682:. These forts were built according to the standard Russian brick fort design of the time. Therefore, the first seven forts were very similar; they differed only in the layout of their interiors, their integration into the surrounding relief, and in some construction details. They would also be renovated in slightly different ways. Batteries were built between adjacent forts; these were fortifications containing various types of artillery, located along the fortress' outer lines and usually erected on the hills. The first construction phase was completed in 1887. The fortress was designated first-class in that year, marking its importance and defensive capabilities, and Otto Klem was named its first commandant. At the same time, administrative rules were established to manage the fortress' impact on the city and its surrounding areas; the height of the fortress' civil buildings was restricted.
639:
110:
71:
38:
764:, work on the fortress was halted. In 1915 only one fort, the Ninth, conformed with the new technological criteria, while the Tenth Fort was only partially built. The complex then covered about 65 km (25 sq mi) and contained a 30 km (19 mi) internal railway, power plant, water supply system, mill, bakery, brewery, food bank, and telegraph. Despite the fact that the fortress' renovations and new construction had not been finished, it presented a formidable challenge to its attackers.
835:
97:
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739:
686:
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919:
84:
59:
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unexploded ordnance, although a 1995 project removed about 1.9 tonnes of explosives. Other restoration issues include uncovered wells, poor drainage and ventilation, erosion, possible chemical contaminants, vegetative overgrowth, and the presence of a protected bat colony. Despite the damage that it has sustained, the Kaunas
Fortress complex is the most complete of the surviving Russian Empire fortresses.
756:
structures. Its completion was scheduled for 1917. The older forts were to be completely encircled by the new construction, which was meant to employ the newest military technologies. During the early realization of the plan, new defensive entrenchments were built and the old forts were strengthened with concrete. However, when action began on the
667:, and the new section of the city. The project significantly affected the daily life of Kaunas residents, and there were plans to detach the fortress into an independent administrative unit governed by a military board; its commandant wrote that "There is no city of Kaunas, there is only the Fortress of Kaunas."
807:. In 1920, the Kaunas Fortress Board was formed and charged with the task of administering the fortress. Due to the development of new military technologies, its reconstruction was seen as a vast and inappropriate expense. The fortress' armament was dismantled and the trenches were filled with scrap iron.
953:
was dedicated as a museum. During 1959, its first exhibition was opened, memorializing the crimes that had taken place there. The museum later expanded its scope to cover the fortress' entire history. A 32 m (105 ft) tall memorial to the victims was constructed there in 1984. However,
227:
The fortress was battle-tested in 1915 when
Germany attacked the Russian Empire, and withstood eleven days of assault before capture. After World War I, the fortress' military importance declined as advances in weaponry rendered it increasingly obsolete. It was used by various civil institutions and
990:
is open as a fortification and military museum and is the only brick fort in Kaunas suitable for safe visiting. In the 2000s, a variety of entities owned parts of the complex: the
Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Defence, the State Property Fund, and the City of Kaunas. The site still contains
755:
As new building and weapons technologies developed, the fortress was repeatedly renovated in order to maintain its military effectiveness. In 1912 an expansion and reconstruction initiative was launched. This project called for twelve new forts along with batteries, support buildings, and defensive
751:
and included two forts. The third extended from the right to the left bank of the
Nemunas; this sector also contained two forts. The fourth and last sector stretched from the right bank of the Neris to the left bank of the Nemunas, comprising two forts, including the newest – the Ninth Fort.
