2106:, difficult to interpret. Most of these materials come from Silla, whose language is generally believed to be ancestral to all extant Korean varieties. There is no agreement on the relationship of Sillan to the languages of the other kingdoms. The issue is politically charged in Korea, with scholars who point out differences being accused by nationalists of trying to "divide the homeland". Apart from placenames, whose interpretation is controversial, data on the languages of Goguryeo and Baekje is extremely sparse.
1921:
207:
2072:
6063:
1626:
462:
1902:. Evidence for the earlier linguistic history of the Korean peninsula is extremely sparse. Various proposals have been based on archaeological and ethnological theories and vague references in early Chinese histories. There is a tendency in Korea to assume that all languages formerly spoken on the peninsula were early forms of Korean, but the evidence indicates much greater linguistic variety in the past.
129:
2145:. These authors suggest that the place names reflect the languages of those states rather than that of Goguryeo. This would explain why they seem to reflect multiple language groups. It is generally agreed that these glosses demonstrate that Japonic languages were once spoken in part of the Korean peninsula, but there is no consensus on the identity of the speakers.
342:. The two standards have phonetic and lexical differences. Many loanwords have been purged from the North Korean standard, while South Korea has expanded Sino-Korean vocabulary and adopted loanwords, especially from English. Nonetheless, due to its origin in the Seoul dialect, the North Korean standard language is easily intelligible to all South Koreans.
518:– populated by immigrants from southeastern Korea. The speech of their descendents is thus markedly distinct from other Hamgyong dialects, and preserves many archaisms. In particular, Yukchin was unaffected by the palatalization found in most other dialects. About 10 percent of Korean speakers in central Asia use the Yukchin dialect.
1789:
is no longer considered evidence of a genetic relationship. While many cognates are found between adjacent groups, few are attested across all three. The proposed sound correspondences have also been criticized for invoking too many phonemes, such as the four phonemes that are said to have merged as
1797:
In any case, most of the proposed matches with Korean were from the neighbouring
Tungusic group. A detailed comparison of Korean and Tungusic was published by Kim Dongso in 1981, but it has been criticized for teleological reconstructions, failing to distinguish loanwords and poor semantic matches,
1070:
The Late Middle Korean script assigns to each syllable one of three pitch contours: low (unmarked), high (one dot) or rising (two dots). The rising tone may have been longer in duration, and is believed to be secondary, arising from a contraction of a syllable with low pitch with one of high pitch.
1931:
Chinese histories provide the only contemporaneous descriptions of peoples of the Korean peninsula and eastern
Manchuria in the early centuries of the common era. They contain impressionistic remarks about the customs and languages of the area based on second-hand reports, and sometimes contradict
1776:
of later
Chinese sources. South Korean culture-historians tended to project contemporary Korean homogeneity into the distant past, assuming that a preformed Korean people arrived in the peninsula from elsewhere, ignoring the possibility of local evolution and interaction. However, no evidence of
2119:
and compiled in 1145 from earlier records that are no longer extant. This chapter surveys the part of
Goguryeo annexed by Silla, listing pronunciations and meanings of placenames, from which a vocabulary of 80 to 100 words has been extracted. Although the pronunciations recorded using
1862:. He suggests that the former group represent early loans from Korean, and that Old Japanese morphemes should not be assigned a Japonic origin unless they are also attested in Southern Ryukyuan or Eastern Old Japanese, which reduces the proposed cognates to fewer than a dozen.
1827:
However, Koreanic and
Japonic have a long history of interaction, which may explain their grammatical similarities and makes it difficult to distinguish inherited cognates from ancient loanwords. Most linguists studying the Japonic family believe that it was brought to the
2136:
words. Scholars who take these words as representing the language of
Goguryeo have come to a range of conclusions about the language, some holding that it was Koreanic, others that it was Japonic, and others that it was somehow intermediate between the three families.
1784:
Moreover, most comparativists no longer accept the core Altaic family itself, even without Korean, believing most of the commonalities to be the result of prolonged contact. The shared features turned out to be rather common among languages across the world, and
278:
alphabet in the 15th century (the Late Middle Korean period). Earlier forms, written with
Chinese characters using a variety of strategies, are much more obscure. The key sources on Early Middle Korean (10th to 14th centuries) are a Chinese text, the
1593:
Most modern varieties (except Jeju and a few northern dialects) have a form of accent, marked by vowel length in central dialects and pitch in the northeast and southeast. The position of this accent is determined by the first high pitch syllable in
874:
found that this proposed shift followed different principles to all the other chain shifts he surveyed. The philological evidence for the shift has also been challenged. An analysis based on Sino-Korean readings leads to a more conservative system:
408:
also shows the influence of
Japanese, for example in a reduced vowel system and some grammatical simplification. Korean-speakers are also found throughout the world, for example in North America, where Seoul Korean is the accepted standard.
2301:
Traditional histories give founding dates for Baekje and Silla of 18 BC and 57 BC respectively, and these dates are repeated in textbooks, but archaeological and documentary evidence indicates that these kingdoms were founded in the 4th
2013:, who were described in quite different terms from Buyeo and Goguryeo. The Mahan were said to have a different language from Jinhan, but the two accounts differ on the relationship between the languages of Byeonhan and Jinhan, with the
2036:
groups. Lee originally proposed that these were two branches of a
Koreanic language family, a view that was widely adopted by scholars in Korea. He later argued that the Puyŏ languages were intermediate between Korean and Japanese.
475:
The
Yukchin dialect, spoken in the northernmost part of Korea and adjacent areas in China, forms a dialect island separate from neighbouring northeastern dialects, and is sometimes considered a separate language. When King
2140:
Other authors point out that most of the place names come from central Korea, an area captured by Goguryeo from Baekje and other states in the 5th century, and none from the historical homeland of Goguryeo north of the
372:
The speech of Koreans in the Russian Far East was described by Russian scholars such as Mikhail Putsillo, who compiled a dictionary in 1874. Some 250,000 Koreans lived in the area in the 1930s, when Stalin had them
5839:
Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives: An Introduction to the Historical-Comparative Study of the Japanese-Koguryoic Languages with a Preliminary Description of Archaic Northeastern Middle
2095:, referring to Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla (Gaya was absorbed by Silla in the 6th century). The period ended in the late 7th century, when Silla conquered the other kingdoms in alliance with the Chinese
1126:
Old Korean pronouns were written with the Chinese characters for the corresponding Chinese pronouns, so their pronunciation must be inferred from Middle Korean forms. The known personal pronouns are *
214:
The various forms of Korean are conventionally described as "dialects" of a single Korean language, but breaks in intelligibility justify viewing them as a small family of two or three languages.
4875:[A study of the historical relationship of the Koguryo language, the Old Japanese language, and the Middle Korean language on the basis of fragmentary glosses preserved as place names in the
5518:——— (2013b), "Mongolian names for 'Korea' and 'Korean' and their significance for the history of the Korean language", in Sohn, Sung-Ock; Cho, Sungdai; You, Seok-Hoon (eds.),
5281:
Park, Hae Woon; Wee, Kaya (2016), "The Nationalistic Trend in South Korean Archaeology: Documenting the Development of a Unilinear Evolutionary Trajectory of a Homogeneous Korean Peoples",
1717:. However, none of these attempts has succeeded in demonstrating a common descent for Koreanic and any other language family. Larger proposed groupings subsuming these hypotheses, such as
1697:
Northeast Asia is home to several relatively shallow language families. There have been several attempts to link Korean with other language families, with the most-favoured being "
7222:
2215:
syllables, which are restricted to the form (C)V, limiting the precision of the transcription. About half of them appear to be Koreanic. Based on these words and a passage in the
2203:
was the same as that of Goguryeo. According to Korean traditional history, the kingdom of Baekje was founded by immigrants from Goguryeo who took over Mahan. The Japanese history
447:
states was not found in the standard speech of that time, but did occur in some dialects. This suggests that Jeju diverged from other dialects some time before the 15th century.
1802:, rather than reconstructed proto-Tungusic. Many of the best matches are found only in Manchu and closely related languages, and thus could be the result of language contact.
1824:, John Whitman and others have proposed hundreds of possible cognates, with sound correspondences. Most of the shared words concern the natural environment and agriculture.
1777:
these migrations has been found, and archaeologists now believe that the Korean peninsula and adjacent areas of eastern Manchuria have been continuously occupied since the
4729:
2045:
argue that the Han languages were Japonic, and were replaced by Koreanic Puyŏ languages in the 4th century. Some authors believe that the Puyŏ languages belong to the
1118:
suffixes. In contrast, Old Korean verb stems could be used independently, particularly in verb-verb compounds, where the first verb was typically an uninflected root.
1079:
system. In the proto-language, accent was probably not distinctive for verbs, but may have been for nouns, though with a preference for accent on the final syllable.
748:. There is some disagreement over whether aspirates were already a distinct series in the Old Korean period. However, it seems clear that the process began with *
2079:
As Chinese power ebbed in the early 4th century, centralized states arose on the peninsula. The Lelang commandery was overrun by Goguryeo in 314. In the south,
1990:
to the northeast. The latter language is completely unattested, but is believed, on the basis of the description of the people and their location, to have been
1820:
in 1879. The phoneme inventories of the two proto-languages are similar, with a single series of obstruents, a single liquid consonant and six or seven vowels.
427:
is not mutually intelligible with standard Korean, suggesting that it should be treated as a separate language. Jeju features a back central unrounded vowel
1843:
and other evidence suggest that Japonic languages persisted in central and southwestern parts of the peninsula into the early centuries of the common era.
1880:
in 1905 and explored by Morgan Clippinger in 1984, but has attracted little interest since the 1980s. There have also been proposals to link Korean with
299:, mid-13th century). During this period, Korean absorbed a huge number of Chinese loanwords, affecting all aspects of the language. It is estimated that
190:
were spoken in central and southern parts of the peninsula. There have been many attempts to link Koreanic with other language families, most often with
186:(late 7th century) comes largely from placenames. Some of these languages are believed to have been Koreanic, but there is also evidence suggesting that
1963:(5th century) contain parallel accounts of peoples neighbouring the commanderies, apparently both based on a survey carried out by the Chinese state of
6517:
804:, respectively. These fricatives have disappeared in most modern dialects, but some dialects in the southeast and northeast (including Yukchin) retain
1756:
The Altaic theory was incorporated into the influential two-wave migration model of Korean ethnic history proposed in the 1970s by the archaeologist
2221:(636), Kōno Rokurō argued that the kingdom of Baekje was bilingual, with the gentry speaking a Puyŏ language and the common people a Han language.
247:. This area is usually divided into five or six dialect zones following provincial boundaries, with Yanbian dialects included in the northeastern
5716:
Yang, Changyong; O'Grady, William; Yang, Sejung; Hilton, Nanna; Kang, Sang-Gu; Kim, So-Young (2018), Brunn, Stanley D.; Kehrein, Roland (eds.),
9327:
1760:, who attributed cultural transitions in prehistoric Korea to migrations of distinct ethnic groups from the north. The appearance of Neolithic
6555:
1582:
contrast. Korean also resembles Japonic and Ainu in having a single liquid consonant, while its continental neighbours tend to distinguish
2211:, compiled in the early 8th century from earlier documents, including some from Baekje, records 42 Baekje words. These are transcribed as
404:
are descendants of immigrants during the Japanese occupation. Most Korean-language schools in Japan follow the North Korean standard. The
7429:
7272:
5332:
Serafim, Leon A. (2008), "The uses of Ryukyuan in understanding Japanese language history", in Frellesvig, Bjarke; Whitman, John (eds.),
827:
does not occur initially in native words, a typological characteristic shared with "Altaic" languages. Some, but not all, occurrences of
526:
Koreanic is a relatively shallow language family. Modern varieties show limited variation, most of which can be treated as derived from
9462:
6490:
374:
1798:
leaving too few comparisons to establish correspondences. Much of this work relies on comparisons with modern languages, particularly
6512:
5889:
7212:
5264:
Constructing "Korean" Origins: A Critical Review of Archaeology, Historiography, and Racial Myth in Korean State-formation Theories
5801:
Byington, Mark E. (2006), "Christopher I. Beckwith—Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives (Leiden: Brill, 2004)",
733:
consonants of modern Korean arose from clusters of consonants, becoming phonemically distinct after the Late Middle Korean period.
9590:
6507:
5825:
5782:
5763:
5744:
5725:
5706:
5655:
5575:
5546:
5527:
5487:
5452:
5430:
5398:
5379:
5360:
5341:
5322:
5271:
5252:
5220:
5201:
5182:
5160:
5141:
5122:
5022:
5003:
4917:
4861:
4831:
4812:
4786:
4756:
4718:
4672:
2025:(州胡) people on a large island to the west of Mahan (possibly Jeju) were described as speaking a different language to Mahan.
1854:
contains several pairs of words of similar meaning in which one word matches a Korean form, while the other is also found in
155:
languages. The latter is often described as a dialect of Korean but is distinct enough to be considered a separate language.
8842:
8423:
4928:
2058:
1837:
366:
236:
8952:
5608:——— (2011), "Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan",
389:. There are small Korean communities scattered throughout central Asia maintaining forms of Korean known collectively as
1816:
Scholars outside of Korea have given greater attention to possible links with Japonic, which were first investigated by
163:
of the far northeast should be similarly distinguished. Korean has been richly documented since the introduction of the
7924:
5537:——— (2013c), "Northeastern and Central Asia: 'Altaic' linguistic history", in Bellwood, Peter (ed.),
1064:
195:
5242:
1733:
The Altaic proposal, grouping Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic, emerged in the 19th century as a residue when the larger
9109:
6296:
5598:
5241:
Nelson, Sara M. (1995), "The Politics of Ethnicity in Prehistoric Korea", in Kohl, Philip L.; Fawcett, Clare (eds.),
1811:
1846:
The early Japanese state received many cultural innovations via Korea, which may also have influenced the language.
9085:
8324:
7295:
6548:
5497:——— (2013a), "From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean",
8243:
8179:
7422:
4709:
Brown, Lucien; Yeon, Jaehoon (2015), "Varieties of contemporary Korean", in Brown, Lucien; Yeon, Jaehoon (eds.),
953:
7137:
7125:
9455:
8856:
8098:
6372:
6098:
6084:
1893:
8607:
4871:
Itabashi, Yoshizo (2003), "Kōkuri no chimei kara Kōkurigo to Chōsengo/Nihongo to no shiteki kankei wo saguru"
9322:
8969:
8104:
7929:
7715:
7709:
7633:
7352:
7342:
7337:
7202:
7030:
6814:
6809:
5882:
1953:
1035:
1028:
1015:
922:
530:(15th century). The few exceptions indicate a date of divergence only a few centuries earlier, following the
252:
9332:
9317:
9016:
8317:
8304:
8075:
8036:
7357:
7327:
7182:
5421:
Tranter, Nicholas (2012), "Introduction: typology and area in Japan and Korea", in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.),
977:
664:
346:
1791:
1587:
1583:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1526:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1488:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1450:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1412:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1374:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1336:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1298:
1294:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1256:
1252:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1214:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1176:
1172:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1104:
1050:
832:
828:
821:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
782:
775:
768:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
436:
428:
349:, people emigrated from the northern parts of the peninsula to eastern Manchuria and the southern part of
268:
264:
260:
9595:
9585:
9312:
9306:
9091:
8364:
8282:
8255:
7959:
7949:
7305:
7207:
6646:
6541:
6377:
2165:
2161:
1746:
1610:
910:
674:
9605:
8878:
8539:
8336:
8134:
7994:
7964:
7954:
7944:
7650:
7415:
6974:
5315:
Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, late Middle Chinese, and early Mandarin
4890:] (in Japanese), vol. 31, Kyoto: International Center for Japanese Studies, pp. 131–185,
2028:
Based on this text, Lee Ki-Moon divided the languages spoken on the Korean peninsula at that time into
1598:. A similar pitch accent is found in Japonic and Ainu languages, but not Tungusic, Mongolic or Turkic.
