20959: 20957:, p. 159. 20944: 20942:, p. 158. 20932: 20930:, p. 161. 20920: 20908: 20896: 20884: 20872: 20840: 20838:, p. 173. 20828: 20816: 20804: 20802:, p. 275. 20792: 20780: 20778:, p. 156. 20768: 20764:Labrune (2012) 20756: 20744: 20732: 20730:, p. 293. 20720: 20708: 20704:Labrune (2012) 20696: 20692:Labrune (2012) 20684: 20682:, p. 264. 20672: 20660: 20658:, p. 836. 20648: 20646:, p. 276. 20633: 20621: 20619:, p. 103. 20617:Labrune (2012) 20609: 20605:Labrune (2012) 20597: 20595:, p. 284. 20585: 20573: 20561: 20559:, p. 102. 20557:Labrune (2012) 20549: 20547:, p. 628. 20537: 20535:, p. 257. 20525: 20521:Labrune (2012) 20513: 20501: 20489: 20485:Labrune (2012) 20477: 20465: 20463:, p. 334. 20453: 20451:, p. 133. 20441: 20424: 20422:, p. 292. 20412: 20410:, p. 223. 20400: 20396:Labrune (2012) 20388: 20376: 20374:, p. 229. 20364: 20362:, p. 333. 20352: 20340: 20338:, p. 110. 20328: 20313: 20298: 20294:Kitaoka (2017) 20279: 20277:, p. 113. 20267: 20255: 20253:, p. 246. 20243: 20231: 20216: 20199: 20184: 20182:, p. 296. 20172: 20170:, p. 538. 20160: 20152:Kawahara (2006 20144: 20132: 20120: 20108: 20106:, p. 104. 20104:Labrune (2012) 20096: 20094:, p. 968. 20084: 20080:Lawrence (1999 20068: 20053: 20041: 20029: 20027:, p. 534. 20017: 20013:Kitaoka (2017) 20002: 20000:, p. 104. 19990: 19988:, p. 421. 19978: 19966: 19954: 19942: 19940:, p. 301. 19930: 19928:, p. 291. 19918: 19916:, p. 174. 19906: 19894: 19892:, p. 151. 19882: 19870: 19868:, p. 299. 19858: 19856:, p. 316. 19843: 19841:, p. 163. 19831: 19819: 19807: 19795: 19783: 19771: 19759: 19747: 19732: 19720: 19708: 19693: 19681: 19669: 19657: 19645: 19643:, p. 119. 19633: 19621: 19619:, p. 338. 19609: 19607:, p. 337. 19597: 19595:, p. 956. 19585: 19583:, p. 343. 19573: 19571:, 25:25-30:15. 19561: 19559:, p. 177. 19546: 19544:, p. 214. 19534: 19522: 19510: 19498: 19486: 19484:, p. 132. 19474: 19462: 19460:, p. 377. 19435: 19433:, p. 168. 19423: 19421:, p. 376. 19406: 19391: 19376: 19374:, 16:05-19:42. 19364: 19349: 19337: 19325: 19313: 19296: 19294:, p. 240. 19284: 19280:Labrune (2012) 19272: 19270:, pp. 54. 19268:Labrune (2012) 19260: 19248: 19246:, p. 228. 19236: 19234:, p. 135. 19224: 19212: 19210:, p. 118. 19200: 19198:, p. 504. 19188: 19186:, p. 295. 19173: 19161: 19149: 19137: 19125: 19113: 19101: 19089: 19077: 19065: 19063:, p. 384. 19053: 19051:, p. 171. 19049:Labrune (2012) 19038: 19034:Labrune (2012) 19026: 19022:Labrune (2012) 19014: 19010:Labrune (2012) 18999: 18995:Labrune (2012) 18987: 18985:, p. 147. 18970: 18968:, p. 146. 18958: 18956:, p. 183. 18954:Labrune (2012) 18946: 18942:Labrune (2012) 18931: 18929:, p. 144. 18916: 18904: 18902:, p. 143. 18892: 18880: 18868: 18856: 18844: 18840:Labrune (2012) 18832: 18830:, p. 143. 18828:Labrune (2012) 18820: 18767: 18755: 18743: 18731: 18719: 18715:Labrune (2012) 18707: 18705:, pp. 36. 18703:Labrune (2012) 18695: 18683: 18668: 18656: 18654:, p. 207. 18644: 18632: 18620: 18608: 18606:, p. 186. 18596: 18584: 18572: 18570:, p. 185. 18560: 18548: 18536: 18524: 18512: 18500: 18498:, p. 238. 18488: 18486:, p. 211. 18473: 18461: 18449: 18447:, p. 188. 18432: 18430:, p. 213. 18417: 18405: 18401:Labrune (2012) 18393: 18378: 18376:, p. 210. 18363: 18361:, p. 225. 18348: 18346:, p. 179. 18336: 18324: 18309: 18305:Labrune (2012) 18297: 18295:, p. 206. 18285: 18273: 18261: 18249: 18245:Labrune (2012) 18237: 18233:Labrune (2012) 18225: 18221:Labrune (2012) 18213: 18201: 18189: 18187:, p. 162. 18177: 18173:Labrune (2012) 18160: 18156:Labrune (2012) 18145: 18141:Labrune (2012) 18133: 18121: 18109: 18097: 18080: 18068: 18064:Labrune (2012) 18053: 18041: 18039:, p. 215. 18029: 18017: 18015:, p. 110. 18005: 18003:, p. 214. 17990: 17978: 17966: 17954: 17952:, p. 216. 17942: 17938:Labrune (2012) 17927: 17925:, p. 220. 17912: 17908:Labrune (2012) 17900: 17898:, p. 221. 17885: 17873: 17871:, p. 172. 17861: 17844: 17840:Labrune (2012) 17829: 17827:, p. 125. 17817: 17813:Maekawa (2018) 17805: 17803:, p. 124. 17793: 17789:Labrune (2012) 17781: 17769: 17767:, p. 122. 17757: 17745: 17720: 17718:, p. 100. 17708: 17696: 17694:, p. 145. 17681: 17669: 17657: 17655:, p. 213. 17645: 17633: 17621: 17619:, p. 228. 17609: 17597: 17585: 17583:, p. 830. 17573: 17561: 17544: 17532: 17528:Hattori (1950) 17520: 17508: 17496: 17494:, p. 164. 17484: 17467: 17465:, p. 152. 17452: 17448:Labrune (2012) 17440: 17411: 17399: 17387: 17375: 17363: 17361:, p. 828. 17348: 17346:, p. 139. 17333: 17331:, p. 157. 17321: 17309: 17297: 17295:, p. 151. 17285: 17273: 17261: 17249: 17237: 17225: 17206: 17194: 17192:, p. 180. 17182: 17170: 17166:Labrune (2012) 17158: 17146: 17134: 17130:Labrune (2012) 17122: 17110: 17095: 17091:Labrune (2012) 17078: 17066: 17062:Hattori (1950) 17054: 17042: 17040:, p. 102. 17038:Hattori (1950) 17030: 17026:Labrune (2012) 17018: 16999: 16997:, p. 825. 16978: 16966: 16954: 16952:, p. 371. 16950:Maekawa (2010) 16942: 16940:, p. 365. 16938:Maekawa (2010) 16930: 16918: 16906: 16899: 16878: 16866: 16854: 16850:Labrune (2012) 16839: 16837:, p. 107. 16827: 16823:Labrune (2012) 16815: 16803: 16791: 16789:, p. 136. 16787:Labrune (2012) 16776: 16772:Labrune (2012) 16764: 16762:, p. 105. 16747: 16735: 16723: 16711: 16699: 16687: 16675: 16671:Maekawa (2023) 16663: 16661:, p. 170. 16651: 16639: 16627: 16623:Labrune (2012) 16615: 16611:Maekawa (2023) 16603: 16591: 16579: 16567: 16555: 16535: 16533:, p. 169. 16520: 16518:, p. 209. 16516:Maekawa (2023) 16508: 16496: 16481: 16466: 16454: 16437: 16425: 16421:Labrune (2012) 16408: 16396: 16384: 16367: 16365:, p. 103. 16355: 16353:, p. 102. 16343: 16331: 16319: 16307: 16305:, p. 332. 16295: 16278: 16274:Labrune (2012) 16266: 16262:Labrune (2012) 16254: 16250:Maekawa (2018) 16242: 16238:Maekawa (2018) 16230: 16226:Maekawa (2018) 16218: 16206: 16194: 16182: 16170: 16158: 16138: 16126: 16111: 16099: 16079: 16077:, p. 106. 16060: 16045: 16041:Labrune (2012) 16024: 16009: 16005:Maekawa (2020) 15997: 15985: 15983:, p. 118. 15948: 15933: 15921: 15909: 15897: 15885: 15873: 15861: 15849: 15837: 15825: 15821:Labrune (2012) 15813: 15801: 15799:, p. 117. 15784: 15772: 15760: 15756:Labrune (2012) 15748: 15746:, p. 255. 15736: 15732:Labrune (2012) 15724: 15712: 15700: 15696:Labrune (2012) 15688: 15684:Labrune (2012) 15673: 15671:, p. 253. 15658: 15656:, p. 819. 15646: 15644:, p. 817. 15630: 15628: 15625: 15622: 15621: 15569: 15541: 15528: 15507: 15484: 15449: 15429:Labrune (2012) 15420: 15419: 15417: 15414: 15413: 15412: 15403: 15397: 15392: 15387: 15382: 15377: 15372: 15367: 15362: 15356: 15355: 15341: 15325: 15322: 15258: 15257: 15225: 15193: 15062:, think, know) 15021: 15018: 15017: 15016: 15015: 15014: 15013: 15012: 15006: 15003: 15000: 14997: 14987: 14984: 14981: 14978: 14965: 14964: 14963: 14957: 14918: 14917: 14916: 14910: 14904: 14881:with the mora 14869: 14868: 14867: 14866: 14865: 14859: 14856:japaɾi→jappaɾi 14853: 14850: 14847: 14844: 14834: 14828: 14825: 14822: 14819: 14806: 14805: 14804: 14772: 14771: 14770: 14764: 14758: 14735:with the mora 14723: 14722: 14721: 14720: 14719: 14716: 14713: 14710: 14700: 14694: 14691: 14688: 14678: 14675: 14672: 14669: 14659: 14656: 14653: 14650: 14637: 14636: 14635: 14629: 14623: 14617: 14594: 14593: 14592: 14586: 14539: 14538: 14537: 14531: 14525: 14519: 14496:with the mora 14484: 14483: 14482: 14481: 14480: 14477: 14474: 14471: 14458: 14457: 14456: 14453: 14450: 14447: 14434: 14433: 14432: 14426: 14390: 14389: 14388: 14385:ossjaɾi→ossjai 14354:When the mora 14352: 14351: 14350: 14318: 14317: 14316: 14310: 14304: 14281:with the mora 14261: 14260: 14254: 14248: 14222: 14221: 14215: 14197:Kansai dialect 14185: 14184: 14178: 14172: 14084:Historically, 13962: 13959: 13818:Main article: 13815: 13812: 13761: 13760: 13759: 13758: 13752: 13746: 13740: 13734: 13709: 13708: 13707: 13680: 13679: 13678: 13675: 13672: 13669: 13662: 13659: 13656: 13649: 13646: 13643: 13636: 13633: 13630: 13620: 13617: 13614: 13611: 13604: 13601: 13598: 13591: 13588: 13585: 13578: 13575: 13572: 13541: 13540: 13539: 13533: 13472:(historically 13455: 13454: 13449: 13444: 13439: 13409: 13408: 13402: 13401: 13353: 13303: 13302: 13234: 13184: 13183: 13167: 13149: 13148: 13132: 13114: 13113: 13097: 13065: 13064: 13048: 13031: 13030: 13012: 12980: 12979: 12963: 12946: 12945: 12927: 12895: 12894: 12878: 12846: 12845: 12842: 12833: 12831: 12828: 12827: 12826: 12780: 12733: 12732: 12730: 12723: 12722: 12654: 12587: 12586: 12584: 12580:from original 12573: 12572: 12504: 12436: 12385: 12384: 12382: 12299: 12296: 12295: 12294: 12291: 12290: 12254: 12236: 12235: 12211: 12193: 12192: 12175:. The numeral 12160: 12142: 12141: 12125: 12049:Middle Chinese 12045: 12044: 12005: 12001:), instead of 11966: 11962:), instead of 11912: 11903:), instead of 11832: 11831: 11784: 11737: 11682: 11681: 11627: 11501: 11498: 11273: 11270: 11266:morphophonemic 11192:Main article: 11189: 11186: 11150: 11147: 11073: 11070: 11044:, rather than 10759: 10756: 10755: 10754: 10751: 10750: 10747: 10741: 10738: 10735: 10728: 10725: 10722: 10710: 10704: 10703: 10696: 10690: 10687: 10684: 10677: 10674: 10671: 10659: 10581: 10580: 10577: 10576: 10562: 10556: 10549: 10548: 10534: 10528: 10421: 10420: 10409: 10376:also includes 10368:The sequences 10366: 10358: 10355: 10275: 10274: 10246: 10036:'dreadlocks'. 10026: 10025: 9999: 9973: 9911:, followed by 9905: 9904: 9886: 9634: 9633: 9632:('shut up') → 9627: 9612: 9607: 9595: 9594: 9583: 9582: 9572: 9553: 9552: 9537: 9514: 9498:shin#hatsu+mei 9403: 9398: 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9329: 9328: 9318: 9304: 9303: 9293: 9283: 9259:in loanwords. 