819:
was installed in the gunpowder depot of the First Fort and used to execute condemned prisoners. Some sections were used as housing for the poor. As the city of Kaunas expanded near the complex, its roads became public streets. The structures and layouts of the new sections were influenced by the
882:, Lithuanian auxiliary police units shot nearly 3,000 Jews at the Seventh Fort. On August 18, in what came to be known as the "intellectuals action", over 1,800 Jews were shot at the Fourth Fort. On October 28, the "Great Action" took place—the residents of the
389:
and
Vilnius. In order to control the region, attackers would need to first neutralize Kaunas. Facing this possibility and evaluating the natural advantages of the city, Russian officials decided to construct a fortress there. After several delays, on July 7, 1879
941:
and the Fifth Fort served the air defense regiment. Most of the forts, however, served as depots or housed farming organizations. During the postwar expansion and development of the city, parts of the fortress were dismantled; as part of the construction of
746:
The complex of forts and defensive structures was divided into four sectors. The first followed the left bank of the
Nemunas to its confluence with the Jiesia River and included the three earliest forts. The second sector extended from the Jiesia to
978:. Since the early 2000s, it has received about 100,000 visitors per year and hosted Holocaust education seminars and workshops. In 2005, the international project "Baltic Culture and Tourism Route Fortresses" was launched, with support from the
735:, encompassing one infantry rampart, and was equipped with two armored watchtowers, electricity, and ventilation. The walls of its cannon casemates were covered with cork to reduce firing noise. The cost of this single fort was 850,000 rubles.
654:
loops. The plan included support buildings and infrastructures, such as barracks, new roads, and an ammunition depot. Construction began in 1882; about 4,000 workers were mustered for the project. The principal structures were concentrated in
795:
on
February 16, 1918 and the old fortress was placed under engineering staff supervision. Those materials that had not been taken by the Germans were used to resupply Lithuanian military needs, and for the construction of the armored train
982:. Its goal is the promotion of transnational scientific cooperation in monument protection, along with the creation of strategies to reconstruct and manage fortresses in the region. Kaunas Fortress is a part of this project. In 2007,
716:. By 1890, seven forts had been completed, supporting roads had been constructed, and a railroad bridge over the Nemunas had been adapted for military transport. By now, expenditures on the fortress had amounted to over nine million
897:
When
Germany began losing the war and the battlefront approached Lithuania, the German defense began to prepare a defense in Kaunas, including the use of the fortress. The Nemunas River was labelled "the line of catastrophe", and
384:
without major difficulties. An increasingly unified
Germany troubled the Empire during the second half of the century. A fortress in Kaunas would present an obstacle to attacks from the west, preventing further incursions towards
973:
As of early 2007, only the Ninth Fort had been partly renovated. It is now devoted to the
Holocaust and Lithuania's occupations by the Germans and the Soviets. The museum, which holds over 65,000 artefacts, is sponsored by the
902:
called for its defense at any price. On August 1, 1944 Kaunas was captured by the Red Army. The remaining fortress structures were used for military needs and several of the original structures were demolished or redeveloped.
328:
was created there in 1441. By the end of the 16th century Kaunas had become a major regional trade center, but plagues, fires, and wars adversely affected the country and city during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the
311:
and its lands were often impassable, its interior was most approachable along its rivers when frozen and during the short dry harvest season in late summer. In response to this vulnerability, defensive structures, including a
649:
The first design was overseen by Generals Nikolay Obruchev, Konstantin Zverev, and Ivan Volberg. As originally planned, the fortress encompassed a huge site, consisting of seven forts and nine defensive batteries arranged in
810:
Sections of the fortress were given to various civil institutions, while the army occupied the barracks of the former 28th Division. The Sixth and Ninth forts were used as prisons and the Central Archive was located in the
193:
180:
708:
for a garrison of 1,000 personnel. At the same time, massive groundworks were laid along with additional defensive structures, effecting the complete enclosure of the city center between the Rivers
2697:
1794:
Anušauskas, Arvydas; Bauža, Česlovas; Banionis, Juozas; Brandišauskas, Valentinas; Bubnys, Arūnas; Jakubčionis, Algirdas; Jonušauskas, Laurynas; Kuodytė, Dalia; Maslauskienė, Nijolė;
2056:
670:
The first forts were built using bricks reinforced with thick ramparts of earth, which were incorporated into the surrounding relief, making them harder to breach. They were
886:
were summoned, and over 9,000 men, women and children were taken to the Ninth Fort and executed. During the later course of the occupation, over 5,000 Jewish deportees from
660:
251:
houses a museum and memorial devoted to the Jewish victims of Holocaust mass executions. The complex is the most complete remaining example of a Russian Empire fortress.