1055:
998:
714:
631:
623:
9600:
9448:
9290:
9097:
9073:
9048:
9021:
9004:
8014:
7969:
7939:
7912:
7483:
7438:
7372:
7367:
7362:
7230:
7152:
7147:
6803:
6789:
6564:
6335:
2242:
1734:
1026:
639:
542:
to Middle Korean, supplemented with philological analysis of the fragmentary records of Old Korean.
9337:
9144:
8781:
8769:
8601:
7663:
7656:
7472:
7197:
7142:
6913:
6743:
6632:
6242:
6206:
5875:
5640:
1940:
1871:
1111:
1071:
Pitch levels after the first high or rising tone were not distinctive, so that Middle Korean had a
934:
405:
9559:
8342:
8267:
7670:
7620:
7011:
6906:
6856:
6835:
6826:
6708:
6625:
6585:
6362:
6345:
4660:
2268:
2238:
2092:
1765:
1753:. Many cognates have been proposed, and attempts have been made to reconstruct a proto-language.
647:
539:
485:
6274:
5691:
9356:
9204:
8999:
8775:
8728:
8358:
8275:
7934:
7918:
7726:
7627:
7490:
7466:
7167:
7162:
6927:
6899:
6890:
6849:
6522:
6500:
6349:
1881:
1761:
1742:
1602:
300:
8994:
9554:
9549:
9402:
9300:
8989:
8792:
8582:
8571:
8533:
8140:
8114:
8019:
8009:
7692:
7608:
7459:
7319:
7192:
7172:
6920:
6715:
6653:
6367:
5566:
1959:
1072:
703:
691:
598:
590:
442:
435:), but has merged with other vowels in mainland dialects. Jeju also features the combination
397:, descended from people forcibly transferred to the Japanese part of the island before 1945.
338:, despite the North Korean claim that their standard is based on the speech of their capital
244:
9103:
8828:
2164:
order (as found in Korean and other northeast Asian languages) instead of the usual Chinese
1781:. The projection of the Yemaek back to this period has also been criticized as unjustified.
307:(6th to early 10th centuries) is even more sparsely attested, mostly by inscriptions and 14
9377:
9134:
8942:
8915:
8898:
8866:
8764:
8478:
8403:
8330:
8109:
8086:
8058:
7989:
7900:
7681:
7300:
7290:
7280:
7130:
6984:
6797:
6681:
6431:
6421:
5617:
5440:
5310:
2168:
order, and particles 之 and 伊, for which some authors have proposed Korean interpretations.
2042:
2006:
1859:
1829:
1817:
1738:
1722:
9262:
8:
9154:
9058:
8958:
8947:
8909:
8888:
8786:
8745:
8520:
8502:
8496:
8471:
8464:
8457:
8370:
8353:
8092:
7758:
7745:
7639:
7589:
7446:
7347:
7120:
7105:
7040:
6842:
6764:
6674:
6667:
6618:
6576:
6330:
6127:
1786:
1718:
1567:
1046:
737:
655:
378:
6173:
5621:
5408:
Toh, Soo Hee (2005), "About Early Paekche language mistaken as being Koguryŏ language",
2049:
family. Others believe that there is insufficient evidence to support a classification.
1986:
only slightly different from them. Their languages were said to differ from that of the
248:
9495:
9490:
9068:
9063:
9053:
9036:
9031:
9026:
9010:
8979:
8974:
8927:
8921:
8872:
8817:
8740:
8624:
8588:
8549:
8491:
8298:
8293:
8004:
7763:
7732:
7698:
7645:
7520:
7081:
7035:
6945:
6940:
6301:
6150:
5298:
5170:
2182:(6th century) that appear to have Korean etymologies, as well as Koreanic loanwords in
2176:
was the ancestor of Koreanic, citing a few Goguryeo words in Chinese texts such as the
2125:
2121:
2103:
2046:
2010:
1991:
1855:
1821:
1769:
1706:
1702:
1658:
1649:
1076:
608:
566:
561:
527:
303:
makes up more than half of the Korean lexicon, but only about 10% of basic vocabulary.
191:
168:
9165:
9128:
5754:
Yeon, Jaehoon (2012), "Korean dialects: a general survey", in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.),
1063:
reflects an eighth Proto-Korean vowel, based on its high frequency and an analysis of
118:
9505:
9079:
8984:
8964:
8903:
8883:
8594:
8555:
8526:
8514:
8451:
8397:
8375:
8348:
8288:
8261:
8080:
8041:
8031:
7999:
7872:
7798:
7780:
7774:
7676:
7594:
7508:
7285:
7262:
7257:
7235:
7177:
6955:
6878:
6771:
6446:
6411:
6406:
5965:
5906:
5821:
5778:
5759:
5740:
5721:
5702:
5651:
5594:
5571:
5542:
5523:
5483:
5448:
5426:
5394:
5375:
5356:
5337:
5318:
5302:
5267:
5248:
5216:
5197:
5178:
5156:
5137:
5118:
5074:——— (1992), "Archaisms and Innovations in Soviet Korean dialects",
5018:
4999:
4913:
4857:
4827:
4808:
4782:
4714:
4668:
2173:
2157:
2116:
2062:
2002:
1944:
1714:
1675:
1579:
1041:
1021:
965:
866:, Lee Ki-Moon argued for a Korean Vowel Shift between the 13th and 15th centuries, a
571:
327:
232:
187:
96:
9170:
9159:
9139:
7477:
5928:
2029:
1911:
788:. These occurred only in limited environments, and are believed to have arisen from
431:, which also appears in standard 15th-century texts (written with the Hangul letter
9485:
9471:
9387:
9247:
9237:
9232:
9186:
9180:
9149:
9042:
8937:
8861:
8799:
8751:
8686:
8679:
8672:
8665:
8658:
8647:
8631:
8566:
8561:
8544:
8485:
8379:
8311:
8222:
8189:
8157:
8053:
8025:
7974:
7895:
7879:
7865:
7847:
7840:
7826:
7786:
7768:
7752:
7738:
7560:
7543:
7247:
7240:
7187:
7115:
7110:
7067:
7060:
6990:
6934:
6872:
6778:
6750:
6736:
6722:
6639:
6611:
6599:
6592:
6400:
6178:
6145:
5985:
5853:
5678:
5625:
5561:
5506:
5290:
5083:
5060:
5037:
4891:
4695:
2183:
2149:
2148:
A small number of inscriptions have been found in Goguryeo, the earliest being the
2133:
2084:
1778:
1710:
1698:
1640:
1088:
859:
499:
477:
401:
362:
354:
331:
133:
Current extent of Koreanic as majority and minority (dashed) languages in East Asia
9227:
9175:
8167:
9382:
9257:
9242:
9211:
8932:
8893:
8758:
8704:
8576:
8438:
8204:
8199:
8064:
7979:
7860:
7853:
7833:
7815:
7720:
7703:
7502:
7074:
7025:
6979:
6862:
6757:
6729:
6688:
6605:
6469:
6426:
6416:
6183:
6132:
6110:
6032:
5950:
5898:
5462:
2187:
2169:
2153:
2129:
2066:
2038:
1847:
1799:
1092:
576:
550:
A relatively simple inventory of consonants is reconstructed for Proto-Koreanic:
503:
228:
223:
156:
148:
144:
87:
69:
49:
43:
5836:
5520:
Studies in Korean Linguistics and Language Pedagogy: Festschrift for Ho-min Sohn
4943:
4929:"A Contextual Approach to the Convergence and Divergence of Korean and Japanese"
1574:
stops and affricates, but Proto-Korean is reconstructed with a single set, like
345:
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in response to poor harvests and the
9541:
9392:
9252:
9221:
9192:
8823:
8709:
8692:
8642:
8637:
8508:
8445:
8215:
8209:
8129:
8124:
8070:
8047:
7792:
7614:
7571:
7554:
7548:
7526:
7514:
7252:
7020:
6533:
6391:
6286:
6155:
5975:
5970:
5955:
5465:(2005), "Koguryŏ and Paekche: different languages or dialects of Old Korean?",
5231:
2264:
1924:
Chinese commanderies (in purple) and their eastern neighbours mentioned in the
1741:
in 1924, and others later added Japanese. The languages share features such as
1684:
1033:
have a limited distribution in Late Middle Korean, suggesting that unaccented *
616:
515:
481:
350:
160:
79:
5630:
5294:
4962:
847:
suggest that Old Korean probably had two sounds corresponding to later Korean
843:
837:
9579:
9564:
9276:
9216:
9198:
8714:
8698:
8652:
8409:
8229:
8194:
8184:
8162:
8119:
7984:
7565:
7497:
6454:
6264:
6188:
5995:
5960:
5923:
5110:
4905:
4845:
4774:
2195:
2142:
2033:
1948:
1920:
1915:
1899:
1877:
1833:
1595:
1575:
1100:
891:
871:
682:
531:
507:
456:
418:
256:
182:. What little is known of other languages spoken on the peninsula before the
152:
74:
7407:
725:
Many of the consonants in later forms of Korean are secondary developments:
274:
Korean is extensively and precisely documented from the introduction of the
9531:
8173:
7157:
6965:
6699:
6436:
6357:
6216:
5803:
5586:
5585:
Whitman, John (1990), "A rule of medial *-r- loss in pre-Old Japanese", in
4991:
4841:
2217:
2212:
2096:
1851:
1757:
1750:
1614:
282:
5682:
5510:
4682:
Bentley, John R. (2000), "A new look at Paekche and Korean: data from the
1932:
one another. The later Korean histories lack any discussion of languages.
6165:
6119:
6092:
6078:
5858:
2206:
2178:
2111:
1936:
903:
886:
867:
495:
424:
318:
183:
855:
in Middle Korean, and may reflect an earlier cluster with an obstruent.
9526:
9521:
7820:
7332:
7051:
7001:
6867:
6323:
5980:
5938:
5445:
The role of contact in the origins of the Japanese and Korean languages
5088:
5065:
4978:
Janhunen, Juha; Kho, Songmoo (1982), "Is Korean related to Tungusic?",
4700:
2284:(韓) is unrelated to the Chinese Han dynasty, but is analysed as Korean
2102:
Linguistic evidence from these states is sparse and, being recorded in
2071:
1979:
1832:
from the Korean peninsula around 700–300 BC by wet-rice farmers of the
1606:
1115:
989:
896:
583:
386:
382:
304:
206:
175:
5042:
4896:
6318:
6224:
4853:
2701:
1571:
946:
730:
390:
358:
339:
315:
songs composed between the 7th and 9th centuries and recorded in the
111:
36:
9440:
5773:
Yi, Seonbok (2014), "Korea: archaeology", in Bellwood, Peter (ed.),
4613:
3654:
1578:
and Ainu, but unlike Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic, which feature a
6495:
6062:
4589:
2237:
Nam Pung-hyun considers Old Korean as spanning the period from the
2124:
are difficult to interpret, some of these words appear to resemble
2091:
arose from Mahan, Byeonhan and Jinhan respectively. Thus began the
1982:
were described as speaking similar languages, with the language of
1968:
1625:
1566:
Modern Koreanic varieties have a three-way contrast between plain,
789:
511:
394:
357:. Korean labourers were forcibly moved to Manchuria as part of the
5867:
5556:——— (2017), "Origins of the Japanese Language",
3738:
1772:
migration of the ancestral Korean population, identified with the
6568:
6459:
6313:
5097:
Kōno, Rokurō (1987), "The bilingualism of the Paekche language",
4963:"Reconstructing the Language Map of Prehistorical Northeast Asia"
3367:
2109:
The most widely cited evidence for Goguryeo is chapter 37 of the
1964:
835:. Distinctions in the phonographic use of the Chinese characters
330:
of North and South Korea are both based primarily on the central
310:
167:
alphabet in the 15th century. Earlier renditions of Korean using
7009:
5211:
Nam, Pung-hyun (2012), "Old Korean", in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.),
4124:
3536:
3534:
3519:
1794:
is said to result from the merger of four proto-Altaic liquids.
9416:
Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
9397:
9295:
6660:
6291:
4805:
Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Minority language volume
2530:
2528:
2200:
2160:, but feature some irregularities, including occasional use of
2080:
1998:
1773:
275:
164:
4202:
461:
6308:
6234:
6198:
4409:
3909:
3834:
3750:
3558:
3531:
2088:
1987:
1983:
1975:
535:
335:
240:
179:
32:
3974:
3444:
3214:
3190:
2998:
2725:
2689:
2677:
2525:
1737:
grouping was abandoned. Korean was added to the proposal by
243:, though dialects at opposite ends of the continuum are not
235:
stretching from the southern end of the Korean peninsula to
6464:
5115:
Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors
5051:
King, J. R. P. (1987), "An introduction to Soviet Korean",
4798:
Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Shǎoshù mínzú yǔyán juǎn
4553:
4517:
4505:
4469:
4279:
4277:
4250:
4226:
4190:
4168:
4166:
4141:
4139:
4102:
4100:
4075:
4073:
3822:
3786:
3774:
3762:
3642:
3582:
3483:
3154:
2595:
2593:
2591:
740:
of Middle and modern Korean also arose from clusters with *
538:. Thus proto-Koreanic is reconstructed largely by applying
128:
5480:
Korea-Japonica: A Re-evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin
5194:
Consonant Lenition in Korean and the Macro-Altaic Question
4996:
Recent Archaeological Discoveries in the Republic of Korea
4730:"Comparison of Texts between the Accounts of Han 韓 in the
4493:
4289:
3940:
3938:
3936:
3702:
3495:
3289:
3118:
3094:
3058:
2911:
2827:
2501:
2453:
2371:
2369:
5715:
5013:
Kim, Nam-Kil (1987), "Korean", in Comrie, Bernard (ed.),
4998:, Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, UNESCO,
4565:
4421:
3897:
3810:
3046:
2901:
2899:
2742:
2740:
2707:
858:
Late Middle Korean had seven vowels. Based on loans from
5735:
Yang, Changyong; Yang, Sejung; O'Grady, William (2019),
5230:
National Geography Information Institute (NGII) (2017),
4529:
4457:
4445:
4274:
4163:
4136:
4097:
4070:
3998:
3873:
3355:
3333:
3331:
3255:
3253:
3226:
3166:
3106:
3082:
2976:
2974:
2884:
2860:
2850:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2815:
2713:
2588:
2489:
2441:
1898:
All modern varieties are descended from the language of
5236:, Seoul: Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport.