9128: 9121: 8864: 8861: 8858: 8857: 8851: 8845: 8844: 8837: 8831: 8830: 8824: 8818: 8817: 8816:Special moras 8813: 8812: 8810: 8808: 8806: 8804: 8802: 8800: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8792: 8790: 8788: 8786: 8784: 8782: 8780: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8772: 8770: 8768: 8766: 8764: 8762: 8760: 8758: 8756: 8753: 8752: 8750: 8748: 8746: 8744: 8742: 8740: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8732: 8730: 8728: 8726: 8724: 8722: 8720: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8712: 8710: 8708: 8706: 8704: 8702: 8700: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8692: 8690: 8688: 8686: 8684: 8682: 8680: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8672: 8670: 8668: 8666: 8664: 8662: 8660: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8652: 8650: 8648: 8646: 8644: 8642: 8640: 8638: 8636: 8633: 8632: 8628: 8627: 8625: 8623: 8621: 8619: 8617: 8615: 8613: 8607: 8601: 8600: 8594: 8588: 8582: 8576: 8570: 8564: 8558: 8552: 8546: 8545: 8539: 8533: 8527: 8522: 8517: 8511: 8505: 8500: 8494: 8493: 8487: 8481: 8475: 8470: 8465: 8459: 8453: 8448: 8442: 8441: 8435: 8429: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8407: 8401: 8396: 8390: 8389: 8383: 8377: 8371: 8366: 8361: 8355: 8349: 8344: 8338: 8337: 8331: 8325: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8303: 8297: 8292: 8286: 8285: 8279: 8273: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8251: 8245: 8240: 8234: 8233: 8227: 8221: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8199: 8193: 8188: 8182: 8181: 8175: 8169: 8163: 8157: 8151: 8145: 8139: 8133: 8127: 8126: 8120: 8114: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8092: 8086: 8081: 8075: 8074: 8068: 8062: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8040: 8034: 8029: 8023: 8022: 8016: 8010: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7988: 7982: 7977: 7971: 7970: 7965: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7918: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7868: 7865: 7849: 7846: 7845: 7844: 7796: 7781: 7778: 7777: 7776: 7750: 7708: 7707: 7681: 7655: 7448:but describes 7338: 7337: 7335: 7308: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7274: 7270: 7269: 7267: 7240: 7236: 7235: 7233: 7206: 7202: 7201: 7175: 7173: 7169: 7168: 7142: 7140: 7136: 7135: 7132: 7128: 7127: 7124: 7078: 7075: 6929:Labrune (2012) 6892: 6891: 6888: 6885: 6882: 6874: 6871: 6858: 6855: 6845: 6844: 6841: 6840: 6837: 6832: 6829: 6826: 6820: 6819: 6816: 6811: 6808: 6805: 6792: 6791: 6788: 6787: 6784: 6779: 6776: 6773: 6767: 6766: 6763: 6758: 6755: 6752: 6746: 6745: 6742: 6737: 6734: 6731: 6718: 6717: 6714: 6713: 6710: 6705: 6702: 6699: 6693: 6692: 6689: 6684: 6681: 6678: 6672: 6671: 6668: 6663: 6660: 6657: 6644: 6643: 6640: 6639: 6636: 6631: 6628: 6625: 6619: 6618: 6615: 6610: 6607: 6604: 6591: 6590: 6587: 6586: 6583: 6578: 6575: 6572: 6566: 6565: 6562: 6557: 6554: 6551: 6545: 6544: 6541: 6536: 6533: 6530: 6524: 6523: 6520: 6515: 6512: 6509: 6503: 6502: 6499: 6494: 6491: 6488: 6455: 6452: 6429:Labrune (2012) 6403:(which may be 6355:, 'bridge 6313:Main article: 6310: 6307: 6251: 6250: 6247:palatalization 6235: 6234: 6231: 6230: 6227: 6213: 6200: 6196: 6195: 6192: 6178: 6169: 6165: 6164: 6161: 6147: 6134: 6130: 6129: 6126: 6112: 6107: 6103: 6102: 6099: 6085: 6080: 6076: 6075: 6072: 6058: 6053: 6049: 6048: 6045: 6031: 6026: 6022: 6021: 6019:Moras per word 6016: 6011: 6006: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5902: 5901: 5898: 5897: 5883: 5876: 5875: 5861: 5854: 5853: 5839: 5813: 5810: 5797: 5794: 5772: 5769: 5768: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5755: 5752: 5747: 5744: 5736: 5734: 5728: 5727: 5714: 5711: 5706: 5703: 5690: 5688: 5678: 5677: 5673: 5670: 5647: 5644: 5643: 5642: 5639: 5638: 5624: 5601: 5598: 5539: 5538: 5535: 5534: 5520: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5497: 5492: 5489: 5488: 5474: 5469: 5443: 5442: 5439: 5438: 5424: 5419: 5416: 5415: 5401: 5396: 5393: 5392: 5378: 5373: 5350: 5347: 5323: 5320: 5280:Labrune (2012) 5272: 5271: 5268: 5267: 5253: 5249: 5248: 5234: 5219: 5218: 5215: 5214: 5200: 5198: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5166: 5164: 5150: 5147: 5146: 5132: 5130: 5116: 5113: 5112: 5098: 5096: 5082: 5079: 5078: 5064: 5062: 5048: 5033: 5030: 5029: 5028: 4930: 4924: 4907: 4906: 4904: 4897: 4895: 4889: 4888: 4881: 4879: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4858: 4856: 4849: 4843: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4802: 4799: 4795:Kanto dialects 4770: 4767: 4766: 4765: 4762: 4761: 4758: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4744: 4743: 4740: 4736: 4731: 4728: 4724: 4723: 4709: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4686: 4683: 4680: 4672:To summarize: 4441: 4438: 4330: 4327: 4152: 4149: 3901: 3900: 3886: 3880: 3844: 3841: 3740: 3737: 3693:Hattori (1950) 3645: 3644: 3641: 3638: 3634: 3633: 3630: 3627: 3597: 3594: 3555:Labrune (2012) 3537:). The use of 3507:in forms like 3334: 3331: 3247: 3246: 3243: 3242: 3228: 3222: 3215: 3214: 3200: 3194: 3187: 3186: 3172: 3166: 3129: 3128: 3125: 3124: 3110: 3104: 3097: 3096: 3082: 3076: 3069: 3068: 3054: 3048: 3002: 2999: 2944: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2925: 2919: 2905: 2904: 2890: 2884: 2866: 2865: 2862: 2861: 2847: 2841: 2834: 2833: 2819: 2813: 2806: 2805: 2791: 2785: 2778: 2777: 2763: 2757: 2708: 2705: 2689:Hattori (1950) 2631: 2630: 2616: 2610: 2574: 2571: 2414:Main article: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2406: 2403: 2402: 2397: 2387: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2368: 2365: 2364: 2359: 2349: 2346: 2345: 2342: 2338:Analysis with 2336: 2185: 2184: 2181: 2180: 2171: 2157: 2155: 2146: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2119: 2105: 2103: 2094: 2080: 2077: 2076: 2067: 2053: 2051: 2042: 2028: 2025: 2024: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2013: 1960: 1957: 1914: 1913: 1910: 1909: 1895: 1893: 1879: 1876: 1875: 1861: 1859: 1845: 1842: 1841: 1839: 1833: 1831: 1758: 1757: 1744: 1743: 1740: 1739: 1725: 1723: 1710:apico-alveolar 1706: 1705: 1691: 1689: 1677: 1676: 1662: 1660: 1646: 1645: 1631: 1629: 1620:dorso-palatal 1617: 1616: 1602: 1600: 1585: 1584: 1570: 1568: 1549: 1548: 1537: 1536: 1533: 1532: 1520: 1503: 1500: 1499: 1486: 1468: 1465: 1464: 1451: 1433: 1368: 1365: 1311: 1308: 1251:Maekawa (2018) 1243: 1242: 1239: 1238: 1224: 1218: 1204: 1203: 1189: 1183: 1149: 1146: 1089: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1074:retroflex stop 1052:retroflex flap 1019:alveolar trill 926: 846: 826:equivalent of 795: 768: 765:alveolar ridge 755: 752: 750: 749:Phonetic notes 747: 709: 708: 702:/ / 695: 694:Special moras 691: 690: 688: 686: 679: 672: 670: 668: 666: 660: 659: 657: 655: 653: 651: 649: 642: 640: 634: 633: 626: 624: 622: 613: 606:) ( 598: 585: 576: 570: 569: 567: 565: 563: 561: 554:) ( 546: 539:) ( 531: 529: 523: 522: 520: 518: 505: 503: 501: 488: 475: 469: 468: 466: 457: 448: 446: 437: 430: 423: 417: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 389: 384: 379: 373: 370: 342:Main article: 339: 336: 286:Middle Chinese 250:Main article: 247: 244: 235:Main article: 232: 229: 187:Main article: 184: 181: 175: 174:Lexical strata 172: 68: 61: 60: 59: 51:⟩, see 27: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 25284: 25273: 25270: 25268: 25265: 25264: 25262: 25245: 25242: 25241: 25240: 25237: 25233: 25230: 25229: 25228: 25225: 25223: 25220: 25218: 25215: 25214: 25212: 25210: 25206: 25198: 25195: 25194: 25193: 25192:Cyrillization 25190: 25186: 25183: 25181: 25180:Wāpuro rōmaji 25178: 25176: 25173: 25171: 25168: 25166: 25163: 25161: 25158: 25157: 25156: 25153: 25152: 25150: 25146: 25138: 25135: 25133: 25130: 25128: 25125: 25124: 25122: 25120: 25117: 25115: 25112: 25110: 25107: 25106: 25104: 25102: 25098: 25092: 25089: 25087: 25084: 25082: 25080: 25075: 25073: 25071: 25066: 25064: 25061: 25059: 25056: 25054: 25051: 25049: 25046: 25044: 25041: 25037: 25034: 25032: 25029: 25028: 25027: 25025: 25020: 25018: 25015: 25013: 25011: 25010:yamato kotoba 25006: 25004: 25001: 24999: 24998:Counter words 24996: 24994: 24991: 24989: 24986: 24984: 24981: 24979: 24976: 24974: 24971: 24969: 24966: 24964: 24961: 24959: 24956: 24954: 24951: 24950: 24948: 24940: 24928: 24925: 24923: 24920: 24918: 24915: 24913: 24910: 24908: 24905: 24904: 24902: 24898: 24895: 24893: 24890: 24888: 24885: 24883: 24880: 24878: 24875: 24873: 24870: 24868: 24865: 24864: 24862: 24858: 24855: 24853: 24850: 24848: 24845: 24843: 24840: 24838: 24835: 24833: 24830: 24829: 24827: 24823: 24820: 24819: 24817: 24813: 24810: 24809: 24808: 24805: 24804: 24802: 24798: 24792: 24789: 24787: 24784: 24782: 24779: 24777: 24774: 24772: 24769: 24767: 24764: 24762: 24759: 24755: 24752: 24751: 24750: 24747: 24746: 24744: 24740: 24734: 24733:Kana ligature 24731: 24729: 24726: 24724: 24721: 24719: 24716: 24714: 24711: 24709: 24706: 24704: 24701: 24699: 24696: 24694: 24691: 24690: 24688: 24686: 24682: 24676: 24673: 24671: 24668: 24666: 24663: 24659: 24656: 24654: 24651: 24650: 24648: 24644: 24641: 24640: 24639: 24636: 24634: 24631: 24629: 24628:Script reform 24626: 24625: 24623: 24621: 24617: 24614: 24612: 24608: 24596: 24593: 24591: 24588: 24586: 24583: 24581: 24578: 24577: 24576: 24573: 24569: 24566: 24564: 24561: 24559: 24556: 24554: 24551: 24549: 24546: 24544: 24541: 24539: 24536: 24534: 24531: 24530: 24529: 24526: 24525: 24523: 24521: 24517: 24509: 24506: 24505: 24504: 24501: 24499: 24496: 24495: 24492: 24489: 24487: 24483: 24477: 24474: 24472: 24469: 24467: 24464: 24462: 24459: 24457: 24454: 24452: 24451:Bonin English 24449: 24447: 24444: 24443: 24441: 24439: 24435: 24425: 24422: 24420: 24417: 24416: 24414: 24412: 24408: 24402: 24401: 24397: 24393: 24390: 24388: 24385: 24383: 24380: 24378: 24375: 24371: 24368: 24367: 24366: 24363: 24362: 24361: 24360: 24356: 24352: 24349: 24348: 24347: 24346: 24342: 24341: 24339: 24337: 24336: 24331: 24325: 24324: 24320: 24314: 24311: 24310: 24308: 24304: 24301: 24300: 24298: 24297: 24296: 24295: 24291: 24287: 24284: 24282: 24279: 24277: 24274: 24273: 24272: 24271: 24267: 24263: 24260: 24258: 24255: 24253: 24250: 24248: 24245: 24244: 24243: 24242: 24238: 24231: 24228: 24227: 24226: 24223: 24222: 24221: 24220: 24216: 24215: 24213: 24211: 24210: 24205: 24195: 24192: 24190: 24187: 24185: 24182: 24180: 24177: 24176: 24174: 24170: 24167: 24166: 24164: 24160: 24157: 24155: 24152: 24151: 24149: 24148: 24147: 24146: 24142: 24138: 24135: 24131: 24128: 24126: 24123: 24122: 24120: 24116: 24113: 24111: 24108: 24106: 24103: 24102: 24100: 24099: 24098: 24097: 24093: 24087: 24084: 24082: 24079: 24078: 24076: 24072: 24069: 24067: 24064: 24062: 24059: 24058: 24056: 24055: 24054: 24053: 24049: 24047: 24044: 24043: 24041: 24039: 24038: 24033: 24030: 24028: 24024: 24018: 24015: 24013: 24010: 24008: 24005: 24003: 24000: 23999: 23997: 23995:Earlier forms 23993: 23989: 23982: 23977: 23975: 23970: 23968: 23963: 23962: 23959: 23947: 23944: 23942: 23939: 23937: 23934: 23932: 23929: 23927: 23924: 23922: 23919: 23917: 23914: 23912: 23909: 23907: 23904: 23902: 23899: 23897: 23894: 23892: 23889: 23888: 23886: 23882: 23876: 23873: 23869: 23866: 23865: 23864: 23861: 23859: 23856: 23854: 23851: 23849: 23846: 23844: 23841: 23839: 23836: 23834: 23831: 23829: 23826: 23824: 23821: 23819: 23816: 23814: 23811: 23807: 23804: 23802: 23799: 23798: 23796: 23794: 23791: 23789: 23786: 23784: 23781: 23779: 23776: 23774: 23771: 23769: 23766: 23764: 23761: 23759: 23756: 23754: 23751: 23749: 23746: 23744: 23741: 23739: 23736: 23734: 23731: 23729: 23726: 23724: 23721: 23719: 23716: 23714: 23711: 23709: 23706: 23704: 23701: 23699: 23696: 23695: 23693: 23689: 23683: 23682:Luxembourgish 23680: 23678: 23675: 23671: 23670:Maastrichtian 23668: 23667: 23665: 23663: 23660: 23658: 23655: 23653: 23650: 23648: 23645: 23643: 23640: 23638: 23635: 23633: 23630: 23628: 23625: 23623: 23620: 23618: 23615: 23613: 23610: 23608: 23605: 23603: 23600: 23598: 23595: 23593: 23590: 23588: 23585: 23581: 23578: 23576: 23573: 23571: 23568: 23566: 23563: 23562: 23560: 23558: 23555: 