1690:
1515:
959:
1742:
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in Kaunas, were in place at various points on the Nemunas River by the 14th century. The city was first mentioned in written sources in 1361; it received
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2667:
890:
would be executed at this fort. About 60 escaped in December 1943; they had been assigned to excavate and burn the bodies of earlier victims, as part of
2589:
975:
910:
gives detailed descriptions of the deaths of about 18,500 Holocaust victims. Other sources mention 30,000 Jewish deaths, with total number 50,000.
656:
1715:
938:
2599:
1822:
2083:
1315:
1472:
1232:
2662:
1975:
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2618:
1620:
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for detention, interrogation, and execution. About 50,000 people were executed there, including more than 60,000 Jewish victims of
721:
642:
2051:
1387:
Neringa, Jarmalavičiutė; Rimvydas Strazdas (2007), "The Fortress of Kaunas: History Present Situation and Conversion Challenges",
1131:
368:. The concept of building a fortress in Lithuania was discussed without result in 1796, but became a critical concern after the
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875:
1157:
2505:
1988:
1923:
1881:
1839:
1807:
1404:
350:
2702:
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in June 1940. The fortress was then used to conduct interrogations and house political prisoners. The pact was broken when
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2500:
1554:
1350:
962:. After the withdrawal of Soviet forces, completed in 1993, Lithuanian military bases were established at several forts.
2465:
1694:
1525:
334:
1770:
2357:
2076:
2016:
1965:
1941:
1905:
1863:
2594:
369:
894:. Thirteen of these escapees were able to document the Aktion's attempt to hide the evidence of the mass murders.
224:, the complex was the largest defensive structure in the entire state, occupying 65 km (25 sq mi).
2707:
851:
1693:. The Task Force for International Cooperation on Holocaust Education, Remembrance, and Research. Archived from
1584:
1521:
907:
724:
the garrison were laid in 1891; it was completed in 1893. The following year construction began on a dedicated
2515:
2672:
638:
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2069:
987:
983:
943:
934:
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843:
757:
1016:
2712:
2434:
2092:
2008:
1721:
2362:
2604:
2531:
2444:
2143:
1580:
1478:
1238:
930:
2657:
2541:
2536:
2148:
2123:
2118:
2243:
2138:
2133:
2128:
801:
704:. The Linkuva fort became the most modern entrenchment, equipped with electricity, sewerage, and
2367:
1897:
1891:
1321:
353:
via Kaunas was completed in 1862; it was part of a limited network of western Russian railways.
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871:
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soldiers. Kaunas's Jewish population numbered between 35,000 and 40,000; few would survive the
394:
308:
264:
1957:
1951:
1855:
1849:
748:
1653:
2173:
731:
The Ninth Fort, begun in 1903, was the first of its kind in the Empire. The structure was a
2551:
2286:
2203:
923:
859:
792:
725:
373:
330:
307:
began targeting Lithuanian lands at the beginning of the 13th century. Since Lithuania was
2449:
1626:
1062:
937:
was established in the fortress' commandant's headquarters. The barracks were used by the
8:
2439:
2238:
2029:(in Lithuanian), vol. V, Vilnius: Vyriausioji enciklopedijų redakcija, p. 754,
1691:"Country Report on Holocaust Education in Task Force Member Countries - Lithuania - 2006"
701:
171:
2556:
2326:
2321:
2233:
2198:
1983:(in Lithuanian), Vilnius: Generolo Jono Žemaičio Lietuvos karo akademija, p. 186,
356:
Russia's western borders needed support, and fortresses existed or were being built in
321:
2566:
2316:
2291:
2030:
2012:
1984:
1961:
1937:
1919:
1901:
1877:
1859:
1835:
1816:
1803:
1762:
1758:
1400:
1137:
922:
The Headquarters of the Fortress' commandant, currently housing the Headquarters of
342:
295:
had created significant domains by the 1st century, and came into conflict with the