5034:
Adoption of Aspiration Feature in Sino-Korean Phonology
4433:
4325:
4238:
4085:
4046:
4022:
3962:
3933:
3885:
3798:
3726:
3714:
3606:
3546:
3471:
3461:
3459:
3422:
3420:
3418:
3343:
3316:
3202:
3178:
3034:
3022:
2986:
2923:
2803:
2764:
2641:
2629:
2605:
2564:
2540:
2366:
2354:
2320:
2318:
1768:
group, while the arrival of bronze was attributed to a
4665:
Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives
4637:
4397:
4373:
4151:
4112:
4010:
3986:
3950:
3921:
3861:
3690:
3666:
3618:
3570:
3306:
3304:
3142:
3130:
3070:
2959:
2935:
2896:
2781:
2779:
2737:
2665:
2617:
2417:
1087:
Korean uses several postnominal particles to indicate
1059:. Some authors have proposed that Late Middle Korean
767:
Late Middle Korean had a series of voiced fricatives,
5244:
Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology
4625:
4541:
4481:
4337:
3851:
3849:
3507:
3432:
3328:
3250:
2971:
2839:
2552:
5099:
Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko
4888:
Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese Language
4301:
3456:
3415:
3403:
3391:
3379:
3277:
3238:
2405:
2381:
2315:
2115:, a history of the Three Kingdoms period written in
93:
84:
5734:
5317:, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press,
4879:], in Vovin, Alexander; Osada, Toshiki (eds.),
4807:] (in Chinese), Beijing: The Commercial Press,
4601:
4385:
4361:
4349:
4313:
4214:
4058:
4034:
3630:
3594:
3373:
3301:
3265:
2872:
2791:
2776:
2752:
2653:
2576:
1601:Like other languages in northeast Asia, Korean has
4796:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) (2012),
4577:
4178:
3846:
3678:
3010:
2477:
2465:
2429:
2393:
1620:
5036:(PhD thesis), Seattle: University of Washington,
4262:
2513:
2342:
2330:
9577:
6563:
5247:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 218–231,
4844:(2017), "Other isolated languages of Asia", in
2947:
2099:and then expelled the Tang from the peninsula.
259:accent, vowels, voiced fricatives, word-medial
6518:North–South differences in the Korean language
5641:"The relationship between Japanese and Korean"
4727:
4208:
4130:
2204:
1561:
9456:
7437:
7423:
6549:
5883:
5017:, Oxford University Press, pp. 881–898,
4773:
3756:
3744:
3540:
3525:
1939:conquered northern Korea and established the
1905:
1531:
1493:
1455:
1417:
1379:
1341:
1303:
1261:
1219:
1181:
879:Old Korean vowels and Middle Korean reflexes
280:
9426:Families with more than 30 languages are in
7393:Families with more than 30 languages are in
5522:, Korea University Press, pp. 200–206,
2075:The Korean peninsula in the late 5th century
1876:A link with Dravidian was first proposed by
1629:Larger language families of northeast Asia:
489:
466:
440:
316:
308:
294:
288:
174:All modern varieties are descended from the
5737:Jejueo: The Language of Korea's Jeju Island
5718:Handbook of the Changing World Language Map
5558:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
5309:
4977:
4779:Language Classification: History and Method
3792:
3349:
1951:and lasted until 314 AD. Chapter 30 of the
1053:in accented initial position or following *
9463:
9449:
7430:
7416:
6556:
6542:
6491:International Circle of Korean Linguistics
5890:
5876:
5697:, in Brown, Lucien; Yeon, Jaehoon (eds.),
5355:(2nd ed.), Rowman & Littlefield,
4821:
3816:
3232:
3160:
2375:
484:from what is now the northernmost part of
369:, where the language has official status.
287:(1103–1104), and the pharmacological work
6513:National Institute of the Korean Language
5857:
5739:, Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press,
5629:
5565:
5393:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
5150:
5131:
5087:
5064:
5041:
4895:
4708:
4699:
4535:
4523:
4511:
4475:
4463:
4451:
4427:
4415:
4283:
4232:
4196:
4172:
4145:
4106:
4079:
4052:
4004:
3828:
3780:
3768:
3612:
3588:
3501:
3450:
3361:
3322:
3220:
3196:
3172:
3100:
3088:
3040:
3004:
2992:
2929:
2917:
2866:
2833:
2731:
2695:
2683:
2599:
2534:
2507:
2495:
2459:
2447:
1957:(late 3rd century) and Chapter 85 of the
1790:*y in proto-Turkic. Similarly, Koreanic *
5775:The Global Prehistory of Human Migration
5593:, Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 511–545,
5539:The Global Prehistory of Human Migration
5447:, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
5151:Lee, Ki-Moon; Ramsey, S. Robert (2011),
4960:
4926:
4904:
4870:
4728:Byington, Mark E.; Barnes, Gina (2014),
4659:
4499:
4487:
4331:
3956:
3915:
3879:
3489:
2809:
2671:
2623:
2070:
2052:
1947:, which was centred on the basin of the
1919:
1624:
460:
205:
5689:
5664:
5638:
5607:
5584:
5467:Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies
5420:
5410:Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies
5331:
5280:
5117:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell,
4681:
4619:
4559:
4439:
4256:
3944:
3927:
3891:
3840:
3804:
3732:
3648:
3552:
3465:
3426:
3337:
3295:
3259:
3148:
3136:
3124:
3076:
3064:
2980:
2941:
2905:
2890:
2854:
2821:
2746:
1114:that cannot appear without one or more
851:. The second of these is often spelled
488:in 1434, he established six garrisons (
393:. There is also a Korean population on
9578:
6508:List of English words of Korean origin
5567:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.277
5536:
5517:
5496:
5240:
5191:
5169:
5132:Lee, Iksop; Ramsey, S. Robert (2000),
4595:
4295:
3708:
3696:
3660:
3244:
3208:
3184:
3052:
3028:
2324:
1613:order, modifiers preceding nouns, and
171:are much more difficult to interpret.
9470:
9444:
7411:
6537:
5871:
5669:, by Ki-Moon Lee and Robert Ramsey",
5591:Change and Reconstruction Methodology
5555:
5541:, Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 197–203,
5477:
5461:
5439:
5109:
4840:
4631:
4571:
4343:
4307:
3980:
3968:
3903:
3855:
3409:
3397:
3385:
3310:
3271:
3112:
2965:
2878:
365:, mostly in the border prefecture of
5753:
5388:
5369:
5353:A Concise History of Premodern Korea
5350:
5334:Proto-Japanese: Issues and Prospects
5229:
5096:
5073:
5050:
4822:Cho, Sungdai; Whitman, John (2019),
4795:
4643:
4607:
4403:
4391:
4379:
4355:
4319:
4220:
4157:
4118:
4091:
4064:
4040:
4016:
3992:
3867:
3576:
3564:
3513:
3477:
3438:
3016:
2797:
2785:
2770:
2758:
2719:
2659:
2647:
2635:
2611:
2582:
2570:
2558:
2546:
2483:
2471:
2435:
2423:
2411:
2399:
2387:
2360:
2348:
2336:
2288:'great' with the nominalizer suffix
2059:Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi
2017:describing them as similar, but the
1764:was interpreted as a migration of a
1631:
1091:and other relationships. The modern
198:has been conclusively demonstrated.
5915:
5897:
5407:
5261:
5210:
5031:
5012:
4990:
4583:
4547:
4367:
4268:
4244:
4184:
4028:
3720:
3672:
3636:
3600:
3283:
2953:
2519:
201:
13:
5793:
5772:
5699:The Handbook of Korean Linguistics
5336:, John Benjamins, pp. 79–99,
5266:, Harvard University Asia Center,
4711:The Handbook of Korean Linguistics
3684:
3624:
2199:(635) states that the language of
1049:. They may also have merged with *
14:
9617:
4824:Korean: A Linguistic Introduction
1812:Comparison of Japanese and Korean
1054:
1040:
1034:
1020:
1014:
997:
976:
964:
952:
933:
921:
909:
713:
690:
673:
663:
646:
638:
630:
622:
607:
597:
589:
521:
6061:
5756:The Languages of Japan and Korea
5667:A History of the Korean Language
5648:The Languages of Japan and Korea
5423:The Languages of Japan and Korea
5213:The Languages of Japan and Korea
5153:A History of the Korean Language
2295:
2274:
2263:The title refers to the Chinese
2257:
1887:
1884:, but these have few adherents.
870:involving five of these vowels.
361:. There are now about 2 million
359:Japanese occupation of Manchuria
127:
5758:, Routledge, pp. 168–185,
5665:——— (2013), "
3374:Yang, Yang & O'Grady (2019)
2254:Readings in Late Middle Chinese
2248:
2231:
1621:Proposed external relationships
1082:
9591:History of the Korean language
5690:——— (2015),
5639:——— (2012),
5482:, University of Hawaii Press,
5478:——— (2010),
5374:, Cambridge University Press,
5370:Shin, Michael D., ed. (2014),
5196:, University of Hawaii Press,
5192:——— (1996),
5155:, Cambridge University Press,
4961:——— (2010),
4927:——— (1999),
4873:高句麗の地名から高句麗語と朝鮮語・日本語との史的関係をさぐる
4826:, Cambridge University Press,
4781:, Cambridge University Press,
4652:
2021:referring to differences. The
1894:History of the Korean language
831:are attributed to lenition of
406:form of Korean spoken in Japan
295:
1:
5816:Kang, Yeng-pong, ed. (2009),
5650:, Routledge, pp. 24–38,
5646:, in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.),
5215:, Routledge, pp. 41–72,
5175:A Reference Grammar of Korean
4734:三國志, in the Fragments of the
3663:, pp. 220–221, 223, 230.
2309:
2267:period (220–280 AD), not the
2015:Records of the Three Kingdoms
1954:Records of the Three Kingdoms
1926:Records of the Three Kingdoms
1121:
5820:(in Korean), Jeju Province,
5425:, Routledge, pp. 3–23,
4910:Manchuria: An Ethnic History
4777:; Poser, William J. (2008),
4622:, pp. 424–427, 436–438.
4598:, pp. 224–226, 228–232.
4209:Byington & Barnes (2014)
4131:Byington & Barnes (2014)
2156:in 414). All are written in
1110:In modern Korean, verbs are
545:
532:unification of the peninsula
347:Japanese annexation of Korea
7:
5842:By Christopher I. Beckwith"
5777:, Wiley, pp. 586–597,
5701:, Wiley, pp. 421–438,
5560:, Oxford University Press,
5233:The National Atlas of Korea
5015:The World's Major Languages
4713:, Wiley, pp. 459–476,
3757:Campbell & Poser (2008)
3745:Campbell & Poser (2008)
3541:Campbell & Poser (2008)
3526:Campbell & Poser (2008)
2205:
1974:To the north and east, the
1943:, the most important being
1562:Typology and areal features
1099:is derived from an earlier
490:
471:) in far northeastern Korea
467:
441:
317:
309:
289:
281:
239:in the Chinese province of
48:One of the world's primary
10:
9622:
7213:Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric
6297:Consonant and vowel tables
5262:Pai, Hyung Il 裵炯逸 (2000),
4881:Nihongo keitoron no genzai
2056:
1909:
1906:Early Chinese descriptions
1891:
1869:
1809:
1805:
1725:, have even less support.
862:and transcriptions in the
454:
450:
416:
251:group. Dialects differ in
221:
9540:
9514:
9478:
9411:
9370:
9347:
9286:
9275:
9119:
8852:
8841:
8809:
8736:
8727:
8616:
8433:
8422:
8389:
8251:
8242:
8150:
7908:
7894:
7808:
7603:
7585:
7536:
7454:
7445:
7439:Primary language families
7381:
7318:
7271:
7221:
7101:
7094:
7049:
7000:
6964:
6889:
6825:
6788:
6698:
6575:
6478:
6445:
6390:
6344:
6336:Transcription into Korean
6282:
6273:
6255:
6233:
6215:
6197:
6164:
6118:
6109:
6091:
6077:
6070:
6059:
6031:
6017:
5994:
5937:
5914:
5905:
5631:10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0
5351:Seth, Michael J. (2016),
5311:Pulleyblank, Edwin George
5295:10.1007/s11759-017-9307-9
3793:Janhunen & Kho (1982)
1865:
1838:Placename glosses in the
1728:
1532:
1494:
1456:
1418:
1380:
1342:
1304:
1262:
1220:
1182:
1151:
842:
836:
439:, which the 15th-century
217:
126:
110:
105:
63:
55:
44:Linguistic classification
42:
26:
21:
8256:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan
5835:Pellard, Thomas (2005),
4912:, Finno-Ugrian Society,
4883:
4872:
4800:
4755:: 97–112, archived from
4661:Beckwith, Christopher I.
3817:Cho & Whitman (2019)
3567:, pp. 263, 265–266.
3233:Cho & Whitman (2019)
3161:Cho & Whitman (2019)
2376:Cho & Whitman (2019)
2224:
1941:Four Commanderies of Han
1872:Dravido-Korean languages
554:Proto-Korean consonants
9423:have no living members.
7390:have no living members.
7273:East and Southeast Asia
6363:Cyrillization of Korean
5818:Revised Jeju Dictionary
4536:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4524:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4512:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4476:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4464:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4452:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4428:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
4416:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
4284:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4233:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4197:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4173:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4146:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4107:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4080:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4053:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4005:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3829:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3781:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3769:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3613:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
3589:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3502:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3451:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3362:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3323:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3221:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3197:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3173:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3101:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3089:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3041:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3005:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
2993:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2930:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2918:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2867:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2834:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2732:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2696:Brown & Yeon (2015)
2684:Brown & Yeon (2015)
2600:Brown & Yeon (2015)
2535:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
2508:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2496:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
2460:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2448:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2271:(4th to 7th centuries).
2269:Three Kingdoms of Korea
1935:In 108 BC, the Chinese
540:internal reconstruction
486:North Hamgyong Province
412:
9403:Unclassified languages
9357:list of sign languages
8325:Northeastern Tasmanian
6523:Sino-Korean vocabulary
6501:List of Konglish terms
6146:Gyeonggi/Seoul dialect
6037:(19th century–present)
5372:Korean History in Maps
3983:, pp. 6, 237–240.
2292:, meaning 'chieftain'.
2076:
1967:after their defeat of
1928:
1694:
472:
301:Sino-Korean vocabulary
211:
9378:Constructed languages
5683:10.1075/kl.15.2.05whi
5511:10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov
5389:Sohn, Ho-Min (1999),
5177:, Charles E. Tuttle,
4936:Central Asian Studies
3843:, pp. 24, 26–28.
3649:Park & Wee (2016)
2093:Three Kingdoms period
2074:
2053:Three Kingdoms period
2019:Book of the Later Han
1997:To the south lay the
1960:Book of the Later Han
1923:
1628:
494:) in the bend of the
464:
443:Hunminjeongeum Haerye
245:mutually intelligible
209:
7925:Binanderean–Goilalan
5859:10.1353/ks.2006.0008
5032:Kim, Sun-Mi (2015),
4856:, pp. 139–161,
4801:中国语言地图集(第2版):少数民族语言卷
3918:, pp. 1–2, 6–7.