23553: 23550: 23548: 23545: 23541: 23538: 23536: 23533: 23531: 23528: 23527: 23525: 23521: 23518: 23516: 23513: 23512: 23510: 23508: 23505: 23501: 23498: 23496: 23493: 23492: 23490: 23488: 23485: 23483: 23480: 23479: 23477: 23473: 23467: 23464: 23462: 23459: 23455: 23452: 23450: 23447: 23445: 23442: 23440: 23437: 23435: 23432: 23430: 23427: 23425: 23422: 23420: 23417: 23415: 23412: 23411: 23410: 23407: 23403: 23400: 23398: 23395: 23394: 23392: 23390: 23387: 23385: 23382: 23380: 23377: 23375: 23372: 23368: 23365: 23363: 23360: 23358: 23355: 23353: 23350: 23348: 23345: 23343: 23340: 23339: 23337: 23335: 23332: 23330: 23327: 23325: 23322: 23320: 23317: 23315: 23312: 23310: 23307: 23303: 23300: 23298: 23295: 23293: 23290: 23288: 23285: 23283: 23280: 23278: 23275: 23274: 23272: 23270: 23267: 23265: 23262: 23260: 23257: 23255: 23252: 23250: 23247: 23246: 23244: 23240: 23232: 23229: 23227: 23224: 23222: 23219: 23217: 23214: 23212: 23209: 23207: 23204: 23203: 23202: 23199: 23197: 23196:Orthographies 23194: 23192: 23189: 23188: 23185: 23181: 23177: 23170: 23165: 23163: 23158: 23156: 23151: 23150: 23147: 23140: 23136: 23132: 23126: 23122: 23118: 23114: 23105: 23102: 23096: 23091: 23090: 23083: 23080: 23076: 23072: 23068: 23064: 23059: 23056: 23050: 23045: 23044: 23038: 23037:Beckman, Mary 23034: 23030: 23026: 23022: 23018: 23015: 23009: 23005: 23000: 22997: 22991: 22987: 22983: 22979: 22976: 22970: 22966: 22961: 22958: 22952: 22948: 22943: 22940: 22934: 22930: 22925: 22922: 22916: 22912: 22907: 22906: 22895: 22889: 22885: 22880: 22876: 22872: 22867: 22863: 22859: 22855: 22850: 22847: 22843: 22839: 22835: 22830: 22826: 22822: 22818: 22817: 22811: 22808:. De Gruyter. 22807: 22802: 22799: 22795: 22790: 22786: 22781: 22778: 22772: 22768: 22763: 22760: 22754: 22750: 22745: 22742: 22738: 22734: 22730: 22726: 22722: 22717: 22713: 22712: 22706: 22703: 22697: 22693: 22686: 22681: 22678: 22674: 22670: 22666: 22662: 22658: 22653: 22649: 22644: 22640: 22635: 22631: 22627: 22622: 22618: 22617: 22611: 22607: 22602: 22599: 22593: 22589: 22584: 22581: 22577: 22573: 22569: 22562: 22557: 22554: 22548: 22544: 22543:Easy Japanese 22539: 22535: 22528: 22523: 22519: 22515: 22511: 22506: 22502: 22495: 22490: 22487: 22485:4-385-34588-0 22481: 22474: 22469: 22466: 22462: 22458: 22454: 22449: 22440:on 2021-05-06 22436: 22432: 22428: 22424: 22420: 22416: 22412: 22405: 22400: 22397: 22393: 22390:(1): 78–105, 22389: 22385: 22380: 22376: 22371: 22368: 22362: 22358: 22354: 22350: 22345: 22341: 22336: 22333: 22327: 22323: 22319: 22315: 22310: 22306: 22302: 22297: 22293: 22289: 22285: 22280: 22271:on 2019-08-19 22267: 22263: 22259: 22252: 22247: 22243: 22239: 22235: 22230: 22226: 22225: 22219: 22215: 22210: 22206: 22199: 22195: 22191: 22187: 22182: 22178: 22173: 22170: 22166: 22162: 22158: 22154: 22150: 22146: 22141: 22137: 22136: 22130: 22126: 22125: 22119: 22116: 22112: 22108: 22104: 22100: 22096: 22091: 22087: 22082: 22078: 22074: 22069: 22065: 22060: 22056: 22052: 22047: 22044: 22040: 22036: 22032: 22027: 22024: 22020: 22016: 22012: 22007: 22004: 22000: 21996: 21992: 21987: 21981: 21980: 21974: 21970: 21963: 21958: 21954: 21950: 21948:意味と形のインターフェイス 21946: 21941: 21936: 21932: 21928: 21921: 21917: 21908: 21905: 21899: 21895: 21890: 21887: 21881: 21877: 21873: 21869: 21864: 21861: 21855: 21851: 21847: 21843: 21838: 21835: 21829: 21825: 21821: 21817: 21812: 21808: 21803: 21799: 21798: 21792: 21788: 21783: 21779: 21775: 21771: 21766: 21763: 21759: 21755: 21751: 21747: 21742: 21738: 21734: 21730: 21728: 21721: 21717: 21712: 21708: 21704: 21699: 21696: 21692: 21688: 21684: 21680: 21675: 21671: 21667: 21662: 21658: 21654: 21649: 21646: 21645: 21639: 21636: 21632: 21628: 21624: 21620: 21616: 21611: 21607: 21603: 21596: 21595:On'in Kenkyuu 21589: 21584: 21580: 21575: 21571: 21567: 21560: 21556: 21551: 21548: 21544: 21540: 21536: 21531: 21527: 21522: 21518: 21513: 21509: 21505: 21500: 21496: 21491: 21487: 21482: 21478: 21474: 21469: 21466: 21460: 21456: 21451: 21447: 21443: 21439: 21435: 21430: 21427: 21423: 21419: 21415: 21410: 21406: 21402: 21395: 21390: 21386: 21385: 21379: 21376: 21372: 21368: 21364: 21359: 21355: 21350: 21347:(2): 95–105, 21346: 21342: 21337: 21333: 21329: 21324: 21321: 21314: 21309: 21306: 21302: 21298: 21294: 21287: 21282: 21279: 21273: 21269: 21265: 21261: 21256: 21252: 21247: 21243: 21242: 21236: 21232: 21227: 21224: 21220: 21216: 21212: 21208: 21204: 21201:(1): 86–125, 21200: 21196: 21195: 21190: 21186: 21182: 21177: 21173: 21169: 21164: 21161: 21155: 21151: 21150: 21144: 21141: 21135: 21131: 21126: 21125: 21112: 21108: 21102: 21094: 21090: 21084: 21078: 21077: 21071: 21065: 21064: 21058: 21052: 21051: 21045: 21038: 21033: 21025: 21018: 21016: 21014: 21012: 21010: 21008: 21001: 21000: 20994: 20992: 20990: 20988: 20980: 20975: 20968: 20963: 20956: 20951: 20949: 20941: 20936: 20929: 20924: 20917: 20912: 20905: 20900: 20893: 20888: 20881: 20876: 20868: 20849: 20848:Labrune (2012 20844: 20837: 20832: 20825: 20820: 20814:, p. 10. 20813: 20808: 20801: 20796: 20789: 20784: 20777: 20772: 20765: 20760: 20753: 20748: 20741: 20736: 20729: 20724: 20717: 20716:Hamano (2000) 20712: 20706:, p. 77. 20705: 20700: 20693: 20688: 20681: 20676: 20669: 20664: 20657: 20652: 20645: 20640: 20638: 20630: 20625: 20618: 20613: 20606: 20601: 20594: 20589: 20582: 20577: 20571:, p. 43. 20570: 20565: 20558: 20553: 20546: 20541: 20534: 20529: 20522: 20517: 20510: 20505: 20498: 20493: 20487:, p. 41. 20486: 20481: 20474: 20469: 20462: 20457: 20450: 20445: 20438: 20433: 20431: 20429: 20421: 20416: 20409: 20404: 20398:, p. 53. 20397: 20392: 20385: 20380: 20373: 20368: 20361: 20356: 20349: 20344: 20337: 20332: 20325: 20320: 20318: 20311:, p. 68. 20310: 20305: 20303: 20295: 20290: 20288: 20286: 20284: 20276: 20271: 20264: 20259: 20252: 20247: 20240: 20235: 20228: 20223: 20221: 20213: 20208: 20206: 20204: 20197:, p. 54. 20196: 20191: 20189: 20181: 20176: 20169: 20164: 20157: 20153: 20148: 20141: 20136: 20129: 20124: 20118:, p. 58. 20117: 20112: 20105: 20100: 20093: 20088: 20082:, p. 18) 20081: 20077: 20076:Labrune (2012 20072: 20065: 20060: 20058: 20050: 20045: 20039:, p. 66. 20038: 20033: 20026: 20021: 20014: 20009: 20007: 19999: 19994: 19987: 19982: 19975: 19970: 19964:, p. 56. 19963: 19958: 19951: 19946: 19939: 19934: 19927: 19922: 19915: 19910: 19903: 19902:Pintér (2015) 19898: 19891: 19886: 19879: 19874: 19867: 19862: 19855: 19850: 19848: 19840: 19835: 19828: 19823: 19816: 19811: 19805:, p. 90. 19804: 19799: 19792: 19787: 19780: 19775: 19769:, p. 27. 19768: 19763: 19757:, p. 93. 19756: 19751: 19745:, p. 90. 19744: 19739: 19737: 19729: 19724: 19718:, p. 88. 19717: 19712: 19706:, p. 72. 19705: 19700: 19698: 19690: 19685: 19679:, p. 69. 19678: 19673: 19667:, p. 99. 19666: 19661: 19654: 19649: 19642: 19637: 19630: 19625: 19618: 19613: 19606: 19601: 19594: 19589: 19582: 19577: 19570: 19565: 19558: 19553: 19551: 19543: 19538: 19531: 19526: 19519: 19514: 19507: 19502: 19495: 19490: 19483: 19478: 19471: 19466: 19459: 19454: 19452: 19450: 19448: 19446: 19444: 19442: 19440: 19432: 19427: 19420: 19415: 19413: 19411: 19403: 19402:Aoyama (2001) 19398: 19396: 19389:, p. 13. 19388: 19383: 19381: 19373: 19368: 19361: 19356: 19354: 19346: 19341: 19334: 19329: 19323:, p. 63. 19322: 19317: 19311:, p. 62. 19310: 19305: 19303: 19301: 19293: 19288: 19281: 19276: 19269: 19264: 19257: 19252: 19245: 19240: 19233: 19228: 19222:, p. 26. 19221: 19216: 19209: 19204: 19197: 19192: 19185: 19180: 19178: 19170: 19165: 19158: 19153: 19146: 19141: 19135:, p. 86. 19134: 19129: 19122: 19117: 19111:, p. 85. 19110: 19105: 19098: 19093: 19086: 19081: 19075:, p. 82. 19074: 19069: 19062: 19057: 19050: 19045: 19043: 19035: 19030: 19023: 19018: 19011: 19006: 19004: 18996: 18991: 18984: 18979: 18977: 18975: 18967: 18962: 18955: 18950: 18943: 18938: 18936: 18928: 18923: 18921: 18913: 18908: 18901: 18896: 18889: 18888:Aoyama (2001) 18884: 18878:, p. 11. 18877: 18876:Aoyama (2001) 18872: 18865: 18864:Aoyama (2001) 18860: 18853: 18848: 18841: 18836: 18829: 18824: 18816: 18812: 18808: 18804: 18799: 18794: 18790: 18786: 18782: 18778: 18771: 18764: 18759: 18752: 18747: 18740: 18735: 18728: 18723: 18716: 18711: 18704: 18699: 18692: 18687: 18680: 18675: 18673: 18665: 18660: 18653: 18648: 18641: 18636: 18629: 18628:Fujimoto 2015 18624: 18618:, p. 75. 18617: 18612: 18605: 18604:Fujimoto 2015 18600: 18593: 18588: 18581: 18576: 18569: 18568:Fujimoto 2015 18564: 18557: 18556:Seward (1992) 18552: 18545: 18544:Fujimoto 2015 18540: 18534:, p. 90. 18533: 18528: 18521: 18516: 18509: 18504: 18497: 18492: 18485: 18480: 18478: 18470: 18465: 18459:, p. 96. 18458: 18453: 18446: 18441: 18439: 18437: 18429: 18424: 18422: 18414: 18409: 18403:, p. 38. 18402: 18397: 18390: 18385: 18383: 18375: 18370: 18368: 18360: 18355: 18353: 18345: 18340: 18333: 18328: 18321: 18316: 18314: 18307:, p. 34. 18306: 18301: 18294: 18289: 18282: 18277: 18271:, p. 61. 18270: 18265: 18258: 18253: 18247:, p. 46. 18246: 18241: 18235:, p. 44. 18234: 18229: 18223:, p. 47. 18222: 18217: 18211:, p. 76. 18210: 18205: 18199:, p. 15. 18198: 18193: 18186: 18181: 18175:, p. 45. 18174: 18169: 18167: 18165: 18158:, p. 40. 18157: 18152: 18150: 18143:, p. 39. 18142: 18137: 18130: 18125: 18118: 18113: 18106: 18101: 18094: 18089: 18087: 18085: 18078:, p. 31. 18077: 18072: 18066:, p. 25. 18065: 18060: 18058: 18050: 18045: 18038: 18033: 18026: 18021: 18014: 18009: 18002: 17997: 17995: 17987: 17982: 17975: 17970: 17963: 17958: 17951: 17946: 17939: 17934: 17932: 17924: 17919: 17917: 17910:, p. 79. 17909: 17904: 17897: 17892: 17890: 17882: 17877: 17870: 17865: 17858: 17853: 17851: 17849: 17842:, p. 78. 17841: 17836: 17834: 17826: 17821: 17815:, p. 29. 17814: 17809: 17802: 17797: 17790: 17785: 17778: 17773: 17766: 17761: 17755:, p. 32. 17754: 17749: 17741: 17724: 17717: 17712: 17706:, p. 97. 17705: 17700: 17693: 17692:Pintér (2015) 17688: 17686: 17679:, p. 80. 17678: 17673: 17666: 17661: 17654: 17649: 17642: 17637: 17630: 17625: 17618: 17613: 17607:, p. 12. 17606: 17601: 17594: 17593:Pintér (2015) 17589: 17582: 17577: 17570: 17565: 17558: 17553: 17551: 17549: 17541: 17536: 17529: 17524: 17518:, p. 31. 17517: 17512: 17506:, p. 28. 17505: 17500: 17493: 17488: 17482:, p. 15. 17481: 17476: 17474: 17472: 17464: 17463:Pintér (2015) 17459: 17457: 17449: 17444: 17437: 17425: 17421: 17415: 17408: 17403: 17396: 17395:Nogita (2010) 17391: 17385:, p. 84. 17384: 17379: 17372: 17367: 17360: 17355: 17353: 17345: 17344:Pintér (2015) 17340: 17338: 17330: 17329:Pintér (2015) 17325: 17318: 17313: 17306: 17301: 17294: 17293:Pintér (2015) 17289: 17282: 17277: 17270: 17269:Pintér (2015) 17265: 17258: 17253: 17246: 17241: 17234: 17233:Pintér (2015) 17229: 17223:, p. 75. 17222: 17221:Nogita (2016) 17217: 17215: 17213: 17211: 17203: 17202:Nogita (2016) 17198: 17191: 17186: 17179: 17174: 17167: 17162: 17156:, p. 73. 