2382:
1798:; Starkauskas, Juozas; Streikus, Arūnas; Tininis, Vytautas; Truska, Liudas (2007),
1795:
1754:
1392:
1163:
862:
on June 22, 1941. German forces entered Kaunas on June 24. The Sixth Fort became a
325:
317:
184:
2377:
2510:
2397:
2392:
2336:
2271:
2178:
1396:
955:
197:
37:
2490:
878:, began massacring the Jewish population. On July 6, acting under orders of the
377:
220:'s western borders, and was designated a "first-class" fortress in 1887. During
2424:
2331:
2183:
979:
887:
834:
773:
338:
304:
292:
217:
63:
1560:
1356:
700:, known as Linkuva; new construction techniques were introduced, particularly
2651:
2633:
2620:
2495:
2470:
2311:
2301:
2296:
2276:
2218:
2208:
2108:
2061:
1766:
906:
The number of deaths at the fortress during World War II vary by source; the
883:
783:
313:
244:
76:
2188:
2034:
918:
2576:
2546:
2387:
2352:
2281:
2266:
2228:
2193:
2057:
360-degree panorama of the 9th Fort Memorial to the victims of World War II
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847:
812:
497:
240:
236:
159:
115:
102:
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2306:
2223:
2213:
2005:
Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire Within East-central Europe, 1295-1345
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816:
761:
738:
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504:
341:. Two major 19th century projects contributed to the city's revival. The
296:
276:
221:
155:
216:. It was constructed and renovated between 1882 and 1915 to protect the
2561:
950:
946:
the ground-level entrenchments of one defensive sector were destroyed.
829:
690:
651:
511:
288:
272:
259:
248:
815:; the Republic's official radio station was based in the fortress; a
1159:Дорога САНКТ - ПЕТЕРБУРГ - ЛУГА - ПСКОВ - РЕЗЕКНЕ - ВИЛЬНЮС – ВАРШАВА
804:
732:
679:
664:
346:
213:
89:
28:
1793:
1497:
337:
at the end of the 18th century, Lithuania was incorporated into the
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705:
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671:
229:
205:
1893:
Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture
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was sold, new owners started the restoration process, since 2009
709:
365:
361:
320:, regulating its autonomy and establishing trade protocols, from
284:
381:
357:
209:
58:
380:
managed to cross the Nemunas near Kaunas on its drive towards
1918:(in Lithuanian), vol. II, Vilnius: Mintis, p. 752,
1022:
717:
713:
280:
1559:(in Lithuanian), Tvirtovių istorijos centras, archived from
855:
391:
386:
300:
2698:
Objects listed in Lithuanian Registry of Cultural Property
1720:, BSR INTERREG III B programme, 2008-05-10, archived from
1391:, NATO Security through Science Series, pp. 127–145,
863:
1743:"Bats of Lithuania: distribution, status and protection"
1386:
1021:(in Lithuanian), Gintaras Česonis, 2004, archived from
879:
351:
rail line linking Saint Petersburg, Warsaw, and Germany
838:
A 32 m (105 ft) tall memorial to the victims
1851:
Bitter Legacy: Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR
1477:(in Lithuanian), Nijolė Steponaitytė, archived from
1876:(in Lithuanian), Kaunas: Arx Baltica, p. 160,
1829:
1230:
1061:. Association of Lithuanian Museums. Archived from
283:, which link Lithuania's interior and its capital,
1625:, Museums of Lithuania, 2006-12-19, archived from
239:, parts of the fortress complex were used by the
2649:
842:Adjustments to the secret protocols of the 1939
674:, usually having five faces, with positions for
1740:
2600:List of Lithuanian Righteous Among the Nations
2091:
1800:Lietuva 1940–1990: okupuotos Lietuvos istorija
1126:
1124:
1122:
247:. Some sections have since been restored; the
2077:
1854:, Indiana: Indiana University Press, p.
933:until 1990. In 1948, the headquarters of the
345:, completed in 1832, linked the Neman to the
1685:
1683:
1352:Brief Historical Overview of Kaunas Fortress
1949:
1830:Cornish, Nik; Karachtchouk, Andrei (2001),
1717:Baltic Culture and Tourism Route Fortresses
1345:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1182:
1119:
397:issued an edict ordering its construction.