3747:, pp. 236, 240.
3067:, p. 542, n. 5.
2722:, pp. 170, 178.
2043:James Marshall Unger
1860:Eastern Old Japanese
1830:Japanese archipelago
1818:William George Aston
738:aspirated consonants
255:and the reflexes of
196:genetic relationship
9207:(Maku-Auari/Jukude)
9110:Tequiraca–Canichana
8953:Harákmbut–Katukinan
7716:Northwest Caucasian
7710:Northeast Caucasian
7634:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
7031:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
6815:Northwest Caucasian
6810:Northeast Caucasian
6128:Chungcheong dialect
6018:Early modern Korean
5622:2011Rice....4..149W
5391:The Korean Language
5134:The Korean Language
4574:, pp. 117–119.
4562:, pp. 251–252.
4418:, pp. 274–275.
4298:, pp. 237–238.
4259:, pp. 249–250.
4247:, pp. 882–883.
4031:, pp. 881–882.
3906:, pp. 237–240.
3723:, pp. 104–111.
3711:, pp. 226–229.
3651:, pp. 313–314.
3627:, pp. 586–587.
3528:, pp. 243–266.
3492:, pp. 289–290.
3480:, pp. 265–266.
3453:, pp. 165–167.
3298:, pp. 434–435.
3223:, pp. 167–168.
3199:, pp. 163–165.
3127:, pp. 254–255.
3115:, pp. 138–139.
3055:, pp. 200–202.
3007:, pp. 320–321.
2773:, pp. 236–238.
2734:, pp. 159–160.
2698:, pp. 468–469.
2686:, pp. 466–468.
2650:, pp. 179–180.
2638:, pp. 238–241.
2614:, pp. 233–234.
2573:, pp. 181–182.
2549:, pp. 180–184.
2537:, pp. 309–310.
2426:, pp. 169–172.
2245:(mid-13th century).
1747:subject–object–verb
1611:subject–object–verb
1157:Late Middle Korean
1143:
1075:rather than a full
880:
555:
465:The six garrisons (
379:Soviet Central Asia
194:or Japonic, but no
159:suggested that the
9596:Languages of Korea
9586:Koreanic languages
8829:Tarascan/Purépecha
8318:Northern Tasmanian
8076:South Bougainville
8037:North Bougainville
7296:Austronesian–Ongan
7095:Proposed groupings
6486:Koreanic languages
6257:Koreanic languages
6151:Gyeongsang dialect
5671:Korean Linguistics
5499:Korean Linguistics
5441:Unger, J. Marshall
4094:, pp. 16, 19.
3675:, pp. 97, 99.
3350:Pulleyblank (1991)
2708:Yang et al. (2018)
2122:Chinese characters
2104:Chinese characters
2077:
1929:
1695:
1142:Koreanic numerals
1141:
878:
553:
528:Late Middle Korean
473:
328:standard languages
290:Hyangyak kugŭppang
237:Yanbian prefecture
212:
184:Sillan unification
169:Chinese characters
147:consisting of the
9606:Language families
9573:
9572:
9472:Altaic hypothesis
9438:
9437:
9388:Language isolates
9366:
9365:
9271:
9270:
8837:
8836:
8723:
8722:
8418:
8417:
8365:Western Tasmanian
8283:Eastern Tasmanian
8238:
8237:
7960:East Geelvink Bay
7890:
7889:
7581:
7580:
7405:
7404:
7314:
7313:
7306:Sino-Austronesian
7090:
7089:
6565:Language families
6531:
6530:
6386:
6385:
6368:McCune-Reischauer
6251:
6250:
6137:Yeongdong dialect
6105:
6104:
6057:
6056:
6038:
6022:
6021:(17–18th century)
6001:
6000:(10–16th century)
5944:
5827:978-89-962572-5-7
5784:978-1-118-97059-1
5765:978-0-415-46287-7
5746:978-0-8248-7443-8
5727:978-3-319-73400-2
5708:978-1-118-35491-9
5657:978-0-415-46287-7
5577:978-0-19-938465-5
5548:978-1-118-97059-1
5529:978-89-7641-830-2
5489:978-0-8248-3278-0
5454:978-0-8248-3279-7
5432:978-0-415-46287-7
5400:978-0-521-36123-1
5381:978-1-107-09846-6
5362:978-1-4422-6043-6
5343:978-90-272-4809-1
5324:978-0-7748-0366-3
5273:978-0-674-00244-9
5254:978-0-521-55839-6
5222:978-0-415-46287-7
5203:978-0-82481-809-8
5184:978-0-8048-1887-2
5171:Martin, Samuel E.
5162:978-1-139-49448-9
5143:978-0-7914-4831-1
5124:978-0-631-17913-9
5076:Language Research
5053:Language Research
5024:978-0-19-520521-3
5005:978-92-3-102001-8
4967:Studia Orientalia
4919:978-951-9403-84-7
4897:10.15055/00005276
4863:978-1-317-61090-8
4850:Language Isolates
4833:978-0-521-51485-9
4814:978-7-100-07053-9
4788:978-0-521-88005-3
4720:978-1-118-35491-9
4688:Language Research
4674:978-90-04-13949-7
4646:, pp. 84–85.
4550:, pp. 23–26.
4526:, pp. 40–41.
4514:, pp. 43–44.
4502:, pp. 27–28.
4478:, pp. 37–44.
4406:, pp. 29–30.
4382:, pp. 30–33.
4235:, pp. 34–36.
4199:, pp. 35–36.
4160:, pp. 19–23.
4133:, pp. 97–98.
4121:, pp. 17–19.
4019:, pp. 25–27.
3995:, pp. 27–29.
3971:, pp. 92–94.
3870:, pp. 29–35.
3831:, pp. 26–29.
3783:, pp. 23–24.
3771:, pp. 20–21.
3591:, pp. 15–23.
3579:, pp. 18–25.
3516:, pp. 17–18.
3504:, pp. 14–15.
3441:, pp. 60–62.
3286:, pp. 64–65.
3211:, pp. 60–68.
3187:, pp. 35–40.
3163:, pp. 18–19.
3103:, pp. 94–95.
3031:, pp. 20–21.
2968:, pp. 12–32.
2920:, pp. 64–65.
2893:, pp. 28–29.
2836:, pp. 2, 63.
2824:, pp. 27–28.
2561:, pp. 82–83.
2510:, pp. 51–59.
2462:, pp. 79–81.
2414:, pp. 60–66.
2390:, pp. 57–59.
2174:Goguryeo language
2158:Classical Chinese
2117:Classical Chinese
2063:Goguryeo language
1692:
1691:
1609:word order, with
1559:
1558:
1061:⟨ㅕ⟩
1011:
1010:
1004:⟨ㅏ⟩
983:⟨ㅗ⟩
971:⟨ㆍ⟩
959:⟨ㅓ⟩
940:⟨ㅜ⟩
928:⟨ㅡ⟩
916:⟨ㅣ⟩
825:⟨ㄹ⟩
786:⟨ㆁ⟩
779:⟨ㅿ⟩
772:⟨ㅸ⟩
723:
722:
433:⟨ㆍ⟩
375:forcibly deported
263:and word-initial
233:dialect continuum
188:Japonic languages
138:
137:
50:language families
9613:
9601:Altaic languages
9465:
9458:
9451:
9442:
9441:
9284:
9283:
9238:Huaorani/Waorani
9122:(extant in 2000)
9086:Esmeralda–Yaruro
8857:Andoque–Urequena
8850:
8849:
8734:
8733:
8540:Plateau Penutian
8431:
8430:
8406:(Northern Daly?)
8249:
8248:
8135:Northwest Papuan
8099:Trans–New Guinea
7965:East New Britain
7940:Central Solomons
7906:
7905:
7651:Great Andamanese
7601:
7600:
7452:
7451:
7432:
7425:
7418:
7409:
7408:
7373:Proto-Euphratean
7099:
7098:
7007:
7006:
6975:Great Andamanese
6558:
6551:
6544:
6535:
6534:
6280:
6279:
6179:Hwanghae dialect
6174:Hamgyŏng dialect
6140:Yeongseo dialect
6116:
6115:
6075:
6074:
6065:
6036:
6020:
5999:
5943:(?–10th century)
5942:
5912:
5911:
5892:
5885:
5878:
5869:
5868:
5863:
5861:
5831:
5812:
5788:
5769:
5750:
5731:
5712:
5696:
5686:
5661:
5645:
5635:
5633:
5616:(3–4): 149–158,
5604:
5581:
5569:
5552:
5533:
5514:
5493:
5474:
5463:Vovin, Alexander
5458:
5436:
5417:
5404:
5385:
5366:
5347:
5328:
5306:
5277:
5258:
5237:
5226:
5207:
5188:
5166:
5147:
5128:
5106:
5093:
5091:
5070:
5068:
5047:
5045:
5028:
5009:
4987:
4974:
4957:
4955:
4954:
4948:
4942:, archived from
4933:
4923:
4901:
4899:
4867:
4837:
4818:
4792:
4770:
4768:
4767:
4761:
4746:
4724:
4705:
4703:
4678:
4647:
4641:
4635:
4629:
4623:
4617:
4611:
4605:
4599:
4593:
4587:
4581:
4575:
4569:
4563:
4557:
4551:
4545:
4539:
4533:
4527:
4521:
4515:
4509:
4503:
4497:
4491:
4485:
4479:
4473:
4467:
4461:
4455:
4449:
4443:
4437:
4431:
4425:
4419:
4413:
4407:
4401:
4395:
4389:
4383:
4377:
4371:
4365:
4359:
4353:
4347:
4341:
4335:
4329:
4323:
4317:
4311:
4305:
4299:
4293:
4287:
4281:
4272:
4266:
4260:
4254:
4248:
4242:
4236:
4230:
4224:
4218:
4212:
4206:
4200:
4194:
4188:
4182:
4176:
4170:
4161:
4155:
4149:
4143:
4134:
4128:
4122:
4116:
4110:
4104:
4095:
4089:
4083:
4077:
4068:
4062:
4056:
4050:
4044:
4038:
4032:
4026:
4020:
4014:
4008:
4002:
3996:
3990:
3984:
3978:
3972:
3966:
3960:
3954:
3948:
3942:
3931:
3925:
3919:
3913:
3907:
3901:
3895:
3889:
3883:
3877:
3871:
3865:
3859:
3853:
3844:
3838:
3832:
3826:
3820:
3814:
3808:
3802:
3796:
3790:
3784:
3778:
3772:
3766:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3742:
3736:
3730:
3724:
3718:
3712:
3706:
3700:
3694:
3688:
3682:
3676:
3670:
3664:
3658:
3652:
3646:
3640:
3634:
3628:
3622:
3616:
3610:
3604:
3598:
3592:
3586:
3580:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3544:
3538:
3529:
3523:
3517:
3511:
3505:
3499:
3493:
3487:
3481:
3475:
3469:
3463:
3454:
3448:
3442:
3436:
3430:
3424:
3413:
3407:
3401:
3395:
3389:
3383:
3377:
3371:
3365:
3359:
3353:
3347:
3341:
3335:
3326:
3320:
3314:
3308:
3299:
3293:
3287:
3281:
3275:
3269:
3263:
3257:
3248:
3242:
3236:
3230:
3224:
3218:
3212:
3206:
3200:
3194:
3188:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3152:
3146:
3140:
3134:
3128:
3122:
3116:
3110:
3104:
3098:
3092:
3086:
3080:
3074:
3068:
3062:
3056:
3050:
3044:
3038:
3032:
3026:
3020:
3014:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2984:
2978:
2969:
2963:
2957:
2951:
2945:
2939:
2933:
2927:
2921:
2915:
2909:
2903:
2894:
2888:
2882:
2876:
2870:
2864:
2858:
2852:
2837:
2831:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2807:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2783:
2774:
2768:
2762:
2756:
2750:
2744:
2735:
2729:
2723:
2717:
2711:
2705:
2699:
2693:
2687:
2681:
2675:
2669:
2663:
2657:
2651:
2645:
2639:
2633:
2627:
2621:
2615:
2609:
2603:
2597:
2586:
2580:
2574:
2568:
2562:
2556:
2550:
2544:
2538:
2532:
2523:
2517:
2511:
2505:
2499:
2493:
2487:
2481:
2475:
2469:
2463:
2457:
2451:
2445:
2439:
2433:
2427:
2421:
2415:
2409:
2403:
2397:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2364:
2358:
2352:
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2322:
2303:
2299:
2293:
2278:
2272:
2261:
2255:
2252:
2246:
2235:
2210:
2172:argues that the
2150:Gwanggaeto Stele
2085:Gaya confederacy
1850:points out that
1793:
1779:Late Pleistocene
1682:
1673:
1667:
1656:
1647:
1638:
1632:
1589:
1585:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1528:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1496:
1490:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1458:
1452:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1420:
1414:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1382:
1376:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1344:
1338:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1306:
1300:
1296:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1264:
1258:
1254:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1222:
1216:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1184:
1178:
1174:
1144:
1140:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1106:
1062:
1058:
1052:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1024:
1018:
1005:
1001:
984:
980:
972:
968:
960:
956:
941:
937:
929:
925:
917:
913:
881:
877:
860:Middle Mongolian
846:
840:
834:
830:
826:
823:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
787:
784:
780:
777:
773:
770:
763:
760:and finally to *
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
717:
694:
677:
667:
650:
642:
634:
626:
611:
601:
593:
556:
552:
493:
470:
446:
438:
434:
430:
402:Koreans in Japan
363:Koreans in China
355:Russian Far East
332:prestige dialect
323:(13th century).