17155: 17154:Nogita (2016) 17150: 17143: 17138: 17132:, p. 69. 17131: 17126: 17119: 17114: 17108:, §3.1.4.2.5. 17107: 17102: 17100: 17093:, p. 88. 17092: 17087: 17085: 17083: 17075: 17070: 17063: 17058: 17051: 17046: 17039: 17034: 17028:, p. 68. 17027: 17022: 17016:, p. 84. 17015: 17010: 17008: 17006: 17004: 16996: 16991: 16989: 16987: 16985: 16983: 16975: 16970: 16964:, p. 29. 16963: 16958: 16951: 16946: 16939: 16934: 16927: 16922: 16915: 16910: 16902: 16896: 16892: 16885: 16883: 16875: 16870: 16863: 16858: 16851: 16846: 16844: 16836: 16831: 16824: 16819: 16812: 16807: 16800: 16795: 16788: 16783: 16781: 16773: 16768: 16761: 16756: 16754: 16752: 16744: 16739: 16732: 16727: 16721:, p. 65. 16720: 16715: 16708: 16703: 16697:, p. 17. 16696: 16695:Aoyama (2001) 16691: 16684: 16679: 16672: 16667: 16660: 16655: 16648: 16643: 16636: 16631: 16624: 16619: 16612: 16607: 16601:, p. 65. 16600: 16595: 16588: 16583: 16576: 16571: 16564: 16559: 16552: 16551:Maekawa (2023 16548: 16544: 16539: 16532: 16527: 16525: 16517: 16512: 16505: 16500: 16494:, p. 99. 16493: 16488: 16486: 16478: 16473: 16471: 16463: 16458: 16452:, p. 97. 16451: 16446: 16444: 16442: 16434: 16429: 16422: 16417: 16415: 16413: 16405: 16400: 16393: 16388: 16382:, p. 96. 16381: 16376: 16374: 16372: 16364: 16359: 16352: 16347: 16341:, p. 39. 16340: 16335: 16328: 16323: 16316: 16311: 16304: 16299: 16293:, p. 34. 16292: 16287: 16285: 16283: 16275: 16270: 16263: 16258: 16251: 16246: 16239: 16234: 16227: 16222: 16215: 16210: 16203: 16198: 16191: 16186: 16179: 16174: 16168:, p. 19. 16167: 16162: 16155: 16151: 16147: 16142: 16135: 16130: 16124:, p. 16. 16123: 16118: 16116: 16109:, p. 48. 16108: 16103: 16094: 16088: 16083: 16076: 16071: 16069: 16067: 16065: 16058:, p. 89. 16057: 16052: 16050: 16043:, p. 92. 16042: 16037: 16035: 16033: 16031: 16029: 16022:, p. 81. 16021: 16016: 16014: 16006: 16001: 15995:, p. 11. 15994: 15989: 15982: 15977: 15975: 15973: 15971: 15969: 15967: 15965: 15963: 15961: 15959: 15957: 15955: 15953: 15945: 15940: 15938: 15930: 15925: 15918: 15913: 15906: 15901: 15894: 15889: 15883:, p. 88. 15882: 15877: 15871:, p. 65. 15870: 15865: 15858: 15853: 15846: 15841: 15834: 15829: 15823:, p. 59. 15822: 15817: 15810: 15805: 15798: 15793: 15791: 15789: 15781: 15776: 15769: 15764: 15757: 15752: 15745: 15740: 15733: 15728: 15722:, p. 11. 15721: 15716: 15709: 15704: 15697: 15692: 15686:, p. 13. 15685: 15680: 15678: 15670: 15665: 15663: 15655: 15650: 15643: 15638: 15636: 15631: 15614: 15607: 15594: 15580: 15573: 15566: 15552: 15545: 15538: 15532: 15525: 15521: 15514:Also notated 15511: 15504: 15503: 15498: 15494: 15488: 15479:が, ぎ, ぐ, げ, ご 15463: 15459: 15453: 15442: 15438: 15430: 15425: 15421: 15411: 15407: 15404: 15401: 15398: 15396: 15393: 15391: 15388: 15386: 15383: 15381: 15378: 15376: 15373: 15371: 15368: 15366: 15363: 15361: 15358: 15357: 15353: 15347: 15342: 15339: 15328: 15321: 15309: 15294: 15279: 15264: 15245: 15230: 15226: 15213: 15198: 15194: 15181: 15166: 15162: 15161: 15160: 15158: 15154: 15150: 15146: 15142: 15138: 15133: 15121: 15106: 15091: 15086: 15082: 15068: 15053: 15038: 15033: 15027: 15007: 15001: 14998: 14995: 14988: 14982: 14979: 14976: 14969: 14968: 14966: 14958: 14952: 14951: 14939: 14924: 14919: 14911: 14905: 14899: 14898: 14880: 14876: 14875: 14873: 14870: 14860: 14854: 14848: 14845: 14842: 14835: 14829: 14823: 14820: 14817: 14810: 14809: 14807: 14799: 14798: 14782: 14777: 14773: 14765: 14759: 14753: 14752: 14734: 14730: 14729: 14727: 14724: 14714: 14711: 14708: 14701: 14699: 14692: 14689: 14686: 14679: 14673: 14670: 14667: 14660: 14654: 14651: 14648: 14641: 14640: 14638: 14630: 14624: 14618: 14612: 14611: 14595: 14587: 14581: 14580: 14564: 14549: 14545:of the verbs 14544: 14540: 14532: 14526: 14520: 14514: 14513: 14495: 14491: 14490: 14488: 14485: 14475: 14472: 14469: 14462: 14461: 14459: 14451: 14448: 14445: 14438: 14437: 14435: 14427: 14421: 14420: 14419:adjectives": 14418: 14414: 14396: 14391: 14383: 14382: 14366: 14361: 14353: 14345: 14344: 14328: 14323: 14319: 14311: 14305: 14299: 14298: 14280: 14276: 14275: 14273: 14270: 14269: 14268: 14266: 14255: 14249: 14243: 14242: 14241: 14235: 14227: 14216: 14210: 14209: 14208: 14202: 14198: 14194: 14193:Tokyo dialect 14190: 14179: 14173: 14167: 14166: 14165: 14159: 14155: 14148: 14134: 14119: 14110: 14096: 14090:/ti,ɾi,si,pi/ 14087: 14082: 14070: 14062: 14036: 14028: 14027: 14000: 13981: 13976: 13968: 13958: 13947: 13941: 13928: 13916: 13901: 13886: 13871: 13856: 13850: 13838: 13831: 13827: 13821: 13811: 13809: 13805: 13801: 13797: 13793: 13789: 13775: 13770: 13766: 13753: 13747: 13741: 13735: 13729: 13728: 13716: 13715: 13710: 13702: 13701: 13689: 13688: 13687: 13681: 13673: 13670: 13667: 13660: 13657: 13654: 13647: 13644: 13641: 13634: 13631: 13628: 13621: 13615: 13612: 13609: 13602: 13599: 13596: 13589: 13586: 13583: 13576: 13573: 13570: 13563: 13562: 13550: 13549: 13548: 13542: 13534: 13528: 13527: 13515: 13514: 13509: 13508: 13507: 13505: 13491: 13476: 13461: 13450: 13445: 13440: 13435: 13434: 13433: 13431: 13427: 13423: 13415: 13406: 13405: 13397: 13382: 13365: 13354: 13349: 13334: 13317: 13305: 13304: 13301:, see below) 13299: 13293: 13287: 13278: 13263: 13246: 13235: 13230: 13215: 13198: 13186: 13185: 13179: 13168: 13163: 13151: 13150: 13144: 13133: 13128: 13116: 13115: 13109: 13098: 13093: 13078: 13067: 13066: 13060: 13049: 13044: 13033: 13032: 13026: 13013: 13008: 12993: 12982: 12981: 12975: 12964: 12959: 12948: 12947: 12941: 12928: 12923: 12908: 12897: 12896: 12890: 12879: 12874: 12859: 12848: 12847: 12843: 12840: 12839: 12824: 12822: 12813: 12806: 12790: 12781: 12778: 12776: 12767: 12760: 12744: 12735: 12734: 12731: 12725: 12724: 12720: 12718: 12709: 12702: 12700: 12691: 12684: 12674: 12664: 12655: 12652: 12650: 12642: 12635: 12633: 12625: 12618: 12608: 12598: 12589: 12588: 12585: 12575: 12574: 12570: 12568: 12559: 12552: 12550: 12541: 12534: 12524: 12514: 12505: 12502: 12500: 12491: 12484: 12482: 12473: 12466: 12456: 12446: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12423: 12416: 12406: 12396: 12387: 12386: 12383: 12377: 12376: 12375: 12363: 12358: 12350: 12320: 12313: 12307: 12255: 12252: 12238: 12237: 12212: 12209: 12195: 12194: 12179:also becomes 12161: 12158: 12144: 12143: 12126: 12123: 12109: 12108: 12105: 12104: 12103: 12100: 12096: 12066: 12050: 12043: 12040:) instead of 12039: 12029: 12019: 12015: 12006: 12004: 12000: 11990: 11980: 11976: 11967: 11965: 11961: 11946: 11931: 11922: 11913: 11906: 11897: 11882: 11867: 11858: 11849: 11848: 11847: 11844: 11828: 11817: 11802: 11797: 11785: 11781: 11770: 11755: 11750: 11738: 11734: 11723: 11708: 11703: 11691: 11690: 11689: 11687: 11679: 11673: 11660: 11645: 11640: 11628: 11625: 11619: 11606: 11591: 11586: 11574: 11573: 11572: 11570: 11555: 11550: 11538: 11526: 11514: 11497: 11495: 11491: 11463: 11438: 11435: 11429: 11423: 11417: 11397: 11366: 11360: 11356:'vague', and 11354: 11348: 11342: 11336: 11330: 11324: 11318: 11312: 11306: 11300: 11294: 11292: 11284: 11279: 11269: 11267: 11253: 11238: 11233: 11219: 11214: 11209: 11205: 11201: 11198:In Japanese, 11195: 11185: 11173: 11168: 11164: 11160: 11156: 11155:agglutinative 11146: 11135: 11128: 11089: 11083: 11079: 11069: 11055: 11054:Hamano (2000) 11000: 10998: 10993: 10986: 10960: 10947: 10935: 10923: 10899: 10887: 10875: 10851: 10844: 10829: 10818: 10816: 10812: 10808: 10807:Proto-Japonic 10796: 10792: 10787: 10776: 10748: 10739: 10736: 10733: 10726: 10723: 10720: 10714: 10711: 10706: 10705: 10701: 10697: 10688: 10685: 10682: 10675: 10672: 10669: 10663: 10660: 10655: 10654: 10651: 10650: 10649: 10646: 10635: 10630: 10619: 10614: 10603: 10598: 10587: 10573: 10563: 10557: 10551: 10550: 10545: 10535: 10529: 10523: 10522: 10519: 10518: 10517: 10490: 10467: 10462: 10450: 10439: 10426: 10410: 10406: 10390: 10375: 10367: 10364: 10363: 10362: 10354: 10351: 10341: 10335: 10325: 10319: 10309: 10303: 10293: 10284: 10267: 10257: 10247: 10239: 10233:/kaQtomoderu/ 10229: 10219: 10218: 10217: 10210: 10202: 10190: 10171: 10160: 10148: 10136: 10081: 10074: 10062: 10046: 10044: 10039: 10035: 10031: 10022: 10010: 10000: 9996: 9984: 9974: 9970: 9958: 9948: 9947: 9946: 9943: 9941: 9936: 9902: 9897: 9887: 9884: 9879: 9869: 9868: 9867: 9865: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9845: 9843: 9829: 9827: 9813: 9811: 9802: 9800: 9786: 9784: 9771: 9762: 9759: 9758: 9756: 9741: 9740: 9738: 9723: 9722: 9720: 9705: 9704: 9702: 9683: 9669: 9665: 9628: 9622: 9621: 9620: 9606: 9592: 9591: 9590: 9573: 9565:/naNbjakuneN/ 9563: 9562: 9561: 9550: 9538: 9531: 9515: 9511: 9499: 9487: 9467: 9465: 9451: 9449: 9424: 9423: 9422: 9411: 9397: 9388: 9381:Special moras 9376:Between moras 9373: 9362: 9341: 9336: 9333: 9326: 9322: 9319: 9316: 9312: 9309: 9308: 9307: 9301: 9297: 9294: 9291: 9287: 9284: 9277: 9276: 9275: 9260: 9238: 9233: 9214: 9203: 9169: 9153: 9145: 9136: 9120: 9110: 9105: 9093: 9081: 9069: 9063: 9043: 9040:from English 9038: 9021: 9019: 9014: 9003: 8998: 8987: 8982: 8970: 8959: 8954: 8943: 8938: 8928: 8924: 8920: 8911: 8909: 8893: 8880: 8847: 8846: 8833: 8832: 8820: 8819: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8807: 8805: 8803: 8801: 8799: 8797: 8795: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8787: 8785: 8783: 8781: 8779: 8777: 8775: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8767: 8765: 8763: 8761: 8759: 8757: 8755: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8747: 8745: 8743: 8741: 8739: 8737: 8735: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8727: 8725: 8723: 8721: 8719: 8717: 8715: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8707: 8705: 8703: 8701: 8699: 8697: 8695: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8687: 8685: 8683: 8681: 8679: 8677: 8675: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8667: 8665: 8663: 8661: 8659: 8657: 8655: 8654: 8651: 8649: 8647: 8645: 8643: 8641: 8639: 8637: 8635: 8634: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8622: 8620: 8618: 8616: 8614: 8608: 8603: 8602: 8595: 8589: 8583: 8577: 8571: 8565: 8559: 8553: 8548: 8547: 8540: 8534: 8528: 8523: 8518: 8512: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8495: 8488: 8482: 8476: 8471: 8466: 8460: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8443: 8436: 8430: 8424: 8419: 8414: 8408: 8402: 8397: 8392: 8391: 8384: 8378: 8372: 8367: 8362: 8356: 8350: 8345: 8340: 8339: 8332: 8326: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8304: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8287: 8280: 8274: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8252: 8246: 8241: 8236: 8235: 8228: 8222: 8216: 8211: 8206: 8200: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8183: 8176: 8170: 8164: 8158: 8152: 8146: 8140: 8134: 8129: 8128: 8121: 8115: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8093: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8076: 