267:ordered the construction of Kaunas Fortress
2683:Military installations of the Soviet Union
2668:Buildings and structures completed in 1915
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2070:
1821:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1268:
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1226:
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1222:
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1080:
960:Lithuania re-established its independence
645:was constructed for the fortress garrison
1973:
1847:
1658:(in Lithuanian), Lietuvos muziejai, 2008
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1389:Environmental Security and Public Safety
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258:
2590:Occupation of Lithuania by Nazi Germany
1931:
1913:
1510:
1508:
1506:
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1435:
1320:(in Lithuanian), Fortai, archived from
1263:
1257:
2650:
2430:Lithuanian Auxiliary Police battalions
2024:
2002:
1956:, W. W. Norton & Company, p.
1889:
1802:(in Lithuanian), Kaunas, p. 712,
1674:
1648:
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1613:
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1423:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1355:, INTERREG-project BFR, archived from
1217:
1136:, City of Kaunas, 2007, archived from
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1098:
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1871:
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271:The city of Kaunas is located at the
16:Fortress complex in Kaunas, Lithuania
1517:1940–1944 Timeline–Kovno
1503:
958:occupied most of the fortress until
2027:Lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija
1953:The Tragedy of Great Power Politics
1639:
1610:
1538:
1412:
42:Fortress plan from the 19th century
13:
2663:Buildings and structures in Kaunas
1977:Kauno tvirtovės gynyba 1915 metais
1429:
1317:Iš Kauno tvirtovės fortų istorijos
1299:
1200:
1162:(in Russian), 2008, archived from
1000:
689:One of the longest tunnels in the
14:
2724:
2466:Fareinigte Partizaner Organizacje
2042:
1834:, Osprey Publishing, p. 48,
370:French invasion of Russia in 1812
2693:Holocaust locations in Lithuania
2595:History of the Jews in Lithuania
1759:10.1046/j.1365-2907.1998.00025.x
1741:Pauza, D.H.; N.Pauziene (2002),
1581:"Holocaust Encyclopedia - Kovno"
108:
95:
82:
69:
57:
36:
1786:
1734:
1708:
1668:
1598:
1573:
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1465:
1453:
1251:
1237:(in Lithuanian), archived from
1188:
939:108th Guards Parachute Regiment
823:
800:, named after the 14th century
696:During 1890 work began on the
400:
1832:The Russian Army 1914–18
1585:United States Holocaust Museum
1522:United States Holocaust Museum
1176:
1150:
1133:Kaunas: An Historical Overview
1092:
1047:
1035:
976:Lithuanian Ministry of Culture
908:United States Holocaust Museum
767:
742:Shooting embrasure for cannons
335:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1:
994:
263:An 1879 edict issued by Tsar
254:
1397:10.1007/978-1-4020-5644-4_11
1231:Nijolė Steponaitytė (2007),
944:Kaunas Polytechnic Institute
935:7th Guards Airborne Division
7:
2703:19th-century fortifications
2114:Related articles by country
913:
778:
404:
324:in 1408. An outpost of the
147:Bricks, reinforced concrete
10:
2729:
2678:Military history of Kaunas
2435:Lithuanian Security Police
2093:The Holocaust in Lithuania
2009:Cambridge University Press
1974:Pociūnas, Arvydas (2008),
1950:Mearsheimer, John (2001),
1936:, Routledge, p. 385,
846:assigned Lithuania to the
827:
820:presence of the fortress.