322:
314:
298:
297:
292:
286:
270:
266:
262:
202:Extant languages
178:of the state of
131:
122:
121:
95:
86:
19:
18:
9621:
9620:
9616:
9615:
9614:
9612:
9611:
9610:
9576:
9575:
9574:
9569:
9542:Proto-languages
9536:
9515:Early languages
9510:
9474:
9469:
9439:
9434:
9433:
9407:
9393:Mixed languages
9362:
9343:
9278:
9267:
9121:
9115:
8970:Katembri–Taruma
8844:
8833:
8805:
8719:
8612:
8425:
8414:
8385:
8234:
8146:
8105:Turama–Kikorian
8015:Lower Mamberamo
7970:East Strickland
7898:
7886:
7804:
7592:
7587:
7577:
7532:
7441:
7436:
7406:
7401:
7400:
7377:
7368:Paleo-Laplandic
7363:Pre-Finno-Ugric
7310:
7267:
7231:Greater Siangic
7217:
7203:Uralic–Yukaghir
7153:Ibero-Caucasian
7148:Elamo-Dravidian
7086:
7045:
6996:
6960:
6885:
6821:
6804:North Caucasian
6784:
6694:
6633:Paleo-Sardinian
6571:
6562:
6532:
6527:
6474:
6470:Yongbieocheonga
6441:
6382:
6340:
6269:
6247:
6243:Zainichi Korean
6229:
6211:
6193:
6184:Pyongan dialect
6160:
6133:Gangwon dialect
6101:
6087:
6066:
6053:
6035:
6027:
6019:
6013:
5998:
5990:
5941:
5933:
5901:
5899:Korean language
5896:
5866:
5834:
5828:
5815:
5800:
5796:
5794:Further reading
5791:
5785:
5766:
5747:
5728:
5709:
5694:
5658:
5643:
5601:
5578:
5549:
5530:
5490:
5455:
5433:
5401:
5382:
5363:
5344:
5325:
5274:
5255:
5223:
5204:
5185:
5163:
5144:
5125:
5025:
5006:
4952:
4950:
4946:
4931:
4920:
4885:
4874:
4864:
4834:
4815:
4802:
4789:
4765:
4763:
4759:
4744:
4738:魏略, and in the
4721:
4675:
4655:
4650:
4642:
4638:
4630:
4626:
4618:
4614:
4606:
4602:
4594:
4590:
4582:
4578:
4570:
4566:
4558:
4554:
4546:
4542:
4534:
4530:
4522:
4518:
4510:
4506:
4500:Beckwith (2004)
4498:
4494:
4488:Itabashi (2003)
4486:
4482:
4474:
4470:
4462:
4458:
4450:
4446:
4438:
4434:
4426:
4422:
4414:
4410:
4402:
4398:
4390:
4386:
4378:
4374:
4366:
4362:
4354:
4350:
4342:
4338:
4332:Beckwith (2004)
4330:
4326:
4318:
4314:
4306:
4302:
4294:
4290:
4282:
4275:
4267:
4263:
4255:
4251:
4243:
4239:
4231:
4227:
4219:
4215:
4207:
4203:
4195:
4191:
4183:
4179:
4171:
4164:
4156:
4152:
4144:
4137:
4129:
4125:
4117:
4113:
4105:
4098:
4090:
4086:
4078:
4071:
4063:
4059:
4051:
4047:
4039:
4035:
4027:
4023:
4015:
4011:
4003:
3999:
3991:
3987:
3979:
3975:
3967:
3963:
3957:Janhunen (1999)
3955:
3951:
3943:
3934:
3926:
3922:
3916:Janhunen (1999)
3914:
3910:
3902:
3898:
3890:
3886:
3880:Janhunen (1996)
3878:
3874:
3866:
3862:
3854:
3847:
3839:
3835:
3827:
3823:
3815:
3811:
3803:
3799:
3795:, pp. 4–5.
3791:
3787:
3779:
3775:
3767:
3763:
3755:
3751:
3743:
3739:
3731:
3727:
3719:
3715:
3707:
3703:
3695:
3691:
3683:
3679:
3671:
3667:
3659:
3655:
3647:
3643:
3635:
3631:
3623:
3619:
3611:
3607:
3603:, pp. 1–2.
3599:
3595:
3587:
3583:
3575:
3571:
3563:
3559:
3555:, pp. 6–7.
3551:
3547:
3539:
3532:
3524:
3520:
3512:
3508:
3500:
3496:
3490:Janhunen (2010)
3488:
3484:
3476:
3472:
3464:
3457:
3449:
3445:
3437:
3433:
3425:
3416:
3408:
3404:
3396:
3392:
3384:
3380:
3372:
3368:
3360:
3356:
3348:
3344:
3336:
3329:
3321:
3317:
3309:
3302:
3294:
3290:
3282:
3278:
3270:
3266:
3258:
3251:
3243:
3239:
3231:
3227:
3219:
3215:
3207:
3203:
3195:
3191:
3183:
3179:
3171:
3167:
3159:
3155:
3147:
3143:
3135:
3131:
3123:
3119:
3111:
3107:
3099:
3095:
3087:
3083:
3075:
3071:
3063:
3059:
3051:
3047:
3039:
3035:
3027:
3023:
3015:
3011:
3003:
2999:
2991:
2987:
2979:
2972:
2964:
2960:
2952:
2948:
2940:
2936:
2928:
2924:
2916:
2912:
2904:
2897:
2889:
2885:
2877:
2873:
2865:
2861:
2853:
2840:
2832:
2828:
2820:
2816:
2812:, pp. 2–3.
2810:Janhunen (1999)
2808:
2804:
2796:
2792:
2784:
2777:
2769:
2765:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2738:
2730:
2726:
2718:
2714:
2706:
2702:
2694:
2690:
2682:
2678:
2672:Janhunen (1996)
2670:
2666:
2658:
2654:
2646:
2642:
2634:
2630:
2624:Janhunen (1996)
2622:
2618:
2610:
2606:
2598:
2589:
2581:
2577:
2569:
2565:
2557:
2553:
2545:
2541:
2533:
2526:
2518:
2514:
2506:
2502:
2494:
2490:
2482:
2478:
2470:
2466:
2458:
2454:
2450:, pp. 5–6.
2446:
2442:
2434:
2430:
2422:
2418:
2410:
2406:
2398:
2394:
2386:
2382:
2374:
2367:
2359:
2355:
2347:
2343:
2335:
2331:
2323:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2306:
2300:
2296:
2279:
2275:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2249:
2243:Mongol invasion
2236:
2232:
2227:
2170:Alexander Vovin
2069:
2067:Baekje language
2055:
2039:Alexander Vovin
2001:('three Han'),
1978:, Goguryeo and
1918:
1908:
1896:
1890:
1874:
1868:
1848:Alexander Vovin
1814:
1808:
1762:Jeulmun pottery
1739:Gustaf Ramstedt
1731:
1693:
1687:
1680:
1678:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1654:
1652:
1645:
1643:
1636:
1623:
1605:morphology and
1564:
1124:
1093:nominative case
1085:
1060:
1003:
982:
970:
958:
939:
927:
915:
824:
816:in these words.
785:
778:
771:
756:, extended to *
548:
524:
459:
453:
432:
421:
415:
381:, particularly
229:Korean dialects
226:
224:Korean language
220:
204:
157:Alexander Vovin
145:language family
134:
117:
116:
28:
17:
16:Language family
12:
11:
5:
9619:
9609:
9608:
9603:
9598:
9593:
9588:
9571:
9570:
9568:
9567:
9562:
9560:Proto-Mongolic
9557:
9552:
9546:
9544:
9538:
9537:
9535:
9534:
9529:
9524:
9518:
9516:
9512:
9511:
9509:
9508:
9503:
9498:
9493:
9488:
9482:
9480:
9476:
9475:
9468:
9467:
9460:
9453:
9445:
9436:
9435:
9432:
9431:
9424:
9417:
9413:
9412:
9409:
9408:
9406:
9405:
9400:
9395:
9390:
9385:
9380:
9374:
9372:
9368:
9367:
9364:
9363:
9361:
9360:
9351:
9349:
9345:
9344:
9342:
9341:
9335:
9330:
9325:
9320:
9318:Indo-Pakistani
9315:
9310:
9303:
9298:
9293:
9287:
9281:
9273:
9272:
9269:
9268:
9266:
9265:
9260:
9255:
9250:
9245:
9240:
9235:
9230:
9225:
9219:
9214:
9209:
9201:
9196:
9189:
9184:
9178:
9173:
9168:
9163:
9157:
9152:
9147:
9142:
9137:
9132:
9125:
9123:
9117:
9116:
9114:
9113:
9107:
9101:
9095:
9089:
9083:
9077:
9071:
9066:
9061:
9056:
9051:
9046:
9039:
9034:
9029:
9024:
9019:
9017:Piaroa–Saliban
9014:
9007:
9002:
8997:
8992:
8987:
8982:
8977:
8972:
8967:
8962:
8955:
8950:
8945:
8940:
8935:
8930:
8925:
8918:
8913:
8906:
8901:
8896:
8891:
8886:
8881:
8876:
8869:
8864:
8859:
8853:
8847:
8839:
8838:
8835:
8834:
8832:
8831:
8826:
8821:
8813:
8811:
8807:
8806:
8804:
8803:
8796:
8789:
8784:
8782:Tequistlatecan
8779:
8772:
8767:
8762:
8755:
8748:
8743:
8737:
8731:
8725:
8724:
8721:
8720:
8718:
8717:
8712:
8707:
8702:
8695:
8690:
8683:
8676:
8669:
8662:
8655:
8650:
8645:
8640:
8635:
8628:
8620:
8618:
8614:
8613:
8611:
8610:
8605:
8598:
8591:
8586:
8579:
8574:
8569:
8564:
8559:
8552:
8547:
8542:
8537:
8530:
8523:
8518:
8511:
8506:
8499:
8494:
8489:
8482:
8475:
8468:
8461:
8454:
8449:
8442:
8434:
8428:
8420:
8419:
8416:
8415:
8413:
8412:
8407:
8401:
8393:
8391:
8387:
8386:
8384:
8383:
8373:
8368:
8361:
8356:
8351:
8346:
8340:
8333:
8328:
8321:
8314:
8309:
8305:Marrku–Wurrugu
8301:
8296:
8291:
8286:
8279:
8272:
8264:
8259:
8252:
8246:
8240:
8239:
8236:
8235:
8233:
8232:
8227:
8219:
8213:
8207:
8202:
8197:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8177:
8171:
8165:
8160:
8154:
8152:
8148:
8147:
8145:
8144:
8138:
8132:
8127:
8122:
8117:
8112:
8107:
8102:
8095:
8090:
8083:
8078:
8073:
8068:
8061:
8056:
8051:
8044:
8039:
8034:
8029:
8022:
8017:
8012:
8007:
8002:
7997:
7992:
7987:
7982:
7977:
7972:
7967:
7962:
7957:
7952:
7947:
7942:
7937:
7932:
7927:
7922:
7915:
7909:
7903:
7892:
7891:
7888:
7887:
7885:
7884:
7876:
7869:
7863:
7858:
7850:
7845:
7837:
7830:
7823:
7818:
7812:
7810:
7806:
7805:
7803:
7802:
7796:
7790:
7784:
7778:
7772:
7766:
7761:
7756:
7749:
7742:
7735:
7730:
7723:
7718:
7713:
7706:
7701:
7696:
7689:
7684:
7679:
7674:
7667:
7664:Hurro-Urartian
7660:
7653:
7648:
7643:
7636:
7631:
7624:
7617:
7612:
7604:
7598:
7583:
7582:
7579:
7578:
7576:
7575:
7569:
7563:
7558:
7551:
7546:
7540:
7538:
7534:
7533:
7531:
7530:
7524:
7518:
7512:
7506:
7500:
7495:
7487:
7480:
7475:
7470:
7463:
7455:
7449:
7443:
7442:
7435:
7434:
7427:
7420:
7412:
7403:
7402:
7399:
7398:
7391:
7383:
7382:
7379:
7378:
7376:
7375:
7370:
7365:
7360:
7355:
7350:
7345:
7340:
7335:
7330:
7324:
7322:
7316:
7315:
7312:
7311:
7309:
7308:
7303:
7298:
7293:
7288:
7283:
7277:
7275:
7269:
7268:
7266:
7265:
7260:
7255:
7250:
7245:
7244:
7243:
7238:
7227:
7225:
7219:
7218:
7216:
7215:
7210:
7205:
7200:
7198:Uralo-Siberian
7195:
7190:
7185:
7183:Serbi–Mongolic
7180:
7175:
7170:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7150:
7145:
7143:Dravido-Korean
7140:
7138:Dené–Yeniseian
7135:
7134:
7133:
7128:
7126:Dené–Caucasian
7123:
7113:
7108:
7102:
7096:
7092:
7091:
7088:
7087:
7085:
7084:
7079:
7071:
7064:
7056:
7054:
7047:
7046:
7044:
7043:
7038:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7017:
7015:
7004:
6998:
6997:
6995:
6994:
6987:
6982:
6977:
6971:
6969:
6962:
6961:
6959:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6938:
6931:
6924:
6917:
6910:
6903:
6895:
6893:
6887:
6886:
6884:
6883:
6875:
6870:
6865:
6860:
6853:
6846:
6839:
6831:
6829:
6823:
6822:
6820:
6819:
6818:
6817:
6812:
6800:
6794:
6792:
6786:
6785:
6783:
6782:
6775:
6768:
6761:
6754:
6747:
6744:Hurro-Urartian
6740:
6733:
6726:
6719:
6712:
6704:
6702:
6696:
6695:
6693:
6692:
6685:
6678:
6671:
6664:
6657:
6650:
6643:
6636:
6629:
6626:Paleo-Corsican
6622:
6615:
6608:
6603:
6596:
6589:
6581:
6579:
6573:
6572:
6561:
6560:
6553:
6546:
6538:
6529:
6528:
6526:
6525:
6520:
6515:
6510:
6505:
6504:
6503:
6493:
6488:
6482:
6480:
6476:
6475:
6473:
6472:
6467:
6462:
6457:
6451:
6449:
6443:
6442:
6440:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6396:
6394:
6388:
6387:
6384:
6383:
6381:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6354:
6352:
6342:
6341:
6339:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6327:
6326:
6321:
6316:
6306:
6305:
6304:
6299:
6289:
6287:Korean Braille
6283:
6277:
6275:Writing system
6271:
6270:
6268:
6267:
6261:
6259:
6253:
6252:
6249:
6248:
6246:
6245:
6239:
6237:
6231:
6230:
6228:
6227:
6221:
6219:
6213:
6212:
6210:
6209:
6207:Chinese Korean
6203:
6201:
6195:
6194:
6192:
6191:
6189:Yukjin dialect
6186:
6181:
6176:
6170:
6168:
6162:
6161:
6159:
6158:
6156:Jeolla dialect
6153:
6148:
6143:
6142:
6141:
6138:
6130:
6124:
6122:
6113:
6107:
6106:
6103:
6102:
6097:
6095:
6089:
6088:
6083:
6081:
6072:
6068:
6067:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6054:
6052:
6051:
6048:
6045:
6041:
6039:
6029:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6015:
6014:
6012:
6011:
6008:
6004:
6002:
5992:
5991:
5989:
5988:
5983:
5978:
5973:
5968:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5947:
5945:
5935:
5934:
5932:
5931:
5926:
5920:
5918:
5916:Proto-Koreanic
5909:
5903:
5902:
5895:
5894:
5887:
5880:
5872:
5865:
5864:
5846:Korean Studies
5832:
5826:
5813:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5790:
5789:
5783:
5770:
5764:
5751:
5745:
5732:
5726:
5713:
5707:
5687:
5677:(2): 246–260,
5662:
5656:
5636:
5605:
5599:
5582:
5576:
5553:
5547:
5534:
5528:
5515:
5505:(2): 222–240,
5494:
5488:
5475:
5459:
5453:
5437:
5431:
5418:
5405:
5399:
5386:
5380:
5367:
5361:
5348:
5342:
5329:
5323:
5307:
5289:(3): 304–339,
5278:
5272:
5259:
5253:
5238:
5227:
5221:
5208:
5202:
5189:
5183:
5167:
5161:
5148:
5142:
5136:, SUNY Press,
5129:
5123:
5111:Labov, William
5107:
5094:
5082:(2): 201–223,
5071:
5059:(2): 233–274,
5048:
5029:
5023:
5010:
5004:
4988:
4975:
4958:
4924:
4918:
4906:Janhunen, Juha
4902:
4868:
4862:
4846:Campbell, Lyle
4838:
4832:
4819:
4813:
4793:
4787:
4775:Campbell, Lyle
4771:
4725:
4719:
4706:
4694:(2): 417–443,
4679:
4673:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4648:
4636:
4634:, p. 119.