8069: 8063: 8057: 8052: 8047: 8041: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8024: 8017: 8011: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7989: 7983: 7978: 7973: 7972: 7966: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7925: 7920: 7919: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7878: 7876: 7875: 7867:Within a mora 7863: 7859: 7855: 7838: 7830: 7820: 7809: 7801: 7797: 7794: 7790: 7787: 7786: 7785: 7774: 7768: 7759: 7751: 7748: 7742: 7733: 7725: 7724: 7723: 7705: 7699: 7690: 7682: 7679: 7673: 7664: 7656: 7653: 7647: 7638: 7630: 7629: 7628: 7621: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7595: 7582: 7576: 7574: 7570: 7566: 7562: 7558: 7554: 7550: 7547: 7535: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7511: 7499: 7487: 7468: 7464: 7461: 7439: 7435: 7430: 7418: 7406: 7394: 7382: 7370: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7336: 7332: 7319: 7309: 7306: 7305: 7302: 7298: 7285: 7275: 7272: 7271: 7268: 7264: 7251: 7241: 7238: 7237: 7234: 7230: 7217: 7207: 7204: 7203: 7199: 7193: 7184: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7170: 7166: 7160: 7151: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7137: 7133: 7130: 7129: 7123:Syllable type 7121: 7115: 7112: 7105: 7098: 7091: 7074: 7056: 7047: 7027: 7015: 7003: 6991: 6979: 6967: 6959: 6947: 6936:/kuruma.iꜜdo/ 6932: 6930: 6898: 6889: 6886: 6883: 6880: 6879: 6878: 6870: 6867: 6863: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6838: 6835:/mo.ko.tja.N/ 6833: 6830: 6827: 6822: 6821: 6817: 6812: 6809: 6806: 6801: 6800: 6797: 6796: 6795: 6785: 6780: 6777: 6774: 6769: 6768: 6764: 6759: 6756: 6753: 6748: 6747: 6743: 6738: 6735: 6732: 6727: 6726: 6723: 6722: 6721: 6711: 6706: 6703: 6700: 6695: 6694: 6690: 6685: 6682: 6679: 6674: 6673: 6669: 6664: 6661: 6658: 6653: 6652: 6649: 6648: 6647: 6637: 6632: 6629: 6626: 6621: 6620: 6616: 6611: 6608: 6605: 6600: 6599: 6596: 6595: 6594: 6584: 6579: 6576: 6573: 6568: 6567: 6563: 6558: 6555: 6552: 6547: 6546: 6542: 6537: 6534: 6531: 6526: 6525: 6521: 6518:/ta.ro.tja.N/ 6516: 6513: 6510: 6505: 6504: 6500: 6495: 6492: 6489: 6484: 6483: 6480: 6479: 6478: 6475: 6472: 6467: 6465: 6461: 6451: 6449: 6444: 6430: 6402: 6396: 6336: 6332: 6326: 6322: 6316: 6306: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6289: 6285: 6280: 6248: 6243: 6242: 6237: 6236: 6228: 6224: 6214: 6201: 6198: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6179: 6170: 6167: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6148: 6135: 6132: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6113: 6108: 6105: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6086: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6059: 6054: 6051: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6032: 6027: 6024: 6023: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6001: 5998: 5997: 5996: 5994: 5974: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5945: 5942: 5930: 5916: 5907: 5894: 5884: 5878: 5877: 5872: 5862: 5856: 5855: 5850: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5830: 5829: 5828: 5824: 5819: 5809: 5803: 5793: 5790: 5756: 5753: 5748: 5745: 5737: 5735: 5730: 5729: 5725: 5715: 5712: 5709:/nisisiNbasi/ 5707: 5704: 5701: 5691: 5689: 5684: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5674: 5671: 5668: 5667: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5635: 5625: 5619: 5618: 5615: 5614: 5613: 5606: 5597: 5594: 5582: 5570: 5560: 5552: 5531: 5521: 5518:/takitukeꜜru/ 5516: 5514: 5513: 5508: 5498: 5493: 5491: 5490: 5485: 5475: 5470: 5468: 5467: 5464: 5463: 5462: 5459: 5445:Devoicing of 5435: 5425: 5420: 5418: 5417: 5412: 5402: 5397: 5395: 5394: 5389: 5379: 5374: 5372: 5371: 5368: 5367: 5366: 5346: 5335: 5329: 5319: 5317: 5313: 5308: 5302: 5293: 5288: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5264: 5254: 5251: 5250: 5245: 5235: 5233: 5232: 5229: 5228: 5227: 5224: 5211: 5201: 5199: 5195: 5185: 5183: 5182: 5177: 5167: 5165: 5161: 5151: 5149: 5148: 5143: 5133: 5131: 5127: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5109: 5099: 5097: 5093: 5083: 5081: 5080: 5075: 5065: 5063: 5059: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5043: 5042: 5041: 5039: 4996: 4988: 4979:characterize 4978: 4960: 4952: 4946: 4940: 4931: 4925: 4920: 4911: 4910: 4905: 4902: 4898: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4844: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4825: 4816: 4812: 4807: 4798: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4777: 4759: 4756: 4753: 4752: 4749: 4746: 4745: 4734: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4720: 4710: 4706: 4696: 4694: 4693: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4678: 4675: 4674: 4673: 4670: 4662: 4639: 4627: 4617:The morpheme 4615: 4612: 4610: 4592: 4587: 4585: 4571: 4569: 4555: 4543: 4540: 4534: 4532: 4518: 4512: 4510: 4495: 4490: 4483: 4481: 4468: 4466: 4448: 4437: 4405: 4398: 4396: 4378: 4376: 4353: 4346: 4338: 4326: 4302: 4287: 4278: 4264: 4249: 4234: 4219: 4204: 4189: 4174: 4159: 4148: 4145: 4133: 4121: 4110: 4101: 4089: 4068: 4060: 4057: 4046: 4041: 4030: 4024: 4016: 4009: 3998: 3994: 3985: 3973: 3961: 3949: 3937: 3921: 3915: 3897: 3887: 3881: 3877: 3868: 3867: 3864: 3852: 3840: 3830: 3817: 3794: 3778: 3773: 3756: 3736: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3703: 3694: 3690: 3676: 3652: 3649:In addition, 3642: 3639: 3636: 3635: 3631: 3628: 3625: 3624: 3621: 3604: 3593: 3591: 3586: 3574: 3556: 3552: 3551:Nogita (2016) 3535: 3523: 3502: 3498: 3487: 3468: 3463: 3451: 3427: 3405: 3400: 3388: 3341: 3330: 3318: 3316: 3284: 3239: 3229: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3211: 3201: 3195: 3189: 3188: 3183: 3173: 3167: 3163: 3154: 3153: 3150: 3149: 3148: 3121: 3111: 3105: 3099: 3098: 3093: 3083: 3077: 3071: 3070: 3065: 3055: 3049: 3045: 3036: 3035: 3032: 3031: 3030: 3012: 3008: 2998: 2983: 2977: 2976:Nogita (2016) 2936: 2926: 2920: 2916: 2907: 2906: 2901: 2891: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2875: 2874: 2873: 2858: 2848: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2830: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2807: 2802: 2792: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2774: 2764: 2758: 2752: 2751: 2748: 2747: 2746: 2720: 2714: 2704: 2698: 2690: 2685: 2670: 2665: 2653: 2652:tsaitogaisuto 2640: 2627: 2617: 2611: 2607: 2598: 2597: 2594: 2582: 2570: 2541: 2528: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2499: 2486: 2473: 2471: 2435: 2431: 2417: 2398: 2388: 2386: 2385: 2379: 2369: 2367: 2366: 2360: 2350: 2348: 2347: 2343: 2337: 2335: 2334: 2331: 2330: 2329: 2304: 2296: 2288: 2276: 2260: 2256: 2246: 2223: 2210: 2206: 2172: 2168: 2158: 2156: 2147: 2143: 2133: 2131: 2130: 2120: 2116: 2106: 2104: 2095: 2091: 2081: 2079: 2078: 2068: 2064: 2054: 2052: 2043: 2039: 2029: 2027: 2026: 2023: 2021: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2011: 2010: 2007: 2006: 2005: 2002: 1997: 1995: 1991: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1966: 1956: 1941: 1929: 1919: 1906: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1880: 1878: 1877: 1872: 1862: 1860: 1856: 1846: 1844: 1843: 1840: 1834: 1832: 1830:Moraic nasal 1829: 1828: 1825: 1824: 1823: 1807: 1797: 1792: 1781: 1780:real-time MRI 1774: 1766: 1754: 1746: 1745: 1736: 1726: 1724: 1716: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1702: 1692: 1690: 1685: 1679: 1678: 1673: 1663: 1661: 1656: 1651: 1648: 1647: 1642: 1632: 1630: 1625: 1619: 1618: 1613: 1603: 1601: 1593: 1587: 1586: 1581: 1571: 1569: 1561: 1555: 1554: 1551: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1541: 1540: 1528: 1521: 1517: 1516: 1504: 1502: 1501: 1494: 1487: 1483: 1481: 1469: 1467: 1466: 1459: 1452: 1448: 1446: 1434: 1432: 1431: 1428: 1427: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1413: 1403: 1387: 1374: 1364: 1353: 1349: 1348: 1344:, called the 1339: 1338: 1334:, called the 1328: 1317: 1307: 1293: 1252: 1235: 1225: 1219: 1215: 1206: 1205: 1200: 1190: 1184: 1180: 1171: 1170: 1167: 1166: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1152:The phonemes 1145: 1143: 1109: 1107: 1099: 1096:are slightly 1080: 1075: 1069: 1064: 1058: 1053: 1047: 1042: 1041:alveolar stop 1036: 1031: 1025: 1020: 1016: 1013:. In Tokyo's 1006: 1001: 995: 990: 982: 972: 967: 961: 949: 941: 935: 927: 922: 914: 903: 887: 876: 856: 847: 842: 837: 833: 832:real-time MRI 825: 819: 814: 808: 803: 796: 793: 787: 769: 766: 762: 758: 757: 746: 740: 734: 728: 724: 720: 716: 705: 701: 693: 692: 689: 687: 684: 680: 677: 673: 671: 669: 667: 665: 662: 661: 658: 656: 654: 652: 650: 647: 643: 641: 639: 636: 635: 631: 627: 625: 623: 619: 614: 610: 604: 599: 596: 590: 586: 582: 577: 575: 572: 571: 568: 566: 564: 562: 558: 552: 547: 543: 537: 532: 530: 528: 525: 524: 521: 519: 516: 510: 506: 504: 502: 499: 493: 489: 486: 480: 476: 474: 471: 470: 467: 463: 458: 454: 449: 447: 443: 438: 435: 431: 428: 424: 422: 419: 418: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 377: 369: 367: 352: 345: 335: 329: 316: 314: 310: 297: 296: 291: 287: 283: 282:prosodic foot 279: 275: 260: 253: 246:Sino-Japanese 243: 238: 228: 226: 212: 211:yamato kotoba 197: 190: 180: 171: 169: 165: 159: 127: 123: 118: 113: 105: 101: 97: 92: 90: 89:Tokyo dialect 86: 83: 75: 71: 54: 42: 38: 36: 32: 22: 25185:In Esperanto 25155:Romanization 25109:Pitch accent 25100: 25091:Dictionaries 25078: 25070:nyōbō kotoba 25069: 25023: 25022:Loan words ( 25009: 24993:Topic marker 24907:ARIB STD B24 24653:by frequency 24533:Amami Ōshima 24410: 24399: 24358: 24344: 24334: 24322: 24309:East San'in 24293: 24269: 24240: 24218: 24208: 24144: 24095: 24051: 24036: 24017:Early Modern 24007:Early Middle 23936:West Frisian 23723:Massachusett 23621: 23221:Prepositions 23190: 23112: 23088: 23070: 23066: 23042: 23024: 23003: 22985: 22964: 22946: 22928: 22910: 22893: 22874: 22870: 22864:(3): 136–137 22861: 22857: 22837: 22833: 22825:10150/195117 22815: 22805: 22797: 22793: 22784: 22766: 22748: 22724: 22720: 22710: 22691: 22660: 22656: 22647: 22629: 22625: 22615: 22605: 22587: 22571: 22567: 22542: 22533: 22527:Gengo Kenkyu 22526: 22509: 22500: 22472: 22456: 22452: 22442:, retrieved 22435:the original 22414: 22410: 22387: 22383: 22374: 22348: 22339: 22321: 22304: 22300: 22291: 22287: 22273:, retrieved 22266:the original 22261: 22257: 22241: 22237: 22223: 22204: 22197: 22185: 22176: 22152: 22148: 22134: 22123: 22098: 22094: 22076: 22072: 22054: 22050: 22037:(1): 21–34, 22034: 22030: 22014: 22010: 21994: 21990: 21978: 21968: 21962:Gengo Kenkyu 21961: 21952: 21944: 21939: 21930: 21926: 21919: 21915: 21893: 21867: 21841: 21815: 21806: 21796: 21777: 21773: 21756:(2): 63–76, 21753: 21749: 21736: 21732: 21726: 21706: 21702: 21686: 21682: 21669: 21656: 21652: 21643: 21618: 21614: 21605: 21601: 21594: 21578: 21569: 21565: 21559:Onsei kenkyū 21558: 21538: 21534: 21525: 21516: 21507: 21494: 21485: 21479:(3): 217–294 21476: 21472: 21454: 21440:(1): 45–61. 