771:
2605:Songs of the Vilna Ghetto
2585:
2532:HKP 562 forced labor camp
2524:
2483:
2458:
2417:
2410:
2345:
2257:
2164:
2157:
2099:
1914:Kviklys, Bronius (1991),
1622:Kaunas' Ninth Fort Museum
1474:Kauno tvirtovė 2007 01 08
931:Soviet Socialist Republic
850:sphere of influence, and
720:. The first bricks for a
415:
412:
407:
188:
151:
143:
135:
127:
122:
52:
47:
35:
26:
21:
2542:Kauen concentration camp
2537:Kailis forced labor camp
2506:Ninth Fort November 1941
1890:Frucht, Richard (2005),
1874:Kauno tvirtovės istorija
1872:Orlov, Vladimir (2007),
1158:
1018:Kauno tvirtovės istorija
969:Museum in the Ninth Fort
787:Reconstructed Ninth Fort
2244:Franz Walter Stahlecker
2052:Gamma-gerät in pictures
1932:Millett, Allan (1987),
1655:Kauno IX forto muziejus
1059:Kaunas' 9th Fort Museum
844:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
802:Grand Duke of Lithuania
722:church that would serve
92:(1918–40, 1990–present)
2708:Kaunas in World War II
2501:Kaunas 29 October 1941
2025:Zinkus, Jonas (1979),
1934:Military Effectiveness
1848:Gitelman, Zvi (1997),
1498:Anušauskas et al. 2007
1055:"Museums of Lithuania"
970:
926:
876:Lithuanian auxiliaries
874:. The Nazis, aided by
872:Holocaust in Lithuania
839:
788:
743:
693:
646:
268:
204:) is the remains of a
201:
175:
2003:Rowell, S.C. (1994),
1324:on September 27, 2007
968:
929:Lithuania remained a
921:
837:
828:Further information:
786:
772:Further information:
741:
688:
641:
519:Start of construction
262:
2673:Castles in Lithuania
2368:Bronislovas Paukštys
2287:Shmerke Kaczerginski
2204:Aleksandras Lileikis
1896:, ABC-CLIO, p.
924:Lithuanian Air Force
860:Germany invaded USSR
726:narrow gauge railway
408:Construction of the
2634:54.8989°N 23.8854°E
2630: /
2440:Rollkommando Hamann
2239:Rudolf Joachim Seck
1065:on 25 December 2007
791:Lithuania regained
749:Pažaislis monastery
702:reinforced concrete
643:The Garrison Church
578:End of construction
275:of two rivers, the
131:19th–20th centuries
2688:Ruins in Lithuania
2557:Marcinkonys Ghetto
2363:Petronėlė Lastienė
2327:Yitzhak Wittenberg
2322:Elchonon Wasserman
2234:Adrian von Renteln
2199:Algirdas Klimaitis
2174:Algimantas Dailidė
1438:, pp. 242–243
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927:
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744:
694:
647:
322:Vytautas the Great
269:
189:Кοвенская крепость
105:(1940–41, 1944–90)
53:Controlled by
2713:World War I sites
2613:
2612:
2572:Švenčionys Ghetto
2479:
2478:
2450:Ypatingasis būrys
2406:
2405:
2317:Abraham Sutzkever
2292:Zelig Kalmanovich
2165:Perpetrators and
1990:978-9955-423-64-5
1925:978-9955-638-97-1
1883:978-9955-638-97-1
1841:978-9955-638-97-1
1809:978-9955-601-47-0
1796:Stankeras, Petras
1406:978-1-4020-5642-0
636:
635:
165:
164:
2720:
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2641:
2640:
2639:54.8989; 23.8854
2635:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2626:
2623:
2496:Kaunas June 1941
2415:
2414:
2162:
2161:
2115:
2105:
2086:
2079:
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1999:
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1946:
1928:
1910:
1886:
1868:
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1826:
1820:
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1781:
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1779:
1778:
1769:, archived from
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1524:, archived from
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1275:, pp. 52–54
1270:
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1249:
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1183:Mearsheimer 2001
1180:
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1116:, pp. 49–54
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410:Kaunas Fortress
405:
326:Hanseatic League
318:Magdeburg rights
196:
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183:
114:
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48:Site information
40:
31:
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2552:Lukiškės Prison
2520:
2475:
2454:
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2398:Jan Zwartendijk
2393:Chiune Sugihara
2341:
2337:Wolf Durmashkin
2272:Alexander Bogen
2259:
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2179:Erich Ehrlinger
2166:
2153:
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2019:
2011:, p. 375,