4624:
4620:Bentley (2000)
4612:
4600:
4588:
4576:
4564:
4560:Whitman (2013)
4552:
4540:
4528:
4516:
4504:
4492:
4480:
4468:
4456:
4444:
4442:, p. 423.
4440:Whitman (2015)
4432:
4430:, p. 276.
4420:
4408:
4396:
4384:
4372:
4370:, p. 234.
4360:
4348:
4346:, p. 151.
4336:
4324:
4312:
4300:
4288:
4273:
4261:
4257:Whitman (2013)
4249:
4237:
4225:
4213:
4211:, p. 105.
4201:
4189:
4177:
4162:
4150:
4135:
4123:
4111:
4096:
4084:
4069:
4057:
4045:
4033:
4021:
4009:
3997:
3985:
3973:
3961:
3949:
3947:, p. 154.
3945:Whitman (2011)
3932:
3928:Serafim (2008)
3920:
3908:
3896:
3894:, p. 156.
3892:Whitman (2011)
3884:
3882:, p. 200.
3872:
3860:
3845:
3841:Whitman (2012)
3833:
3821:
3809:
3807:, p. 249.
3805:Whitman (2013)
3797:
3785:
3773:
3761:
3759:, p. 239.
3749:
3737:
3735:, p. 248.
3733:Whitman (2013)
3725:
3713:
3701:
3699:, p. 230.
3689:
3687:, p. 587.
3677:
3665:
3653:
3641:
3639:, p. 882.
3629:
3617:
3605:
3593:
3581:
3569:
3557:
3553:Tranter (2012)
3545:
3543:, p. 235.
3530:
3518:
3506:
3494:
3482:
3470:
3466:Tranter (2012)
3455:
3443:
3431:
3427:Tranter (2012)
3414:
3412:, p. 211.
3402:
3400:, p. 181.
3390:
3388:, p. 220.
3378:
3366:
3364:, p. 175.
3354:
3342:
3338:Whitman (2012)
3327:
3315:
3300:
3296:Whitman (2015)
3288:
3276:
3264:
3260:Whitman (2012)
3249:
3237:
3225:
3213:
3201:
3189:
3177:
3175:, p. 163.
3165:
3153:
3151:, p. 430.
3149:Whitman (2015)
3141:
3139:, p. 429.
3137:Whitman (2015)
3129:
3125:Whitman (2013)
3117:
3105:
3093:
3091:, p. 156.
3081:
3079:, p. 434.
3077:Whitman (2015)
3069:
3065:Whitman (1990)
3057:
3045:
3033:
3021:
3009:
2997:
2985:
2981:Whitman (2012)
2970:
2958:
2946:
2944:, p. 432.
2942:Whitman (2015)
2934:
2922:
2910:
2908:, p. 431.
2906:Whitman (2015)
2895:
2891:Whitman (2012)
2883:
2871:
2869:, p. 128.
2859:
2855:Whitman (2012)
2838:
2826:
2822:Whitman (2012)
2814:
2802:
2800:, p. 236.
2790:
2788:, p. 202.
2775:
2763:
2761:, p. 238.
2751:
2749:, p. 155.
2747:Whitman (2011)
2736:
2724:
2712:
2700:
2688:
2676:
2664:
2662:, p. 235.
2652:
2640:
2628:
2616:
2604:
2602:, p. 465.
2587:
2585:, p. 184.
2575:
2563:
2551:
2539:
2524:
2512:
2500:
2498:, p. 136.
2488:
2476:
2464:
2452:
2440:
2428:
2416:
2404:
2402:, p. 168.
2392:
2380:
2365:
2353:
2341:
2329:
2327:, p. 201.
2313:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2294:
2273:
2265:Three Kingdoms
2256:
2247:
2239:Three Kingdoms
2229:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2054:
2051:
1912:Puyŏ languages
1907:
1904:
1889:
1886:
1867:
1864:
1807:
1804:
1730:
1727:
1690:
1689:
1679:
1670:
1668: Koreanic
1664:
1662:
1653:
1644:
1635:
1630:
1622:
1619:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1529:
1523:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1491:
1485:
1481:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1453:
1447:
1443:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1415:
1409:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1377:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1339:
1333:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1301:
1291:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1259:
1249:
1245:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1217:
1211:
1207:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1179:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1161:
1160:Modern Korean
1158:
1155:
1150:
1147:
1123:
1120:
1084:
1081:
1009:
1008:
1006:
994:
992:
986:
985:
973:
961:
949:
943:
942:
930:
918:
906:
900:
899:
894:
889:
884:
820:Middle Korean
818:
817:
765:
734:
721:
720:
718:
710:
708:
706:
700:
699:
697:
695:
687:
685:
679:
678:
670:
668:
660:
658:
652:
651:
643:
635:
627:
619:
613:
612:
604:
602:
594:
586:
580:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
547:
544:
523:
522:Proto-Koreanic
520:
455:Main article:
452:
449:
423:The speech of
417:Main article:
414:
411:
351:Primorsky Krai
253:palatalization
222:Main article:
219:
216:
203:
200:
161:Yukjin dialect
136:
135:
132:
124:
123:
114:
108:
107:
106:Language codes
103:
102:
101:
100:
91:
82:
77:
72:
65:
61:
60:
59:Proto-Koreanic
57:
56:Proto-language
53:
52:
46:
40:
39:
30:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9618:
9607:
9604:
9602:
9599:
9597:
9594:
9592:
9589:
9587:
9584:
9583:
9581:
9566:
9565:Proto-Japonic
9563:
9561:
9558:
9556:
9553:
9551:
9548:
9547:
9545:
9543:
9539:
9533:
9530:
9528:
9525:
9523:
9520:
9519:
9517:
9513:
9507:
9504:
9502:
9499:
9497:
9494:
9492:
9489:
9487:
9484:
9483:
9481:
9477:
9473:
9466:
9461:
9459:
9454:
9452:
9447:
9446:
9443:
9429:
9425:
9422:
9418:
9415:
9414:
9410:
9404:
9401:
9399:
9396:
9394:
9391:
9389:
9386:
9384:
9381:
9379:
9376:
9375:
9373:
9369:
9359:
9358:
9353:
9352:
9350:
9346:
9339:
9336:
9334:
9331:
9329:
9328:Original Thai
9326:
9324:
9321:
9319:
9316:
9314:
9311:
9309:
9308:
9304:
9302:
9299:
9297:
9294:
9292:
9289:
9288:
9285:
9282:
9280:
9274:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9254:
9251:
9249:
9246:
9244:
9241:
9239:
9236:
9234:
9231:
9229:
9226:
9223:
9220:
9218:
9215:
9213:
9210:
9208:
9206:
9202:
9200:
9197:
9195:
9194:
9190:
9188:
9185:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9161:
9158:
9156:
9153:
9151:
9148:
9146:
9143:
9141:
9138:
9136:
9133:
9130:
9127:
9126:
9124:
9118:
9111:
9108:
9105:
9102:
9099:
9096:
9093:
9092:Hibito–Cholón
9090:
9087:
9084:
9081:
9078:
9075:
9072:
9070:
9067:
9065:
9062:
9060:
9057:
9055:
9052:
9050:
9047:
9045:
9044:
9040:
9038:
9035:
9033:
9030:
9028:
9025:
9023:
9020:
9018:
9015:
9013:
9012:
9008:
9006:
9003:
9001:
8998:
8996:
8993:
8991:
8988:
8986:
8983:
8981:
8978:
8976:
8973:
8971:
8968:
8966:
8963:
8961:
8960:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8936:
8934:
8931:
8929:
8926:
8924:
8923:
8919:
8917:
8914:
8912:
8911:
8907:
8905:
8902:
8900:
8897:
8895:
8892:
8890:
8887:
8885:
8882:
8880:
8877:
8875:
8874:
8870:
8868:
8865:
8863:
8860:
8858:
8855:
8854:
8851:
8848:
8846:
8840:
8830:
8827:
8825:
8822:
8820:
8819:
8815:
8814:
8812:
8808:
8802:
8801:
8797:
8795:
8794:
8790:
8788:
8785:
8783:
8780:
8778:
8777:
8773:
8771:
8768:
8766:
8763:
8761:
8760:
8756:
8754:
8753:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8742:
8739:
8738:
8735:
8732:
8730:
8726:
8716:
8713:
8711:
8708:
8706:
8703:
8701:
8700:
8696:
8694:
8691:
8689:
8688:
8684:
8682:
8681:
8677:
8675:
8674:
8670:
8668:
8667:
8663:
8661:
8660:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8633:
8629:
8627:
8626:
8622:
8621:
8619:
8615:
8609:
8608:Yuman–Cochimí
8606:
8604:
8603:
8599:
8597:
8596:
8592:
8590:
8587:
8585:
8584:
8580:
8578:
8575:
8573:
8570:
8568:
8565:
8563:
8560:
8558:
8557:
8553:
8551:
8548:
8546:
8543:
8541:
8538:
8536:
8535:
8531:
8529:
8528:
8524:
8522:
8519:
8517:
8516:
8512:
8510:
8507:
8505:
8504:
8500:
8498:
8495:
8493:
8490:
8488:
8487:
8483:
8481:
8480:
8476:
8474:
8473:
8469:
8467:
8466:
8462:
8460:
8459:
8455:
8453:
8450:
8448:
8447:
8443:
8441:
8440:
8436:
8435:
8432:
8429:
8427:
8421:
8411:
8408:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8399:
8395:
8394:
8392:
8388:
8381:
8377:
8374:
8372:
8369:
8367:
8366:
8362:
8360:
8357:
8355:
8352:
8350:
8347:
8344:
8343:Southern Daly
8341:
8339:
8338:
8334:
8332:
8329:
8327:
8326:
8322:
8320:
8319:
8315:
8313:
8310:
8307:
8306:
8302:
8300:
8297:
8295:
8292:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8284:
8280:
8278:
8277:
8273:
8270:
8269:
8268:Darwin Region
8265:
8263:
8260:
8257:
8254:
8253:
8250:
8247:
8245:
8241:
8231:
8228:
8226:
8224:
8220:
8217:
8214:
8211:
8208:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8183:
8181:
8178:
8175:
8172:
8169:
8166:
8164:
8161:
8159:
8156:
8155:
8153:
8149:
8142:
8139:
8136:
8133:
8131:
8128:
8126:
8123:
8121:
8118:
8116:
8113:
8111:
8108:
8106:
8103:
8101:
8100:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8089:
8088:
8084:
8082:
8079:
8077:
8074:
8072:
8069:
8067:
8066:
8062:
8060:
8057:
8055:
8052:
8050:
8049:
8045:
8043:
8040:
8038:
8035:
8033:
8030:
8028:
8027:
8023:
8021:
8018:
8016:
8013:
8011:
8008:
8006:
8003:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7991:
7988:
7986:
7983:
7981:
7978:
7976:
7973:
7971:
7968:
7966:
7963:
7961:
7958:
7956:
7953:
7951:
7950:Demta–Sentani
7948:
7946:
7943:
7941:
7938:
7936:
7933:
7931:
7928:
7926:
7923:
7921:
7920:
7916:
7914:
7911:
7910:
7907:
7904:
7902:
7897:
7893:
7883:
7881:
7877:
7875:
7874:
7870:
7867:
7864:
7862:
7859:
7857:
7855:
7851:
7849:
7846:
7844:
7842:
7838:
7836:
7835:
7831:
7829:
7828:
7824:
7822:
7819:
7817:
7814:
7813:
7811:
7807:
7800:
7797:
7794:
7791:
7788:
7785:
7782:
7779:
7776:
7773:
7770:
7767:
7765:
7762:
7760:
7757:
7755:
7754:
7750:
7748:
7747:
7743:
7741:
7740:
7736:
7734:
7731:
7729:
7728:
7724:
7722:
7719:
7717:
7714:
7712:
7711:
7707:
7705:
7702:
7700:
7697:
7695:
7694:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7680:
7678:
7675:
7673:
7672:
7671:Indo-European
7668:
7666:
7665:
7661:
7659:
7658:
7654:
7652:
7649:
7647:
7644:
7642:
7641:
7637:
7635:
7632:
7630:
7629:
7625:
7623:
7622:
7621:Austroasiatic
7618:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7610:
7606:
7605:
7602:
7599:
7596:
7591:
7584:
7573:
7570:
7567:
7564:
7562:
7559:
7557:
7556:
7552:
7550:
7547:
7545:
7542:
7541:
7539:
7535:
7528:
7525:
7522:
7519:
7516:
7513:
7510:
7507:
7504:
7501:
7499:
7496:
7493:
7492:
7488:
7486:
7485:
7481:
7479:
7476:
7474:
7471:
7469:
7468:
7464:
7462:
7461:
7457:
7456:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7444:
7440:
7433:
7428:
7426:
7421:
7419:
7414:
7413:
7410:
7396:
7392:
7389:
7385:
7384:
7380:
7374:
7371:
7369:
7366:
7364:
7361:
7359:
7356:
7354:
7351:
7349:
7346:
7344:
7341:
7339:
7336:
7334:
7331:
7329:
7326:
7325:
7323:
7321:
7317:
7307:
7304:
7302:
7299:
7297:
7294:
7292:
7289:
7287:
7284:
7282:
7279:
7278:
7276:
7274:
7270:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7256:
7254:
7251:
7249:
7246:
7242:
7239:
7237:
7234:
7233:
7232:
7229:
7228:
7226:
7224:
7220:
7214:
7211:
7209:
7208:Eskimo–Uralic
7206:
7204:
7201:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7141:
7139:
7136:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7119:
7118:
7117:
7114:
7112:
7109:
7107:
7104:
7103:
7100:
7097:
7093:
7083:
7080:
7077:
7076:
7072:
7070:
7069:
7065:
7063:
7062:
7058:
7057:
7055:
7053:
7048:
7042:
7039:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7018:
7016:
7013:
7012:Paleosiberian
7008:
7005:
7003:
6999:
6993:
6992:
6988:
6986:
6983:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6972:
6970:
6967:
6963:
6957:
6954:
6952:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6936:
6932:
6930:
6929:
6925:
6923:
6922:
6918:
6916:
6915:
6911:
6909:
6908:
6907:Austroasiatic
6904:
6902:
6901:
6897:
6896:
6894:
6892:
6888:
6881:
6880:
6876:
6874:
6871:
6869:
6866:
6864:
6861:
6859:
6858:
6857:Austroasiatic
6854:
6852:
6851:
6847:
6845:
6844:
6840:
6838:
6837:
6836:Indo-European
6833:
6832:
6830:
6828:
6824:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6807:
6806:
6805:
6801:
6799:
6796:
6795:
6793:
6791:
6787:
6781:
6780:
6776:
6774:
6773:
6769:
6767:
6766:
6762:
6760:
6759:
6755:
6753:
6752:
6748:
6746:
6745:
6741:
6739:
6738:
6734:
6732:
6731:
6727:
6725:
6724:
6720:
6718:
6717:
6713:
6711:
6710:
6709:Indo-European
6706:
6705:
6703:
6701:
6697:
6691:
6690:
6686:
6684:
6683:
6679:
6677:
6676:
6672:
6670:
6669:
6665:
6663:
6662:
6658:
6656:
6655:
6651:
6649:
6648:
6644:
6642:
6641:
6637:
6635:
6634:
6630:
6628:
6627:
6623:
6621:
6620:
6616:
6614:
6613:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6601:
6597:
6595:
6594:
6590:
6588:
6587:
6586:Indo-European
6583:
6582:
6580:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6559:
6554:
6552:
6547:
6545:
6540:
6539:
6536:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6511:
6509:
6506:
6502:
6499:
6498:
6497:
6494:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6483:
6481:
6477:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6458:
6456:
6453:
6452:
6450:
6448:
6444:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6432:Speech levels
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6422:Postpositions
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6402:
6398:
6397:
6395:
6393:
6389:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6359:
6356:
6355:
6353:
6351:
6347:
6346:Cyrillization
6343:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6325:
6322:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6311:
6310:
6307:
6303:
6300:
6298:
6295:
6294:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6284:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6272:
6266:
6265:Jeju language
6263:
6262:
6260:
6258:
6254:
6244:
6241:
6240:
6238:
6236:
6232:
6226:
6223:
6222:
6220:
6218:
6214:
6208:
6205:
6204:
6202:
6200:
6196:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6172:
6171:
6169:
6167:
6163:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6139:
6136:
6135:
6134:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6125:
6123:
6121:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6108:
6100:
6096:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6080:
6076:
6073:
6069:
6064:
6049:
6046:
6043:
6042:
6040:
6034:
6033:Modern Korean
6030:
6024:
6016:
6009:
6006:
6005:
6003:
5997:
5996:Middle Korean
5993:
5987:
5984:
5982:
5979:
5977:
5974:
5972:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5948:
5946:
5940:
5936:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5921:
5919:
5917:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5893:
5888:
5886:
5881:
5879:
5874:
5873:
5870:
5860:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5841:
5833:
5829:
5823:
5819:
5814:
5811:(1): 141–166.