21437: 21433: 21417: 21413: 21404: 21400: 21393: 21383: 21366: 21362: 21344: 21340: 21334:(3): 207–225 21331: 21327: 21319: 21296: 21292: 21259: 21250: 21244:(PhD thesis) 21240: 21230: 21198: 21192: 21174:(1): 46–48, 21171: 21167: 21148: 21129: 21121:Bibliography 21110: 21101: 21092: 21083: 21074: 21070: 21061: 21057: 21048: 21044: 21032: 21023: 20997: 20979:Irwin (2008) 20974: 20967:Vance (1987) 20962: 20955:Vance (1987) 20940:Vance (1987) 20935: 20928:Vance (1987) 20923: 20911: 20904:Vance (1987) 20899: 20892:Poser (1986) 20887: 20875: 20858:of the verb 20843: 20836:Poser (1986) 20831: 20824:Poser (1986) 20819: 20807: 20795: 20783: 20776:Vance (1987) 20771: 20759: 20747: 20735: 20723: 20711: 20699: 20687: 20675: 20663: 20651: 20624: 20612: 20600: 20588: 20576: 20564: 20552: 20540: 20528: 20516: 20504: 20492: 20480: 20468: 20456: 20449:Vance (2008) 20444: 20415: 20403: 20391: 20379: 20367: 20355: 20343: 20336:Vance (2008) 20331: 20296:, p. 5. 20275:Vance (2008) 20270: 20258: 20246: 20241:, p. 2. 20234: 20175: 20163: 20147: 20135: 20123: 20111: 20099: 20087: 20071: 20044: 20032: 20020: 20015:, p. 6. 19998:Vance (2008) 19993: 19986:Vance (2015) 19981: 19969: 19957: 19945: 19933: 19921: 19909: 19897: 19885: 19878:Vance (2008) 19873: 19861: 19834: 19827:Vance (2008) 19822: 19810: 19798: 19791:Vance (2008) 19786: 19779:Vance (2008) 19774: 19767:Vance (1987) 19762: 19755:Irwin (2011) 19750: 19743:Vance (2008) 19728:Smith (1980) 19723: 19716:Irwin (2011) 19711: 19684: 19672: 19660: 19653:Irwin (2011) 19648: 19641:Vance (2008) 19636: 19624: 19612: 19600: 19588: 19576: 19564: 19537: 19525: 19513: 19501: 19489: 19482:Vance (2008) 19477: 19470:Vance (1987) 19465: 19426: 19404:, p. 9. 19367: 19340: 19333:Vance (2008) 19328: 19321:Vance (2008) 19316: 19309:Vance (2008) 19287: 19275: 19263: 19251: 19239: 19232:Vance (2008) 19227: 19220:Vance (2017) 19215: 19208:Vance (2008) 19203: 19196:Otake (2015) 19191: 19169:Vance (2008) 19164: 19152: 19145:Poser (1990) 19140: 19133:Poser (1990) 19128: 19121:Poser (1990) 19116: 19109:Poser (1990) 19104: 19097:Poser (1990) 19092: 19085:Poser (1990) 19080: 19073:Poser (1990) 19068: 19056: 19029: 19017: 18990: 18983:Vance (2008) 18966:Vance (2008) 18961: 18949: 18927:Vance (2008) 18912:Vance (2008) 18907: 18900:Vance (2008) 18895: 18883: 18871: 18859: 18847: 18835: 18823: 18780: 18776: 18770: 18763:Vance (2008) 18758: 18751:Vance (2008) 18746: 18739:Vance (2008) 18734: 18727:Vance (2008) 18722: 18710: 18698: 18686: 18679:Vance (2008) 18659: 18647: 18635: 18623: 18616:Kondo (1997) 18611: 18599: 18592:Kondo (1997) 18587: 18575: 18563: 18558:, p. 9. 18551: 18539: 18532:Kondo (1997) 18527: 18515: 18503: 18491: 18484:Vance (2008) 18464: 18457:Kondo (1997) 18452: 18428:Vance (2008) 18408: 18396: 18374:Vance (2008) 18339: 18327: 18300: 18293:Vance (2008) 18288: 18276: 18269:Vance (2008) 18264: 18257:Vance (2008) 18252: 18240: 18228: 18216: 18209:Vance (2022) 18204: 18197:Vance (1987) 18192: 18180: 18136: 18124: 18112: 18100: 18093:Vance (2008) 18071: 18044: 18037:Vance (2008) 18032: 18020: 18013:Vance (1987) 18008: 18001:Vance (2008) 17981: 17974:Vance (2008) 17969: 17962:Vance (2008) 17957: 17950:Vance (2008) 17945: 17923:Vance (2008) 17903: 17896:Vance (2008) 17881:Vance (2008) 17876: 17864: 17857:Vance (2008) 17820: 17808: 17796: 17784: 17777:Irwin (2011) 17772: 17765:Bloch (1950) 17760: 17753:Vance (1987) 17748: 17735: 17723: 17711: 17699: 17677:Vance (2008) 17672: 17665:Vance (2008) 17660: 17648: 17636: 17629:Vance (1987) 17624: 17617:Vance (2008) 17612: 17600: 17588: 17576: 17569:Vance (2008) 17564: 17557:Smith (1980) 17540:Vance (2008) 17535: 17523: 17516:Vance (1987) 17511: 17504:Vance (1987) 17499: 17487: 17443: 17435: 17428:. Retrieved 17423: 17414: 17407:Irwin (2011) 17402: 17397:, p. 8. 17390: 17383:Irwin (2011) 17378: 17366: 17324: 17312: 17305:Irwin (2011) 17300: 17288: 17276: 17264: 17252: 17240: 17228: 17197: 17185: 17178:Smith (1980) 17173: 17161: 17149: 17142:Vance (2008) 17137: 17125: 17118:Vance (1987) 17113: 17106:Smith (1980) 17069: 17057: 17050:Vance (1987) 17045: 17033: 17021: 17014:Vance (2008) 16969: 16957: 16945: 16933: 16926:Smith (1980) 16921: 16914:Vance (2008) 16909: 16890: 16874:Smith (1980) 16869: 16862:Vance (2008) 16857: 16835:Vance (2008) 16830: 16818: 16811:Vance (2008) 16806: 16799:Vance (2008) 16794: 16767: 16760:Vance (2008) 16743:Vance (2008) 16738: 16733:, p. 2. 16726: 16714: 16707:Smith (1980) 16702: 16690: 16683:Smith (1980) 16678: 16673:, p. 2. 16666: 16654: 16642: 16630: 16618: 16606: 16594: 16582: 16570: 16558: 16538: 16511: 16499: 16492:Vance (2008) 16477:Vance (2008) 16462:Vance (2008) 16457: 16450:Vance (2008) 16433:Vance (2008) 16428: 16404:Vance (2008) 16399: 16392:Vance (2008) 16387: 16380:Vance (2008) 16363:Vance (2008) 16358: 16351:Vance (2008) 16346: 16339:Vance (1987) 16334: 16327:Vance (2008) 16322: 16310: 16298: 16269: 16257: 16245: 16233: 16221: 16209: 16202:Vance (2008) 16197: 16185: 16173: 16161: 16152:as cited by 16150:Homma (1980) 16141: 16129: 16102: 16082: 16056:Vance (2008) 16020:Vance (2008) 16000: 15988: 15981:Okada (1999) 15944:Vance (2008) 15929:Vance (2008) 15924: 15912: 15900: 15893:Vance (2008) 15888: 15876: 15864: 15857:Vance (2008) 15852: 15840: 15833:Smith (1980) 15828: 15816: 15809:Vance (2008) 15804: 15797:Okada (1999) 15780:Smith (1980) 15775: 15768:Vance (2008) 15763: 15751: 15739: 15727: 15715: 15703: 15691: 15649: 15612: 15592: 15572: 15564: 15544: 15531: 15524:romanization 15519: 15510: 15500: 15487: 15461: 15452: 15424: 15338:Japan portal 15259: 15175:, Thank you) 15156: 15152: 15148: 15144: 15143:changing to 15140: 15136: 15134: 15084: 15080: 15029: 14878: 14871: 14778:of the verb 14775: 14732: 14725: 14614:joku→jou→joː 14542: 14493: 14486: 14464:kisaki→kisai 14416: 14412: 14359: 14324:of the verb 14321: 14289:, or rarely 14278: 14271: 14264: 14263:In general, 14262: 14233: 14225: 14223: 14200: 14188: 14187:Grammatical 14186: 14085: 14083: 13974: 13966: 13964: 13948: 13929: 13851: 13833: 13803: 13799: 13795: 13791: 13787: 13768: 13764: 13762: 13713: 13685: 13546: 13456: 13411: 12830:Vowel fusion 12820: 12818: 12811: 12804: 12788: 12774: 12772: 12765: 12758: 12742: 12716: 12714: 12707: 12698: 12696: 12689: 12682: 12672: 12662: 12648: 12646: 12640: 12631: 12629: 12623: 12616: 12606: 12596: 12566: 12564: 12557: 12548: 12546: 12539: 12532: 12522: 12512: 12498: 12496: 12489: 12480: 12478: 12471: 12464: 12454: 12444: 12430: 12428: 12421: 12414: 12404: 12394: 12374:. Examples: 12348: 12315: 12101: 12097: 12089:/nit̚.pu̯ən/ 12046: 12041: 12037: 12027: 12017: 12013: 12002: 11998: 11988: 11978: 11974: 11963: 11959: 11944: 11929: 11920: 11904: 11895: 11880: 11865: 11856: 11833: 11815: 11800: 11795: 11768: 11753: 11748: 11721: 11706: 11701: 11683: 11677: 11671: 11658: 11643: 11638: 11623: 11617: 11604: 11589: 11584: 11503: 11489: 11461: 11439: 11398: 11295: 11275: 11197: 11157:rather than 11152: 11136: 11085: 11002:The phoneme 11001: 10996: 10830: 10819: 10815:Old Japanese 10777: 10761: 10712: 10661: 10633: 10617: 10601: 10585: 10582: 10491: 10486:/iaiouaeaoa/ 10437: 10430:/iaiouaeaoa/ 10422: 10360: 10311:'brat' 10282: 10276: 10228:katto moderu 10211: 10170:Vance (2008) 10082: 10047: 10033: 10029: 10027: 9944: 9937: 9906: 9900: 9899:('kid') vs. 9882: 9860: 9852: 9841: 9825: 9809: 9798: 9782: 9763: 9754: 9752: 9736: 9734: 9718: 9716: 9700: 9698: 9684: 9666: 9635: 9614: 9596: 9584: 9554: 9539:A following 9463: 9447: 9412: 9405: 9384: 9370:/esuturaddu/ 9366:/esutoraddo/ 9354:rather than 9350:is normally 9337: 9332:Vance (2008) 9330: 9305: 9261: 9234: 9215: 9204: 9152:Vance (2008) 9137: 9130: 9108: 9070: 9041: 9022: 9017: 9001: 8985: 8957: 8941: 8912: 8881: 8866: 7848:Phonotactics 7833:/roNdoNꜜQko/ 7800:Vance (2008) 7783: 7709: 7622: 7617: 7610:ron.do.nk.ko 7609: 7602:/roNdoꜜNQko/ 7594:Vance (2008) 7590:/roNdoNꜜQko/ 7577: 7572: 7568: 7563:; likewise, 7561:Sen.da.ik.ko 7560: 7556: 7551: 7522: 7514: 7469:argues that 7465: 7462: 7433: 7357:Vance (2008) 7352: 7348: 7345:Vance (1987) 7341: 7331:uiintte itta 7297:doraemonppoi 7080: 6968: 6948: 6933: 6893: 6876: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6852: 6848:Poser (1990) 6846: 6814:/a.ko.tja.N/ 6793: 6782:/no.N.tja.N/ 6761:/me.N.tja.N/ 6719: 6708:/bo.Q.tja.N/ 6687:/mi.Q.tja.N/ 6645: 6634:/ka.ː.tja.N/ 6613:/ti.ː.tja.N/ 6592: 6581:/ki.N.tja.N/ 6570:/ki.N.su.ke/ 6560:/ta.i.tja.N/ 6539:/jo.ː.tja.N/ 6528:/jo.ː.su.ke/ 6497:/o.sa.tja.N/ 6476: 6470: 6468: 6460:hypocoristic 6457: 6445: 6397: 6371:, 'edge 6337: 6333: 6321:pitch accent 6318: 6309:Pitch accent 6281: 6252: 6239: 6229:3-mora word 6194:2-mora word 6163:2-mora word 6128:1-mora word 6101:1-mora word 6074:1-mora word 6047:1-mora word 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5970: 5903: 5818:glottal stop 5815: 5799: 5796:Nasalization 5774: 5700:Nisshinbashi 5686:/niQsiNbasi/ 5663: 5649: 5607: 5603: 5540: 5507:rekishi-teki 5495:/rekisiteki/ 5460: 5444: 5352: 5331: 5309: 5292:pitch accent 5289: 5273: 5220: 5035: 4783: 4671: 4616: 4608: 4583: 4567: 4544: 4530: 4508: 4496: 4488: 4479: 4464: 4454: 4406: 4394: 4374: 4332: 4154: 4108: 4061: 4044: 4028: 3996: 3992: 3922: 3904: 3846: 3829:Vance (2008) 3818: 3795: 3757: 3742: 3691: 3675:Vance (1987) 3648: 3610: 3575: 3557:denies that 3500: 3496: 3466: 3428: 3347: 3333:vs. foreign 3319: 3248: 3130: 3004: 2984: 2945: 2867: 2716: 2634: 2576: 2539: 2526: 2513: 2492:, 74% after 2474: 2444:and between 2419: 2302: 2294: 2286: 2277: 2204: 2186: 2001:Vance (2008) 1998: 1978:moraic nasal 1962: 1930: 1918:archiphoneme 1915: 1793: 1759: 1538: 1526: 1514: 1492: 1479: 1457: 1444: 1370: 1367:Moraic nasal 1345: 1336: 1313: 1244: 1162:approximants 1151: 1110: 1091: 735: 723:Vance (2008) 719:Okada (1999) 715:Smith (1980) 712: 592: 512: 495: 482: 347: 330:), although 317: 293: 255: 240: 192: 177: 168:phonotactics 160: 114:(from Latin 93: 80: 69: 47:and ⟨ 29: 25165:Nihon-shiki 25048:Wasei-kango 24983:Possessives 24943:Grammar and 24776:Modern kana 24761:Punctuation 24742:Orthography 24563:Tokunoshima 24175:Gifu-Aichi 24145:Tōkai–Tōsan 24012:Late Middle 23666:Limburgish 23547:Greenlandic 23424:New Zealand 23357:Northern Wu 23211:Determiners 23191:Phonologies 23176:Phonologies 22877:(1): 1–36, 22574:: 100–119, 22417:(1): 1–22, 22244:(1): 73–99. 21689:: 175–217, 21508:youtube.com 20680:Nasu (2015) 20668:Nasu (2015) 20644:Nasu (2015) 20593:Nasu (2015) 20581:Nasu (2015) 20533:Nasu (2015) 20251:Sano (2013) 20227:Sano (2013) 19557:Ohta (1991) 19506:Ohta (1991) 19431:Ohta (1991) 17605:Hall (2013) 17371:Hall (2013) 17180:, §2.3.2.1. 16876:, §3.1.3.2. 16685:, §3.1.3.1. 