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2043:External links
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1697:on May 2, 2008
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1556:Kauno tvirtovė
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176:Kauno tvirtovė
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2516:Švenčionėliai
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2471:Paper Brigade
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2312:Ephraim Oshry
2310:
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2302:Rozka Korczak
2300:
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2297:Vitka Kempner
2295:
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2209:Hinrich Lohse
2207:
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2167:collaborators
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2132:
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2110:
2109:The Holocaust
2107:
2102:
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2087:
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2067:
2064:
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2028:
2023:
2020:
2018:0-521-45011-X
2014:
2010:
2007:, Cambridge:
2006:
2001:
1992:
1986:
1979:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1967:0-393-02025-8
1963:
1959:
1955:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1943:0-04-445053-2
1939:
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1907:1-57607-800-0
1903:
1899:
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1867:
1865:0-253-33359-8
1861:
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1833:
1828:
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1818:
1811:
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1797:
1792:
1791:
1773:on 2013-01-05
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1747:Mammal Review
1744:
1737:
1724:on 2007-09-28
1723:
1719:
1718:
1711:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1684:
1677:, p. 201
1676:
1671:
1657:
1656:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1629:on 2007-12-25
1628:
1624:
1623:
1616:
1614:
1607:, p. 208
1606:
1605:Gitelman 1997
1601:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1563:on 2008-06-15
1562:
1558:
1557:
1550:
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1544:
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1527:
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1518:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1499:
1494:
1481:on 2007-09-28
1480:
1476:
1475:
1468:
1461:
1460:Pociūnas 2008
1456:
1449:
1444:
1437:
1432:
1426:, p. 395
1425:
1420:
1418:
1416:
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1373:
1359:on 2011-07-20
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1269:
1267:
1260:, p. 286
1259:
1254:
1241:on 2007-09-28
1240:
1236:
1235:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1213:
1212:Pociūnas 2008
1208:
1206:
1204:
1196:
1191:
1184:
1179:
1166:on 2011-10-05
1165:
1161:
1153:
1140:on 2009-05-23
1139:
1135:
1134:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1115:
1110:
1108:
1101:, p. 128
1100:
1095:
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1038:
1025:on 2011-05-10
1024:
1020:
1019:
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1008:
1006:
1004:
999:
992:
989:
985:
981:
977:
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963:
961:
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952:
949:In 1958, the
947:
945:
940:
936:
932:
925:
920:
911:
909:
904:
901:
895:
893:
889:
885:
884:Kaunas Ghetto
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
836:
831:
821:
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808:
806:
803:
799:
794:
785:
775:
765:
763:
759:
758:Eastern Front
753:
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736:
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729:
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344:
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336:
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327:
323:
319:
315:
310:
306:
302:
298:
297:Scandinavians
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
266:
261:
252:
250:
246:
245:the Holocaust
242:
238:
233:
231:
225:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
202:Festung Kowno
199:
195:
186:
182:
177:
173:
169:
161:
157:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