5810:
5806:
5805:
5799:
5798:
5786:
5780:
5776:
5771:
5767:
5761:
5757:
5752:
5748:
5742:
5738:
5733:
5729:
5723:
5719:
5714:
5710:
5704:
5700:
5693:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5672:
5668:
5663:
5659:
5653:
5649:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5606:
5602:
5600:3-11-011908-0
5596:
5592:
5588:
5587:Baldi, Philip
5583:
5579:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5559:
5554:
5550:
5544:
5540:
5535:
5531:
5525:
5521:
5516:
5512:
5508:
5504:
5500:
5495:
5491:
5485:
5481:
5476:
5473:(2): 107–140.
5472:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5450:
5446:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5428:
5424:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5406:
5402:
5396:
5392:
5387:
5383:
5377:
5373:
5368:
5364:
5358:
5354:
5349:
5345:
5339:
5335:
5330:
5326:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5283:Archaeologies
5279:
5275:
5269:
5265:
5260:
5256:
5250:
5246:
5245:
5239:
5235:
5234:
5228:
5224:
5218:
5214:
5209:
5205:
5199:
5195:
5190:
5186:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5158:
5154:
5149:
5145:
5139:
5135:
5130:
5126:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5035:
5030:
5026:
5020:
5016:
5011:
5007:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4992:Kim, Won-yong
4989:
4985:
4981:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4959:
4949:on 2021-02-26
4945:
4941:
4937:
4930:
4925:
4921:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4889:
4882:
4878:
4869:
4865:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4842:Georg, Stefan
4839:
4835:
4829:
4825:
4820:
4816:
4810:
4806:
4799:
4794:
4790:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4762:on 2020-06-06
4758:
4754:
4750:
4743:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4726:
4722:
4716:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4680:
4676:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4657:
4645:
4640:
4633:
4628:
4621:
4616:
4610:, p. 38.
4609:
4604:
4597:
4596:Vovin (2013a)
4592:
4586:, p. 42.
4585:
4580:
4573:
4568:
4561:
4556:
4549:
4544:
4538:, p. 40.
4537:
4532:
4525:
4520:
4513:
4508:
4501:
4496:
4489:
4484:
4477:
4472:
4466:, p. 39.
4465:
4460:
4454:, p. 37.
4453:
4448:
4441:
4436:
4429:
4424:
4417:
4412:
4405:
4400:
4394:, p. 29.
4393:
4388:
4381:
4376:
4369:
4364:
4358:, p. 35.
4357:
4352:
4345:
4340:
4334:, p. 19.
4333:
4328:
4322:, p. 39.
4321:
4316:
4310:, p. 87.
4309:
4304:
4297:
4296:Vovin (2013a)
4292:
4286:, p. 44.
4285:
4280:
4278:
4270:
4265:
4258:
4253:
4246:
4241:
4234:
4229:
4223:, p. 22.
4222:
4217:
4210:
4205:
4198:
4193:
4187:, p. 55.
4186:
4181:
4175:, p. 35.
4174:
4169:
4167:
4159:
4154:
4148:, p. 34.
4147:
4142:
4140:
4132:
4127:
4120:
4115:
4109:, p. 36.
4108:
4103:
4101:
4093:
4088:
4082:, p. 31.
4081:
4076:
4074:
4067:, p. 17.
4066:
4061:
4054:
4049:
4043:, p. 40.
4042:
4037:
4030:
4025:
4018:
4013:
4007:, p. 15.
4006:
4001:
3994:
3989:
3982:
3977:
3970:
3965:
3958:
3953:
3946:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3930:, p. 98.
3929:
3924:
3917:
3912:
3905:
3900:
3893:
3888:
3881:
3876:
3869:
3864:
3857:
3852:
3850:
3842:
3837:
3830:
3825:
3819:, p. 12.
3818:
3813:
3806:
3801:
3794:
3789:
3782:
3777:
3770:
3765:
3758:
3753:
3746:
3741:
3734:
3729:
3722:
3717:
3710:
3709:Nelson (1995)
3705:
3698:
3697:Nelson (1995)
3693:
3686:
3681:
3674:
3669:
3662:
3661:Nelson (1995)
3657:
3650:
3645:
3638:
3633:
3626:
3621:
3614:
3609:
3602:
3597:
3590:
3585:
3578:
3573:
3566:
3561:
3554:
3549:
3542:
3537:
3535:
3527:
3522:
3515:
3510:
3503:
3498:
3491:
3486:
3479:
3474:
3467:
3462:
3460:
3452:
3447:
3440:
3435:
3428:
3423:
3421:
3419:
3411:
3406:
3399:
3394:
3387:
3382:
3376:, p. 70.
3375:
3370:
3363:
3358:
3351:
3346:
3340:, p. 33.
3339:
3334:
3332:
3325:, p. 71.
3324:
3319:
3313:, p. 62.
3312:
3307:
3305:
3297:
3292:
3285:
3280:
3274:, p. 45.
3273:
3268:
3262:, p. 34.
3261:
3256:
3254:
3247:, p. 60.
3246:
3245:Martin (1996)
3241:
3235:, p. 25.
3234:
3229:
3222:
3217:
3210:
3209:Martin (1992)
3205:
3198:
3193:
3186:
3185:Martin (1996)
3181:
3174:
3169:
3162:
3157:
3150:
3145:
3138:
3133:
3126:
3121:
3114:
3109:
3102:
3097:
3090:
3085:
3078:
3073:
3066:
3061:
3054:
3053:Vovin (2013b)
3049:
3043:, p. 66.
3042:
3037:
3030:
3029:Martin (1996)
3025:
3019:, p. 89.
3018:
3013:
3006:
3001:
2995:, p. 64.
2994:
2989:
2983:, p. 29.
2982:
2977:
2975:
2967:
2962:
2955:
2950:
2943:
2938:
2932:, p. 65.
2931:
2926:
2919:
2914:
2907:
2902:
2900:
2892:
2887:
2881:, p. 11.
2880:
2875:
2868:
2863:
2857:, p. 28.
2856:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2835:
2830:
2823:
2818:
2811:
2806:
2799:
2794:
2787:
2782:
2780:
2772:
2767:
2760:
2755:
2748:
2743:
2741:
2733:
2728:
2721:
2716:
2709:
2704:
2697:
2692:
2685:
2680:
2674:, p. 43.
2673:
2668:
2661:
2656:
2649:
2644:
2637:
2632:
2626:, p. 42.
2625:
2620:
2613:
2608:
2601:
2596:
2594:
2592:
2584:
2579:
2572:
2567:
2560:
2555:
2548:
2543:
2536:
2531:
2529:
2522:, p. 41.
2521:
2516:
2509:
2504:
2497:
2492:
2486:, p. 87.
2485:
2480:
2474:, p. 44.
2473:
2468:
2461:
2456:
2449:
2444:
2438:, p. 45.
2437:
2432:
2425:
2420:
2413:
2408:
2401:
2396:
2389:
2384:
2378:, p. 13.
2377:
2372:
2370:
2362:
2357:
2351:, p. 34.
2350:
2345:
2339:, p. 37.
2338:
2333:
2326:
2325:Vovin (2013c)
2321:
2319:
2314:
2298:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2277:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2251:
2244:
2240:
2234:
2230:
2222:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2202:
2198:
2197:
2196:Book of Liang
2191:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2180:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2144:
2143:Taedong River
2138:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2113:
2107:
2105:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2050:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1950:
1949:Taedong River
1946:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1916:Han languages
1913:
1903:
1901:
1900:Unified Silla
1895:
1888:Early history
1885:
1883:
1879:
1878:Homer Hulbert
1873:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1842:
1841:
1835:
1834:Yayoi culture
1831:
1825:
1823:
1822:Samuel Martin
1819:
1813:
1803:
1801:
1795:
1788:
1782:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1766:Paleosiberian
1763:
1759:
1754:
1752:
1751:postpositions
1748:
1744:
1743:agglutinative
1740:
1736:
1726:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1686:
1677:
1663:
1660:
1651:
1642:
1634:
1633:
1627:
1618:
1617:(particles).
1616:
1615:postpositions
1612:
1608:
1604:
1603:agglutinative
1599:
1597:
1596:Middle Korean
1591:
1581:
1577:
1576:Proto-Japonic
1573:
1569:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1530:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1492:
1486:
1483:
1482:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1416:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1378:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1330:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1302:
1292:
1289:
1288:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1260:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1218:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1180:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1149:Proto-Korean
1148:
1146:
1145:
1139:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1102:
1101:ergative case
1098:
1094:
1090:
1080:
1078:
1074:
1068:
1066:
1057:
1048:
1043:
1037:
1030:
1023:
1017:
1007:
1000:
995:
993:
991:
988:
987:
979:
974:
967:
962:
955:
950:
948:
945:
944:
936:
931:
924:
919:
912:
907:
905:
902:
901:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
882:
876:
873:
872:William Labov
869:
865:
861:
856:
854:
850:
845:
839:
791:
766:
739:
735:
732:
728:
727:
726:
719:
716:
711:
709:
707:
705:
702:
701:
698:
696:
693:
688:
686:
684:
681:
680:
676:
671:
669:
666:
661:
659:
657:
654:
653:
649:
644:
641:
636:
633:
628:
625:
620:
618:
615:
614:
610:
605:
603:
600:
595:
592:
587:
585:
582:
581:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
557:
551:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
519:
517:
513:
510:, Chongsŏng,
509:
505:
501:
497:
492:
487:
483:
479:
469:
463:
458:
457:Yukjin Korean
448:
445:
444:
426:
420:
419:Jeju language
410:
407:
403:
398:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
370:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
343:
341:
337:
333:
329:
324:
321:
320:
313:
312:
306:
302:
291:
285:
284:
277:
272:
258:
257:Middle Korean
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
225:
215:
210:Dialect zones
208:
199:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
130:
125:
120:
115:
113:
109:
104:
98:
92:
89:
83:
81:
78:
76:
73:
71:
68:
67:
66:
62:
58:
54:
51:
47:
45:
41:
38:
34:
31:
25:
20:
9555:Proto-Turkic
9550:Proto-Altaic
9532:Old Japanese
9500:
9427:
9420:
9419:Families in
9354:
9305:
9203:
9191:
9041:
9009:
9000:Pano-Tacanan
8957:
8920:
8908:
8879:Arutani–Sape
8871:
8816:
8798:
8791:
8776:Oto-Manguean
8774:
8757:
8750:
8697:
8685:
8678:
8671:
8664:
8657:
8630:
8623:
8600:
8593:
8581:
8554:
8532:
8525:
8513:
8501:
8484:
8477:
8470:
8463:
8456:
8444:
8437:
8396:
8363:
8359:Western Daly
8337:Pama–Nyungan
8335:
8323:
8316:
8303:
8281:
8276:Eastern Daly
8274:
8266:
8221:
8097:
8085:
8063:
8046:
8024:
7995:Kaure–Kosare
7955:Doso–Turumsa
7945:Chimbu–Wahgi
7935:Bulaka River
7919:Austronesian
7917:
7878:
7871:
7852:
7839:
7832:
7825:
7751:
7744:
7737:
7727:Sino-Tibetan
7725:
7708:
7691:
7686:
7669:
7662:
7655:
7638:
7628:Austronesian
7626:
7619:
7607:
7553:
7491:Nilo-Saharan
7489:
7482:
7467:Austronesian
7465:
7458:
7394:
7387:
7386:Families in
7343:Pre-Goidelic
7338:Pre-Germanic
7168:Indo-Semitic
7163:Indo-Pacific
7158:Indo-Hittite
7073:
7066:
7059:
6989:
6966:Indian Ocean
6950:
6933:
6928:Austronesian
6926:
6919:
6912:
6905:
6900:Sino-Tibetan
6898:
6877:
6855:
6850:Sino-Tibetan
6848:
6841:
6834:
6802:
6777:
6770:
6763:
6756:
6749:
6742:
6735:
6728:
6721:
6714:
6707:
6687:
6680:
6673:
6666:
6659:
6654:North Picene
6652:
6645:
6638:
6631:
6624:
6617:
6610:
6598:
6591:
6584:
6485:
6479:Other topics
6399:
6358:ISO/TR 11941
6350:Romanization
6331:Mixed script
6256:
6217:Central Asia
5849:
5845:
5838:
5817:
5808:
5804:Acta Koreana
5802:
5774:
5755:
5736:
5720:, Springer,
5717:
5698:
5692:"Old Korean"
5674:
5670:
5666:
5647:
5613:
5609:
5590:
5557:
5538:
5519:
5502:
5498:
5479:
5470:
5466:
5444:
5422:
5413:
5409:
5390:
5371:
5352:
5333:
5314:
5286:
5282:
5263:
5243:
5232:
5212:
5193:
5174:
5152:
5133:
5114:
5102:
5098:
5079:
5075:
5056:
5052:
5033:
5014:
4995:
4983:
4979:
4970:
4966:
4951:, retrieved
4944:the original
4939:
4935:
4909:
4887:
4880:
4876:
4849:
4823:
4804:
4797:
4778:
4764:, retrieved
4757:the original
4752:
4748:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4710:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4664:
4639:
4632:Vovin (2005)
4627:
4615:
4603:
4591:
4579:
4572:Vovin (2005)
4567:
4555:
4543:
4531:
4519:
4507:
4495:
4483:
4471:
4459:
4447:
4435:
4423:
4411:
4399:
4387:
4375:
4363:
4351:
4344:Georg (2017)
4339:
4327:
4315:
4308:Unger (2009)
4303:
4291:
4271:, p. 2.