16543:Saito (2005 16154:Vance (2008 16146:Homma (1981 15744:Nasu (2015) 15669:Nasu (2015) 15537:Poser (1990 15236:お目出度う、おめでとう 14604:, mizenkei) 14558:, "to ask") 14158:assimilated 12277:. The form 12256:May become 12213:May become 11464:), whereas 11308:(alongside 11102:after and 10343:'bat' 10327:'guy' 9885:('slacker') 9575:/soNnakoto/ 9569:/NbjakuneN/ 9162:, leaving * 9113:/fjudjutju/ 9042:yellow card 9029:), such as 7791:argue that 7685:corned beef 7596:interprets 7569:tookyooꜜkko 7565:Ohta (1991) 7498:rinkaaꜜnhai 7486:supeiꜜnkaze 7454:/roNdoNQko/ 7438:Ohta (1991) 7239:(C)(j)V₁V₂Q 7172:(C)(j)V₁V₂N 7055:i-adjective 6740:/a.N.tja.N/ 6666:/a.Q.tja.N/ 6549:/ta.i.zo.ː/ 5800:Vowels are 5530:takitsukeru 5472:/kuꜜsikumo/ 4915:is central 4815:Okada (1999 4811:vowel chart 4100:purattohōmu 3404:Hall (2013) 2985:The glides 2964:/i͜ai͜oi͜u/ 2719:palatalized 2546:/itizukeru/ 2430:neutralized 1835:Non-moraic 1545:assimilated 1522:(hiragana: 1488:(hiragana: 1453:(hiragana: 1292:velar nasal 824:semivocalic 108:/a,e,i,o,u/ 25261:Categories 25209:Literature 25079:yakuwarigo 25063:Honorifics 25043:Wasei-eigo 25031:from Dutch 24978:Adjectives 24945:vocabulary 24723:Hentaigana 24718:Man'yōgana 24558:Okinoerabu 24262:Okuyoshino 23926:Vietnamese 23797:Ripuarian 23788:Portuguese 23698:Macedonian 23677:Lithuanian 23587:Hindustani 23414:Australian 23367:Historical 23314:Belarusian 23206:Adjectives 22444:2015-11-23 22314:"Japanese" 22275:2020-04-09 21920:Kokugogaku 21572:(2): 54–60 18798:1887/18409 18652:Vance 2008 16553::191–192). 15627:References 15606:Kirishitan 15589:, "to go") 15561:, "to go") 15458:handakuten 15431:considers 15187:有り難い、ありがたい 15172:有り難う、ありがとう 14872:Hatsuonbin 14791:, "to go") 14423:atuki→atui 14337:, "to go") 14230:/mi,bi,ni/ 14226:hatsuonbin 14147:high vowel 14069:hatsuonbin 13977:is called 13897:(onbin) → 13420:tended to 12797:(kutsu) + 12751:(setsu) + 12065:prop vowel 11494:generative 11416:hikitateru 11332:'lonely', 11088:epenthetic 10791:allomorphs 10639:「〜をお送りします」 10494:/auoueuiu/ 10129:buyyo-buyo 10119:perra-pera 10113:karra-kara 10107:gurra-gura 10101:borro-boro 10095:barra-bara 10052:, such as 9232:as a gap. 9228:, leaving 9184:/fafefifo/ 9127:consonants 8997:zentoruman 7633:foundation 7557:Sendaiꜜkko 7510:guriiꜜnsha 7458:/roNdoNko/ 7134:Loanwords 6824:/mo.to.ko/ 6771:/no.bu.ko/ 6750:/me.ɡu.mi/ 6676:/mi.ti.ko/ 6623:/ka.yo.ko/ 6446:Different 6299:mora-timed 5983:. A glide 5326:See also: 4945:compressed 4444:vs. ": --> 4079:, such as 3791:/tsi,tsja/ 3687:/hanaseba/ 3259:/tjdjsjzj/ 3005:The three 2711:See also: 2675:, such as 2012:Singleton 1994:obstruents 1969:hold phase 1072:, and the 727:allophones 372:Consonants 100:consonants 25101:Phonology 24988:Particles 24927:Half/Full 24857:Shift JIS 24786:Yotsugana 24766:Kanazukai 24708:Okurigana 24620:Logograms 24232:Shiramine 24077:Southern 24057:Northern 23916:Ukrainian 23823:Sardinian 23801:Colognian 23758:Old Saxon 23743:Norwegian 23708:Maldivian 23652:Latgalian 23597:Icelandic 23592:Hungarian 23580:Samaritan 23461:Esperanto 23347:Cantonese 23324:Bulgarian 23292:Levantine 23264:Afrikaans 23139:165750423 23079:633878218 22741:117861220 22619:(Thesis). 22536:: 107–145 22503:: 245–260 22431:145463946 22307:: 157–181 22057:: 45–52, 21940:Zehhutyou 21635:145093954 21223:486707218 18582:, §2.5.3. 17317:Hall 2013 16928:, §3.1.1. 16709:, §2.1.1. 16545::94) and 15565:sokuonbin 15400:Yotsugana 15251:目出度い、めでたい 15153:gozaimasu 15049:and verb 14879:ren'yōkei 14776:ren'yōkei 14774:When the 14733:ren'yōkei 14726:Sokuonbin 14596:When the 14543:ren'yōkei 14541:When the 14494:ren'yōkei 14395:rentaikei 14365:meireikei 14360:ren'yōkei 14322:ren'yōkei 14320:When the 14279:ren'yōkei 14234:ren'yōkei 14189:sokuonbin 14095:ren'yōkei 14086:sokuonbin 14047:; and if 14035:sokuonbin 13965:Types of 13771:, dubbed 12357:semivowel 12310: and 12093:/niQ.poN/ 11460:(namely, 11428:tsukidasu 11422:hittateru 11368:'light' ( 11232:yotsugana 11027:goho-goho 10700:fenghuang 10243:/kaQderu/ 10212:Atypical 9864:lax vowel 9685:Geminate 9630:/usseena/ 9624:/mattaku/ 9579:/Nnakoto/ 9510:gi+mon#fu 9327: → 9317: → 9302: → 9292: → 9278:English: 9068:'fast'). 9002:gentleman 7829:rondonkko 7767:romanized 7752:English: 7741:romanized 7726:English: 7698:romanized 7683:English: 7678:sutenresu 7672:romanized 7659:stainless 7657:English: 7652:fandēshon 7646:romanized 7631:English: 7581:rondonkko 7578:The word 7325:ウィーンって言った 7307:C)(j)VRNQ 7284:rondonkko 7263:sendaikko 7205:(C)(j)VRQ 7192:romanized 7177:English: 7159:romanized 7144:English: 7139:(C)(j)VRN 7126:Examples 6857:Syllables 6839:mokochan 6803:/a.ki.ko/ 6655:/a.tu.ko/ 6617:chiichan 6522:tarochan 6507:/ta.ro.ː/ 6486:/o.sa.mu/ 6347:/hasiꜜɡa/ 6291:syllables 6211:/ko.k.ko/ 6207:/ko.Q.ko/ 6004:Mora type 5802:nasalized 5750:/kesusai/ 5484:kushikumo 5334:voiceless 5322:Devoicing 5023:than for 4929:are mid . 3729:/joɴdewa/ 3699:, citing 2743:/pbkɡmnr/ 2416:Yotsugana 2019:Geminate 1753:nasalized 1556:bilabial 1327:mōra onso 1186:/abareru/ 1098:aspirated 664:Semivowel 574:Fricative 527:Affricate 225:Morphemes 140:/hasiꜜɡa/ 130:/haꜜsiɡa/ 85:phonology 25024:gairaigo 25003:Numerals 24973:Pronouns 24912:Enclosed 24892:Katakana 24867:Hiragana 24863:Unicode 24818:ISO/IEC 24800:Encoding 24703:Furigana 24698:Katakana 24693:Hiragana 24595:Yonaguni 24575:Southern 24553:Okinawan 24548:Kunigami 24528:Northern 24520:Ryukyuan 24461:Kyowa-go 24392:Tsushima 24382:Nagasaki 24377:Kumamoto 24365:Chikuzen 24229:Kanazawa 24219:Hokuriku 24154:Shizuoka 24121:Eastern 24110:Kanagawa 24101:Western 24046:Hokkaidō 24027:Dialects 23813:Romanian 23622:Japanese 23575:Tiberian 23570:Biblical 23557:Hawaiian 23552:Gujarati 23515:Standard 23507:Galician 23495:Parisian 23466:Estonian 23397:Standard 23342:Mandarin 23338:Chinese 23302:Tunisian 23297:Moroccan 23282:Egyptian 23254:Acehnese 23226:Pronouns 23201:Grammars 23073:: 1–10, 23039:(1988), 23023:(1968), 22984:(2001), 22677:15641442 22476:日本語音声学入門 22384:Language 22196:(1990), 22095:Language 21615:Language 21446:30198054 21194:Language 21063:Daijisen 21024:日本語文法大辞典 20999:Daijirin 19496:, 18:10. 19347:, 19:50. 18815:18278865 18807:21895391 17420:"外来語の表記" 15619:as well. 15576:Compare 15548:Compare 15497:hiragana 15493:katakana 15324:See also 15204:お早う、おはよう 15180:arigatai 14199:) favor 13865:, broom) 13800:mizenkei 13792:mizenkei 13788:mizenkei 13765:mizenkei 13490:mizenkei 13442:au→ɔː→oː 12359:, as in 12138:/p~htks/ 11434:tsundasu 11347:bon'yari 11323:shonbori 11215:, as in 11159:fusional 10839:) as in 10713:tōō o ōō 10662:hōō o oō 10405:shiawase 10396:, as in 10380:, as in 10073:Cherrīni 9940:devoiced 9680:/hbdɡzr/ 9585:Initial 9325:Pompidou 9315:Toulouse 9290:toujours 9037:ierōkādo 9018:shepherd 8863:Palatals 7858:Katakana 7854:Hiragana 7758:Japanese 7754:mountain 7732:Japanese 7689:Japanese 7663:Japanese 7641:ファンデーション 7637:Japanese 7573:-kyo.oQ- 7291:ドラえもんっぽい 7273:C)(j)VNQ 7229:tōkyōkko 7183:Japanese 7150:Japanese 6940:/kuruma/ 6818:akochan 6786:nonchan 6765:menchan 6712:botchan 6691:mitchan 6680:michiko 6638:kaachan 6585:kinchan 6574:kinsuke 6564:taichan 6543:yoochan 6532:yoosuke 6501:osachan 6363:/hasiɡa/ 6345:: thus, 6288:stressed 6261:/niQpoN/ 6014:Japanese 5993:chroneme 5732:/keQsai/ 5621:/kokoro/ 5593:Ikimasu? 5316:syllable 5312:sequence 5301:chroneme 5263:sato-oya 4730:or or 4352:bidakuon 3733:/joɴzja/ 3683:/mateba/ 3671:/kateba/ 3667:/kaseba/ 3534:suwitchi 3499:+ small 3399:dejitaru 3265:and as 3197:/ɡozjuː/ 2816:/ɡjoːza/ 2678:otottsan 2646:ツァイトガイスト 2533:/tuzuku/ 2460:but not 2269:⟩ 2263:⟨ 2231:⟩ 2225:⟨ 2222:katakana 2218:⟩ 2212:⟨ 2209:hiragana 1965:geminate 1953:/sanmai/ 1949:/saɴmai/ 1945:/saNmai/ 1688:before 1659:before 1628:before 1415:⟩ 1409:⟨ 1405:⟩ 1399:⟨ 1395:⟩ 1389:⟨ 1386:katakana 1382:⟩ 1376:⟨ 1373:hiragana 1158:weakened 1148:Lenition 392:Alveolo- 387:Alveolar 382:Bilabial 351:gairaigo 313:Kun'yomi 276:, which 150:/hasiɡa/ 96:phonemes 82:Japanese 45:/ / 41:Help:IPA 25227:Writers 25160:Hepburn 25114:Rendaku 25053:Engrish 24749:Braille 24670:Ryakuji 24590:Yaeyama 24508:grammar 24503:Hachijō 24400:Satsugū 24359:Hichiku 24345:Hōnichi 24299:San'yō 24294:Chūgoku 24270:Shikoku 24209:Western 24169:Nagaoka 24165:Echigo 24130:Tochigi 24125:Ibaraki 24086:Nairiku 24066:Tsugaru 24037:Eastern 23941:Yiddish 23906:Turkish 23891:Tagalog 23875:Swedish 23863:Spanish 23848:Slovene 23818:Russian 23778:Persian 23748:Occitan 23728:Medumba 23718:Marathi 23662:Latvian 23642:Kurdish 23632:Konkani 23617:Italian 23602:Ingrian 23561:Hebrew 23535:Ancient 23520:Bernese 23511:German 23491:French 23487:Finnish 23482:Faroese 23409:English 23379:Cornish 23374:Chukchi 23352:Hokkien 23334:Catalan 23329:Burmese 23319:Bengali 23309:Avestan 23273:Arabic 23178:of the 22320:(ed.), 22157:Bibcode 21933:: 16–27 21727:Rendaku 21608:: 11–20 21604:], 21568:], 21403:], 18522:, §1.3. 18471:, fn 3. 17559:, §5.6. 15782:, §3.1. 15613:i-onbin 15593:i-onbin 15445:/kẽːka/ 15263:oishiku 15244:medetai 15241:, from 15229:omedetō 15209:, from 15177:, from 15165:arigatō 15052:zonjiru 14877:When a 14731:When a 14492:When a 14487:u-onbin 14413:i-onbin 14277:When a 14272:i-onbin 14201:u-onbin 14154:reduced 14061:hatsuon 13999:u-onbin 13980:i-onbin 13862:箒 (ほうき) 13774:ishikei 13714:jodōshi 13547:ichidan 13447:jeu→joː 13412:During 12844:Modern 12841:Archaic 12789:kuttaku 12743:setchin 12265:before 12183:before 12171:before 11780:betsuen 11733:gakugai 11492:; some 11359:funwari 11314:) from 11305:nikkori 11213:dakuten 11204:rendaku 11194:Rendaku 11188:Rendaku 11009:afureru 10874:seppuku 10865:(as in 10803:/phtks/ 10795:rendaku 10559:/suɡoi/ 10350:totsuba 10345:/baQto/ 10334:kotsuya 10329:/jaQko/ 10318:patsuwa 10313:/waQpa/ 10302:patsura 10297:/raQpa/ 10271:/toQba/ 10261:/baQto/ 10245:(blend) 10238:kadderu 10159:kowwaai 10147:karraai 10135:naggaai 10126:(as in 10092:(as in 10034:doretto 10030:doreddo 9903:('kit') 9883:surakkā 9878:suraggā 9549:rendaku 9361:estrade 9218:/a,e,o/ 9107:) from 9092:dyuetto 9066:/hajai/ 9032:イエローカード 8913:Before 8894:before 8882:Before 8282:(/djo/) 8276:(/dju/) 8270:(/dja/) 7773:maunten 7769:: 7743:: 7704:konbīfu 7700:: 7674:: 7648:: 7618:toꜜotta 7606:/doꜜNQ/ 7318:uiinkko 7194:: 7161:: 6828:motoko 6775:nobuko 6754:megumi 6744:anchan 6670:atchan 6659:atsuko 6627:kayoko 6553:taizoo 6462:names, 6384:/hasiꜜ/ 6284:English 6145:/kjo.o/ 6141:/kjo.R/ 6009:Example 5948:Prosody 5789:arimasu 5422:/kusaꜜ/ 5376:/kutuꜜ/ 5244:satō-ya 4965:/s,z,t/ 4835:Central 4663:), or 4638:nijū-go 4591:rendaku 4557:(as in 4384:(as in 4301:Erubisu 4286:Eruvisu 4132:fuirumu 4120:fuirumu 4107:, e.g. 4094:プラットホーム 4043:versus 4011:), but 3747:before 3702:kawanai 3679:/tojuː/ 3590:Yeltsin 3588:, ' 3585:Eritsin 3522:suitchi 3462:shinema 3293:before 3253:before 3107:/tiziN/ 3011:coronal 2922:/hjaku/ 2788:/mjaku/ 2669:Yeltsin 2667:, ' 2664:Eritsin 2589:before 2520:rendaku 2509:/b,d,ɡ/ 2501:/b,d,ɡ/ 2400:/satti/ 2390:/saQti/ 2381:/issai/ 2371:/iQsai/ 2201:/saQti/ 2197:/iQsai/ 1855:kan'ake 1798:symbol 1719:before 1596:before 1566:/p,b,m/ 1564:before 1337:hatsuon 1259:/b,d,ɡ/ 1247:/b,d,ɡ/ 1199:abareru 