117:
104:
91:
78:
77:German Empire
65:
60:
55:
51:
46:
39:
34:
30:
25:
20:
2615:
2577:Vilna Ghetto
2547:Kovno Ghetto
2491:Jäger Report
2418:Perpetrators
2388:Anton Schmid
2353:Kazys Binkis
2282:Jay M. Ipson
2267:Chaim Yellin
2249:Martin Weiss
2229:Helmut Rauca
2194:Bruno Kittel
2104:Main article
2026:
2004:
1994:, retrieved
1976:
1952:
1933:
1916:Mūsų Lietuva
1915:
1892:
1873:
1850:
1831:
1799:
1787:Bibliography
1775:, retrieved
1771:the original
1753:(2): 53–68,
1750:
1746:
1736:
1726:, retrieved
1722:the original
1716:
1710:
1699:. Retrieved
1695:the original
1670:
1660:, retrieved
1654:
1631:, retrieved
1627:the original
1621:
1600:
1589:. Retrieved
1587:. 2008-05-20
1575:
1565:, retrieved
1561:the original
1555:
1530:, retrieved
1526:the original
1516:
1500:, p. 61
1493:
1483:, retrieved
1479:the original
1473:
1467:
1462:, p. 18
1455:
1450:, p. 50
1443:
1436:Kviklys 1991
1431:
1388:
1361:, retrieved
1357:the original
1351:
1326:, retrieved
1322:the original
1316:
1296:, p. 15
1258:Millett 1987
1253:
1243:, retrieved
1239:the original
1233:
1214:, p. 14
1197:, p. 34
1190:
1185:, p. 70
1178:
1168:, retrieved
1164:the original
1152:
1142:, retrieved
1138:the original
1132:
1094:
1089:, p. 18
1067:. Retrieved
1063:the original
1058:
1049:
1044:, p. 12
1037:
1027:, retrieved
1023:the original
1017:
988:Seventh fort
984:Seventh fort
972:
948:
928:
905:
900:Adolf Hitler
896:
841:
824:World War II
813:Seventh Fort
809:
797:
790:
754:
745:
730:
695:
669:
648:
510:
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265:Alexander II
241:Nazi Germany
237:World War II
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160:World War II
152:Battles/wars
139:1882–present
123:Site history
116:Nazi Germany
103:Soviet Union
2637: /
2383:Ona Šimaitė
2373:Karl Plagge
2307:Abba Kovner
2258:Victims and
2224:Mike Pasker
2214:Franz Murer
2049:(in German)
1675:Frucht 2005
1424:Zinkus 1979
1114:Rowell 1994
1099:Frucht 2005
892:Aktion 1005
817:gas chamber
768:World War I
762:World War I
698:Eighth fort
672:symmetrical
222:World War I
208:complex in
156:World War I
136:In use
118:(1941–1944)
66:(1882–1915)
2652:Categories
2625:23°53′07″E
2622:54°53′56″N
2562:Ninth Fort
2459:Resistance
2260:resistance
2189:Karl Jäger
1996:2009-05-03
1777:2008-09-28
1728:2008-05-15
1701:2008-09-29
1662:2008-05-15
1633:2008-05-23
1591:2008-09-29
1567:2008-05-20
1532:2008-05-21
1485:2008-05-20
1448:Orlov 2007
1363:2008-05-23
1328:2008-06-12
1294:Orlov 2007
1273:Orlov 2007
1245:2008-05-21
1195:Orlov 2007
1170:2008-05-21
1144:2008-09-28
1087:Orlov 2007
1042:Orlov 2007
1029:2008-06-12
995:References
951:Ninth Fort
830:Ninth Fort
691:Ninth Fort
652:concentric
413:Batteries
331:partitions
289:Baltic Sea
273:confluence
255:Background
249:Ninth Fort
172:Lithuanian
1767:0305-1838
866:camp for
805:Gediminas
798:Gediminas
733:trapezoid
706:casemates
680:artillery
665:Aleksotas
347:Black Sea
287:, to the
214:Lithuania
194:‹See Tfd›
181:‹See Tfd›
144:Materials
90:Lithuania
79:(1915–18)
29:Lithuania
2346:Rescuers
2144:Slovakia
2035:20017802
1817:citation
1069:8 August
914:Post-war
868:Red Army
779:Interwar
676:infantry
661:Panemunė
374:Napoleon
349:, and a
299:and the
230:garrison
206:fortress
2149:Ukraine
2124:Estonia
2119:Belarus
854:by the
760:during
710:Nemunas
372:led by
366:Belarus
362:Ukraine
333:of the
285:Vilnius
235:During
185:Russian
2525:Places
2511:Ponary
2484:Events
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2158:People
2139:Russia
2134:Poland
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848:Soviet
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1981:(PDF)
714:Neris
657:Freda
632:1911
629:~1907
573:1903
301:Slavs
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277:Neman
228:as a
128:Built
2031:OCLC
2013:ISBN
1985:ISBN
1962:ISBN
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1878:ISBN
1860:ISBN
1836:ISBN
1823:link
1804:ISBN
1763:ISSN
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1071:2011
954:the
856:USSR
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626:1889
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528:1883
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505:VIII
457:VIII
392:Tsar
387:Riga
279:and
1958:555
1898:928
1856:332
1755:doi
1393:doi
864:POW
498:VII
477:III
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1960:,
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