1154:/b,d,ɡ/ 1138:/b,d,ɡ/ 1134:/b,d,ɡ/ 1130:/p,t,k/ 1126:/p,t,k/ 1122:/b,d,ɡ/ 1118:/p,t,k/ 1113:/b,d,ɡ/ 1102:/p,t,k/ 1094:/p,t,k/ 890:before 859:before 774:before 473:Plosive 414:Glottal 399:Palatal 394:palatal 348:Called 338:Foreign 309:On'yomi 256:Called 231:Mimetic 193:Called 33:in the 25222:Poetry 25170:Kunrei 25132:Kan-on 24903:Other 24812:EUC-JP 24728:Sōgana 24713:Gojūon 24665:Kokuji 24633:Kanbun 24585:Tarama 24580:Miyako 24370:Hakata 24335:Kyūshū 24323:Umpaku 24286:Sanuki 24252:Banshū 24241:Kansai 24184:Mikawa 24179:Nagoya 24159:Narada 24052:Tōhoku 23921:Uyghur 23853:Somali 23843:Slovak 23783:Polish 23773:Pashto 23768:Ottawa 23753:Ojibwe 23738:Nepali 23733:Navajo 23647:Kyrgyz 23637:Korean 23565:Modern 23526:Greek 23500:Quebec 23454:Middle 23393:Dutch 23389:Danish 23287:Hejazi 23259:Adyghe 23249:Abkhaz 23137: 23127: 23097: 23077: 23051: 23010: 22992: 22971: 22953: 22935: 22917: 22773: 22755: 22739: 22698: 22675: 22594: 22549: 22482: 22429: 22363: 22328: 22115:415333 22113: 21971:: 1–30 21900: 21882: 21856: 21830: 21653:sokuon 21633: 21461: 21444: 21397:音声学会会報 21274: 21221: 21215:410409 21213: 21156: 21136: 21076:Kōjien 18813: 18805: 17430:22 May 16897: 15617:/iite/ 15219:早い、はやい 15120:yu, yo 15037:gozaru 14962:（残んの雪） 14858:（矢っ張り） 14634:（美しゅう） 14622:（有り難う） 14536:（頼うだる） 14026:sokuon 13973:, the 13870:hahaki 13828:; and 13686:sa-hen 13452:iu→juː 13092:o + wo 13077:o + ho 13043:o + fu 13007:e + fu 12958:u + fu 12922:i + fu 12873:a + fu 12445:kannon 12395:ginnan 12279:/seki/ 12242: 12228:/hati/ 12224:/siti/ 12199: 12177:/roku/ 12148: 12113: 12079:/niti/ 12075:/nit̚/ 12038:jikkai 12003:nyūshō 11999:nisshō 11960:kassen 11554:sokuon 11335:unzari 11311:nikori 11218:ka, ga 11200:sandhi 11172:ren'on 11167:sandhi 11021:yahari 10997:Fūtarō 10992:pūtarō 10799:/bdɡz/ 10780:/bdɡz/ 10531:/itai/ 10470:/eoeu/ 10464:. Per 10425:higher 10413:/aiui/ 10269: 10241: 10222:カットモデル 10067:チェッリーニ 9766:/bdɡz/ 9676:/ptks/ 9642:/ptks/ 9545:/dɡbz/ 9541:/tkhs/ 9433:after 9321:French 9311:French 9296:French 9286:French 9080:fyūjon 9074:フュージョン 9013:sepādo 9004:, and 8991:ゼントルマン 8969:chekku 8953:chikki 8254:(/du/) 8248:(/di/) 7860:, and 7819:njūoku 7747:saundo 7540:マクリーン館 7492:リンカーン杯 7480:スペイン風邪 7475:/V.VN/ 7434:tootte 7429:kontte 7408:; and 7369:tootta 7349:tooQta 7312:ウィーンっ子 7278:ロンドンっ子 7250:haitte 7216:tootta 7198:supein 7046:haisha 6978:haisha 6944:/iꜜdo/ 6807:akiko 6729:/a.ni/ 6697:/bo.ː/ 6511:taroo 6490:osamu 6393:/hasi/ 6275:, and 6176:/ko.N/ 5965:, and 5906:sokuon 5858:/kisi/ 5780:as in 5634:kokoro 5559:copula 5399:/sika/ 5276:hiatus 5108:keigen 5074:obāsan 5058:obasan 5038:length 4963:after 4817::117). 4801:Vowels 4773:": --> 4733:, but 4539:inglês 4144:firumu 4111:> 3984:fyūjon 3978:フュージョン 3883:/huta/ 3709:) vs. 3705:(with 3600:": --> 3467:cinema 3351:ティ, ディ 3322:/tsdz/ 3251:/tdsz/ 3169:/isja/ 3120:chijin 3079:/mozi/ 2887:/hito/ 2844:/kiri/ 2684:otōsan 2613:/tuɡi/ 2505:/(d)z/ 2485:voiced 2483:, the 2470:Tōhoku 2362:/akka/ 2352:/aQka/ 2261:, and 2207:sign ( 2193:/aQka/ 2167:satchi 1940:sanmai 1889:kan'yū 1871:kanake 1756:nasal. 1735:sanrui 1701:sanchō 1672:sannen 1612:sankai 1588:velar 1580:sanmai 1347:sokuon 1321:モーラ音素 1286:after 1221:/haɡe/ 1142:voiced 1061:, the 1050:, the 1039:, the 1017:, the 934:apical 901:listen 882:, and 874:listen 761:lamino 731:/ɸ,ts/ 638:Liquid 409:Uvular 183:Yamato 104:vowels 49: 25244:texts 25217:Books 25137:Tō-on 25127:Go-on 24754:Kanji 24675:Ateji 24638:Kanji 24568:Yoron 24543:Kikai 24411:Other 24313:Inshū 24303:Bingo 24257:Kishū 24247:Awaji 24115:Tokyo 24105:Gunma 24096:Kantō 24081:Kesen 24071:Akita 24061:Nanbu 23931:Welsh 23911:Ubykh 23896:Tamil 23858:Sotho 23828:Scots 23763:Oromo 23713:Māori 23703:Malay 23657:Latin 23627:Kiowa 23612:Irish 23607:Inuit 23540:Koine 23384:Czech 23231:Verbs 23216:Nouns 23135:S2CID 22737:S2CID 22688:(PDF) 22564:(PDF) 22497:(PDF) 22438:(PDF) 22427:S2CID 22407:(PDF) 22316:, in 22269:(PDF) 22254:(PDF) 22203:[ 22111:JSTOR 21983:(PDF) 21951:[ 21925:[ 21631:S2CID 21600:[ 21591:(PDF) 21564:[ 21442:JSTOR 21407:: 7–9 21399:[ 21316:(PDF) 21289:(PDF) 21211:JSTOR 20867:butsu 20856:/but/ 19631:, §5. 18811:S2CID 18666:, §3. 16156::75). 16095:] 16091:[ 15615:form 15600:キリシタン 15416:Notes 15293:ōkiku 15285:美味しゅう 15278:oishū 15212:hayai 15197:ohayō 15081:onbin 15047:, be) 15011:（真ん中） 14980:かんなづき 14956:（盛んに） 14915:（死んで） 14909:（飛んで） 14903:（読んで） 14864:（真っ白） 14833:（追っ手） 14803:（行って） 14769:（食って） 14763:（有って） 14757:（勝って） 14591:（請うて） 14585:（問うて） 14530:（病うで） 14524:（呼うで） 14518:（思うて） 14431:（美しい） 14349:（行いて） 14315:（指いて） 14309:（泳いで） 14303:（書いて） 14265:onbin 14259:（死んで） 14253:（呼んで） 14247:（踏んで） 14232:in a 14220:（言うて） 14214:（買うて） 14183:（言って） 14177:（買って） 14171:（取って） 14160:with 14107:(see 14092:in a 14011:; if 13992:; if 13975:onbin 13967:onbin 13961:Types 13900:houki 13885:hauki 13837:onbin 13820:Onbin 13814:Onbin 13806:(see 13804:godan 13796:godan 13513:godan 13502:(see 13437:ou→oː 13283:(via 12992:e + u 12907:i + u 12858:a + u 12663:onmyō 12597:sanmi 12513:tennō 12351:) or 12319:renjō 12298:Renjō 12283:/seQ/ 12185:/p~h/ 12181:/roQ/ 12042:jūkai 11964:gōsen 11896:happi 11827:gakui 11754:betsu 11686:renjō 11678:gakkō 11624:issho 11476:, or 11452:, or 11394:/maN/ 11390:/maQ/ 11386:/maN/ 11382:/maQ/ 11362:from 11350:from 11338:from 11329:shobo 11326:from 11278:onbin 11033:ahaha 11015:ahiru 10940:パーティー 10934:peten 10922:paozu 10886:hoppō 10850:kappa 10572:sugoi 10389:meoto 10340:batto 10324:yakko 10308:wappa 10292:rappa 10266:tobba 10256:batto 10201:samui 10189:hayai 10165:kowai 10162:< 10153:karai 10150:< 10141:nagai 10138:< 10021:betto 10009:beddo 9995:dokku 9983:doggu 9969:batto 9957:baddo 9901:kitto 9896:kiddo 9872:スラッガー 9849:* 9847:(not 9806:* 9804:(not 9530:renjō 9300:douze 9280:Today 9104:tyūba 9086:デュエット 8986:jelly 8958:check 8942:cello 8940:from 8927:above 8877:/aou/ 8835:/V-C/ 8597:/rjo/ 8591:/rju/ 8585:/rja/ 8542:/mjo/ 8536:/mju/ 8530:/mja/ 8490:/pjo/ 8484:/pju/ 8478:/pja/ 8438:/bjo/ 8432:/bju/ 8426:/bja/ 8386:/hjo/ 8380:/hju/ 8374:/hja/ 8334:/njo/ 8328:/nju/ 8322:/nja/ 8230:/tjo/ 8224:/tju/ 8218:/tja/ 8178:/zjo/ 8172:/zju/ 8166:/zja/ 8123:/sjo/ 8117:/sju/ 8111:/sja/ 8071:/ɡjo/ 8065:/ɡju/ 8059:/ɡja/ 8019:/kjo/ 8013:/kju/ 8007:/kja/ 7915:/-jo/ 7910:/-ju/ 7905:/-ja/ 7762:マウンテン 7728:sound 7693:コンビーフ 7667:ステンレス 7598:/NꜜQ/ 7528:Uターン率 7504:グリーン車 7471:/VVN/ 7417:konte 7393:shiin 7381:totta 7353:toQta 7179:Spain 7165:gurīn 7146:green 7097:-ppoi 6963:/o.o/ 6958:honoo 6831:> 6810:> 6778:> 6757:> 6736:> 6704:> 6683:> 6662:> 6630:> 6609:> 6577:> 6556:> 6535:> 6514:> 6493:> 6471:-chan 6325:pitch 6293:in a 6223:kokko 6110:/kjo/ 5973:moras 5953:Moras 5871:kishi 5825:] 5821:[ 5657:kitai 5610:/aeo/ 5587:行きます? 5551:pause 5524:焚き付ける 5388:kutsu 5223:moras 5176:tōkai 5160:tokai 5092:kegen 5068:お祖母さん 4997:] 4993:[ 4989:] 4985:[ 4961:] 4957:[ 4953:] 4949:[ 4943:) or 4941:] 4937:[ 4927:/e,o/ 4921:] 4917:[ 4847:Close 4830:Front 4719:gaiyū 4607:shima 4582:gara- 4533:irisu 4517:órgão 4347:] 4343:[ 4339:] 4335:[ 4293:エルヴィス 4069:] 4065:[ 4025:] 4021:[ 4017:] 4013:[ 3878:] 3874:[ 3853:] 3849:[ 3833:/tji/ 3821:/tji/ 3745:/tsz/ 3579:エリツィン 3528:スウィッチ 3465:from 3387:rajio 3315:above 3279:/tja/ 3275:/tɕa/ 3267:/sja/ 3225:/tja/ 3164:] 3160:[ 3051:/sio/ 3046:] 3042:[ 2995:/tsz/ 2972:/i͜a/ 2948:/mja/ 2935:hyaku 2917:] 2913:[ 2829:gyōza 2801:myaku 2760:/umi/ 2723:/aou/ 2658:エリツィン 2641:] 2637:[ 2626:tsugi 2608:] 2604:[ 2583:] 2579:[ 2548:from 2428:) is 2142:sachi 2115:issai 1951:, or 1905:kanyū 1785:/a,o/ 1775:] 1771:[ 1767:] 1763:[ 1749:/j,w/ 1717:] 1713:[ 1686:] 1682:[ 1657:] 1653:[ 1641:genki 1626:] 1622:[ 1598:/k,ɡ/ 1594:] 1590:[ 1562:] 1558:[ 1216:] 1212:[ 1181:] 1177:[ 1156:have 1081:] 1077:[ 1070:] 1066:[ 1059:] 1055:[ 1048:] 1044:[ 1037:] 1033:[ 1026:] 1022:[ 1011:/i,j/ 1007:] 1003:[ 996:] 992:[ 977:/i,j/ 973:] 969:[ 962:] 958:[ 950:] 946:[ 942:] 938:[ 923:] 919:[ 915:] 911:[ 888:] 884:[ 857:] 853:[ 843:] 839:[ 820:] 816:[ 809:] 805:[ 802:velar 788:] 784:[ 743:/i,u/ 421:Nasal 404:Velar 295:kanji 274:moras 259:kango 37:(IPA) 24852:0213 24847:0212 24842:0211 24837:0208 24832:0201 24828:JIS 24822:2022 24685:Kana 24387:Saga 24351:Ōita 24281:Tosa 24225:Kaga 24194:Hida 24189:Mino 23946:Zuni 23901:Taos 23125:ISBN 23095:ISBN 23075:OCLC 23049:ISBN 23008:ISBN 22990:ISBN 22969:ISBN 22951:ISBN 22933:ISBN 22915:ISBN 22771:ISBN 22753:ISBN 22696:ISBN 22673:PMID 22592:ISBN 22547:ISBN 22530:言語研究 22480:ISBN 22361:ISBN 22326:ISBN 21965:言語研究 21898:ISBN 21880:ISBN 21854:ISBN 21828:ISBN 21598:音韻研究 21562:音声研究 21459:ISBN 21367:1950 21272:ISBN 21219:OCLC 21154:ISBN 21134:ISBN 21107:"請う" 21089:"問う" 18803:PMID 17432:2024 16895:ISBN 15579:yuku 15495:and 15315:大きゅう 15308:ōkyū 15290:and 15270:美味しく 15030:The 14999:かんざし 14935:and 14891:/ni/ 14887:/bi/ 14883:/mi/ 14846:さっそく 14745:/pi/ 14741:/ɾi/ 14737:/ti/ 14712:こうぶり 14690:おとうと 14628:（早う） 14616:（良う） 14560:and 14506:/mi/ 14502:/bi/ 14498:/pi/ 14449:たいまつ 14425:（熱い） 14387:（仰い） 14362:and 14356:/ɾi/ 14327:yuku 14291:/si/ 14287:/ɡi/ 14283:/ki/ 14205:/pi/ 14152:was 13915:hōki 13855:hōki 13664:う → 13651:う → 13638:む → 13606:う → 13593:う → 13580:む → 13422:fuse 13306:any 12807:) → 12805:waku 12761:) → 12703:) → 12685:) → 12675:) + 12636:) → 12619:) → 12609:) + 12553:) → 12535:) → 12525:) + 12485:) → 12479:kwan 12467:) → 12457:) + 12455:kwan 12417:) → 12407:) + 12353:/t̚/ 12343:(or 12287:/ki/ 12273:and 12271:/ki/ 12240:/ki/ 12232:/ti/ 12226:and 12197:/ti/ 12189:/ku/ 12146:/ku/ 12111:/tu/ 12087:MC * 12073:MC * 12061:/p̚/ 12057:/k̚/ 12053:/t̚/ 12030:) = 12020:) + 12014:jifu 11991:) = 11981:) + 11975:nifu 11952:) = 11937:) + 11921:kafu 11905:hōhi 11888:) = 11873:) + 11857:hafu 11818:) = 11803:) + 11801:gaku 11771:) = 11756:) + 11724:) = 11722:-gai 11709:) + 11707:gaku 11661:) = 11646:) + 11644:gaku 11607:) = 11592:) + 11590:itsu 11466:/Nd/ 11442:/Qt/ 11384:and 11378:/ma/ 11365:fuwa 11353:boya 11317:niko 11249:and 11127:kēki 11108:/hh/ 11080:and 10946:pātī 10898:onpu 10724:とうおう 10673:ほうおう 10553:/oi/ 10544:itai 10525:/ai/ 10514:/oi/ 10510:/ae/ 10506:/ai/ 10502:/ui/ 10500:and 10498:/oi/ 10478:/iu/ 10461:giya 10438:gear 10417:/ei/ 10394:/ia/ 10378:/eo/ 10178:/Qm/ 10176:and 10174:/Qj/ 10078:/Qr/ 10061:arrā 10055:アッラー 10050:/Qr/ 9931:and 9921:/Qb/ 9917:/Qz/ 9913:/Qɡ/ 9909:/Qd/ 9842:tsud 9831:vs. 9828:atsu 9791:突ん出す 9788:vs. 9785:atsu 9775:突っ立つ 9757:uchō 9648:and 9526:/Nm/ 9522:/Nn/ 9480:完全敗北 9471:/Nh/ 9392:and 9268:and 9249:/tu/ 9245:/tu/ 9230:/du/ 9226:/zu/ 9207:/td/ 9194:and 9188:/fu/ 9172:/hu/ 9164:/hu/ 9160:/fu/ 9140:/hu/ 9123:Pre- 9117:/tj/ 9098:テューバ 9007:セパード 8981:zerī 8963:チェック 8937:sero 8921:and 8849:/V-/ 8822:/V-/ 8610:/wa/ 8605:/w-/ 8579:/ro/ 8573:/re/ 8567:/ru/ 8561:/ri/ 8555:/ra/ 8550:/r-/ 8525:/mo/ 8520:/me/ 8514:/mu/ 8508:/mi/ 8503:/ma/ 8498:/m-/ 8473:/po/ 8468:/pe/ 8462:/pu/ 8456:/pi/ 8451:/pa/ 8446:/p-/ 8421:/bo/ 8416:/be/ 8410:/bu/ 8404:/bi/ 8399:/ba/ 8394:/b-/ 8369:/ho/ 8364:/he/ 8358:/hu/ 8352:/hi/ 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