4264:
4252:
4240:
4228:
4216:
4204:
4192:
4180:
4153:
4126:
4114:
4087:
4060:
4055:, p. 4.
4048:
4036:
4024:
4012:
4000:
3988:
3981:Vovin (2010)
3976:
3969:Vovin (2010)
3964:
3959:, p. 5.
3952:
3923:
3911:
3904:Vovin (2010)
3899:
3887:
3875:
3863:
3856:Vovin (2017)
3836:
3824:
3812:
3800:
3788:
3776:
3764:
3752:
3740:
3728:
3716:
3704:
3692:
3680:
3668:
3656:
3644:
3632:
3620:
3615:, p. 5.
3608:
3596:
3584:
3572:
3560:
3548:
3521:
3509:
3497:
3485:
3473:
3468:, p. 6.
3446:
3434:
3429:, p. 7.
3410:Vovin (2010)
3405:
3398:Vovin (2010)
3393:
3386:Vovin (2010)
3381:
3369:
3357:
3345:
3318:
3311:Vovin (2010)
3291:
3279:
3272:Vovin (2010)
3267:
3240:
3228:
3216:
3204:
3192:
3180:
3168:
3156:
3144:
3132:
3120:
3113:Labov (1994)
3108:
3096:
3084:
3072:
3060:
3048:
3036:
3024:
3012:
3000:
2988:
2966:Vovin (2010)
2961:
2949:
2937:
2925:
2913:
2886:
2879:Vovin (2010)
2874:
2862:
2829:
2817:
2805:
2793:
2766:
2754:
2727:
2715:
2703:
2691:
2679:
2667:
2655:
2643:
2631:
2619:
2607:
2578:
2566:
2554:
2542:
2515:
2503:
2491:
2479:
2467:
2455:
2443:
2431:
2419:
2407:
2395:
2383:
2356:
2344:
2332:
2297:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2276:
2259:
2250:
2233:
2218:Book of Zhou
2216:
2213:Old Japanese
2194:
2192:
2177:
2152:(erected in
2147:
2139:
2110:
2108:
2101:
2097:Tang dynasty
2078:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2014:
1996:
1973:
1958:
1952:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1897:
1882:Austronesian
1875:
1852:Old Japanese
1845:
1839:
1826:
1815:
1796:
1783:
1758:Kim Won-yong
1755:
1745:morphology,
1732:
1696:
1600:
1592:
1565:
1153:Jilin leishi
1152:
1125:
1116:inflectional
1109:
1096:
1086:
1083:Morphosyntax
1073:pitch accent
1069:
1013:The vowels *
1012:
864:Jìlín lèishì
863:
857:
852:
848:
819:
724:
549:
525:
474:
422:
399:
371:
344:
325:
283:Jilin leishi
273:
227:
213:
173:
140:
139:
64:Subdivisions
29:distribution
9313:Germanosign
9217:Mura-Pirahã
9098:Lule–Vilela
9074:Bora-Witoto
9049:Uru–Chipaya
9022:Ticuna–Yuri
9005:Peba–Yaguan
8990:Nambikwaran
8793:Uto-Aztecan
8729:Mesoamerica
8583:Uto-Aztecan
8572:Tsimshianic
8534:Palaihnihan
8404:Malak-Malak
8141:Papuan Gulf
8115:West Papuan
8020:Lower Sepik
8010:Lakes Plain
7913:Arai–Samaia
7901:the Pacific
7609:Afroasiatic
7484:Niger–Congo
7460:Afroasiatic
7193:Ural-Altaic
7173:Indo-Uralic
6985:Sentinelese
6716:Afroasiatic
6682:Eteocypriot
6302:Punctuation
6166:North Korea
6120:South Korea
6093:North Korea
6079:South Korea
6050:South Korea
6047:North Korea
5852:: 167–170,
5416:(2): 13–31.
5089:10371/85946
5066:10371/85771
4877:Samguk sagi
4740:Hou-Han shu
4701:10371/86143
4684:Nihon shoki
4653:Works cited
4644:Kōno (1987)
4608:Sohn (1999)
4404:Seth (2016)
4392:Seth (2016)
4380:Seth (2016)
4356:Seth (2016)
4320:Sohn (1999)
4221:Seth (2016)
4158:Seth (2016)
4119:Seth (2016)
4092:Shin (2014)
4065:Sohn (1999)
4041:Sohn (1999)
4017:Sohn (1999)
3993:Sohn (1999)
3868:Sohn (1999)
3577:Sohn (1999)
3565:Sohn (1999)
3514:Sohn (1999)
3478:Sohn (1999)
3439:Sohn (1999)
3017:Sohn (1999)
2798:King (1987)
2786:King (1992)
2771:King (1987)
2759:King (1987)
2720:Yeon (2012)
2660:King (1987)
2648:Yeon (2012)
2636:King (1987)
2612:King (1987)
2583:Yeon (2012)
2571:Yeon (2012)
2559:Sohn (1999)
2547:Yeon (2012)
2484:Sohn (1999)
2472:Sohn (1999)
2436:Sohn (1999)
2424:Yeon (2012)
2412:Sohn (1999)
2400:Yeon (2012)
2388:Sohn (1999)
2363:, Map C1-7.
2361:CASS (2012)
2349:King (1987)
2337:NGII (2017)
2207:Nihon Shoki
2179:Book of Wei
2166:verb–object
2162:object–verb
2112:Samguk sagi
1937:Han dynasty
1840:Samguk sagi
1735:Ural–Altaic
1112:bound forms
1065:tongue root
1019:> and *
868:chain shift
704:Approximant
496:Tumen River
425:Jeju Island
319:Samguk yusa
143:is a small
9580:Categories
9527:Old Korean
9522:Old Turkic
9307:Francosign
9155:Chiquitano
9135:Alacalufan
8943:Guaicuruan
8916:Chapacuran
8899:Cahuapanan
8867:Araucanian
8770:Mixe–Zoque
8765:Misumalpan
8479:Comecrudan
8331:Nyulnyulan
8110:Upper Yuat
8087:Torricelli
8059:Senu River
7990:Foja Range
7896:New Guinea
7821:Burushaski
7682:Kartvelian
7657:Hmong–Mien
7473:Khoe–Kwadi
7333:Pre-Celtic
7301:East Asian
7291:Austro-Tai
7281:Andamanese
7131:Eurasiatic
7052:North Asia
7002:North Asia
6914:Hmong–Mien
6868:Burushaski
6827:South Asia
6798:Kartvelian
6765:Philistine
6675:Eteocretan
6619:Tartessian
6447:Literature
6412:Honorifics
6407:Count word
5939:Old Korean
5043:1773/33458
4986:: 179–190.
4973:: 281–303.
4953:2020-05-07
4766:2020-05-07
4749:Crossroads
4732:Sanguo zhi
4584:Nam (2012)
4548:Toh (2005)
4368:Pai (2000)
4269:Kim (1983)
4245:Kim (1987)
4185:Nam (2012)
4029:Kim (1987)
3721:Pai (2000)
3673:Pai (2000)
3637:Kim (1987)
3601:Kim (1983)
3284:Nam (2012)
2954:Kim (2015)
2520:Nam (2012)
2310:References
2057:See also:
1910:See also:
1892:See also:
1870:See also:
1810:See also:
1749:order and
1723:Eurasiatic
1607:head-final
1572:reinforced
1134:'we' and *
1122:Vocabulary
1045:underwent
731:reinforced
480:drove the
387:Kazakhstan
383:Uzbekistan
305:Old Korean
176:Old Korean
27:Geographic
9338:Tanzanian
9279:languages
9176:Hodï/Joti
9120:Isolates
9059:Yanomaman
8995:Otomákoan
8959:Jirajaran
8948:Guajiboan
8910:Catacaoan
8889:Barbacoan
8818:Cuitlatec
8787:Totonacan
8746:Jicaquean
8625:Chimariko
8521:Muskogean
8503:Kalapuyan
8497:Iroquoian
8472:Chumashan
8465:Chinookan
8458:Chimakuan
8376:Yangmanic
8371:Worrorran
8354:Wagaydyic
8244:Australia
8093:Trans-Fly
7759:Yeniseian
7746:Tyrsenian
7640:Dravidian
7358:Pre-Vedic
7348:Pre-Greek
7320:Substrata
7223:Arunachal
7121:Nostratic
7106:Alarodian
7041:Yeniseian
6891:East Asia
6843:Dravidian
6700:West Asia
6668:Tyrsenian
6401:Phonology
6319:Hyangchal
6225:Koryo-mar
5303:133125509
4884:日本語系統論の現在
4854:Routledge
4667:, Brill,
3685:Yi (2014)
3625:Yi (2014)
2280:The name
1719:Nostratic
1568:aspirated
1067:harmony.
656:Fricative
546:Phonology
500:Kyŏnghŭng
391:Koryo-mar
340:Pyongyang
112:Glottolog
37:Manchuria
9501:Koreanic
9496:Tungusic
9491:Mongolic
9479:Families
9371:See also
9348:Isolates
9323:Japanese
9263:Yuracaré
9145:Candoshi
9104:Macro-Jê
9069:Zaparoan
9064:Zamucoan
9054:Witotoan
9037:Tucanoan
9032:Tiniguan
9027:Timotean
9011:Quechuan
8980:Matacoan
8975:Mascoian
8965:Jivaroan
8928:Chibchan
8922:Charruan
8873:Arawakan
8810:Isolates
8741:Chibchan
8617:Isolates
8589:Wakashan
8550:Salishan
8492:Eskaleut
8398:Giimbiyu
8390:Isolates
8299:Jarrakan
8294:Iwaidjan
8151:Isolates
8005:Kutubuan
7873:Sumerian
7809:Isolates
7764:Yukaghir
7733:Tungusic
7699:Mongolic
7687:Koreanic
7646:Eskaleut
7537:Isolates
7521:Ubangian
7353:Vasconic
7328:Atlantic
7082:Eskaleut
7036:Yukaghir
6951:Koreanic
6946:Tungusic
6941:Mongolic
6879:Harappan
6790:Caucasus
6772:Sumerian
6647:Ligurian
6496:Konglish
6427:Pronouns
6417:Numerals
6111:Dialects
6085:Pyojuneo
6071:Standard
5966:Goguryeo
5443:(2009),
5313:(1991),
5173:(1992),
5113:(1994),
5105:: 75–86.
4994:(1983),
4908:(1996),
4663:(2004),
2302:century.
2126:Tungusic
2047:Tungusic
2007:Byeonhan
1992:Tungusic
1971:in 244.
1969:Goguryeo
1856:Ryukyuan
1787:typology
1770:Tungusic
1707:Mongolic
1703:Tungusic
1659:Tungusic
1650:Mongolic
1425:ʔjit-kip
1349:da(ŋ)-ʂy
1103:marker *
790:lenition
567:Alveolar
562:Bilabial
512:Hoeryŏng
504:Kyŏngwŏn
395:Sakhalin
249:Hamgyŏng
192:Tungusic
141:Koreanic
119:kore1284
97:Goguryeo
22:Koreanic
9506:Japonic
9421:italics
9398:Pidgins
9383:Creoles
9333:Swedish
9301:Chinese
9248:Urarina
9233:Puinave
9187:Itonama
9181:Irantxe
9150:Chimane
9080:Chimuan
8985:Nadahup
8904:Cariban
8884:Aymaran
8845:America
8687:Waikuri
8680:Tonkawa
8673:Timucua
8666:Takelma
8659:Siuslaw
8648:Kutenai
8632:Esselen
8595:Wintuan
8556:Shastan
8527:Na-Dene
8515:Maiduan
8452:Caddoan
8426:America
8380:Wagiman
8378:(incl.
8349:Tangkic
8289:Garawan
8262:Bunuban
8223:Tambora
8190:Maybrat
8158:Abinomn
8081:Teberan
8042:Pauwasi
8032:Mairasi
8000:Kiwaian
7880:Tambora
7866:Shompen
7848:Kusunda
7841:Kenaboi
7827:Elamite
7799:Siangic
7781:Kho-Bwa
7775:Hrusish
7693:Kra–Dai
7677:Japonic
7586:Eurasia
7561:Sandawe
7544:Bangime
7509:Songhay
7388:italics
7286:Austric
7263:Kho-Bwa
7258:Hrusish
7236:Siangic
7178:Karasuk
7078: ?
6991:Kenaboi
6956:Japonic
6921:Kra–Dai
6882: ?
6873:Kusunda
6779:Elamite
6751:Kassite
6737:Kaskian
6640:Camunic
6612:Iberian
6569:Eurasia
6460:Hyangga
6392:Grammar
6373:Revised
6314:Gugyeol
6099:Munhwaŏ
5986:Ye-Maek
5907:History
5840:Chinese
5618:Bibcode
5589:(ed.),
4848:(ed.),
2241:to the
2184:Jurchen
2134:Japonic
1806:Japonic
1715:Japonic
1676:Japonic
1580:voicing
1501:ʔja-xaw
1468:jətɨ́lp
1463:jit-tap
1227:du-buaj
1173:hət(V)-
1138:'you'.
1095:suffix
1047:syncope
892:Central
572:Palatal
516:Puryŏng
491:Yukchin
482:Jurchen
468:Yukchin
451:Yukchin
367:Yanbian
353:in the
311:hyangga
231:form a
9486:Turkic
9296:BANZSL
9258:Yamana
9243:Trumai
9212:Movima
9166:Fulniô
9129:Aikanã
9043:Tupian
8938:Chonan
8862:Arauan
8800:Xincan
8752:Lencan
8705:Yokuts
8602:Yukian
8567:Tanoan
8562:Siouan
8545:Pomoan
8486:Coosan
8312:Mirndi
8205:Porome
8200:Pawaia
8054:Senagi
8026:Madang
7975:Eleman
7930:Border
7861:Nihali
7854:Minoan
7834:Hattic
7816:Basque
7787:Mijiic
7769:Digaro
7753:Uralic
7739:Turkic
7590:Europe
7447:Africa
7248:Mijiic
7241:Digaro
7188:Pontic
7116:Borean
7111:Altaic
7075:Rouran
7068:Turkic
7061:Uralic
7050:Other
6935:Turkic
6863:Nihali
6758:Gutian
6730:Hattic
6723:Turkic
6689:Minoan
6661:Sicani
6606:Basque
6600:Turkic
6593:Uralic
6577:Europe
6292:Hangul
6044:Joseon
6026:Joseon
6010:Joseon
6007:Goryeo
5951:Baekje
5824:
5781:
5762:
5743:
5724:
5705:
5654:
5597:
5574:
5545:
5526:
5486:
5451:
5429:
5397:
5378:
5359:
5340:
5321:
5301:
5270:
5251:
5219:
5200:
5181:
5159:
5140:
5121:
5021:
5002:
4980:Hangul
4916:
4860:
4830:
4811:
4785:
4736:Weilüe
4717:
4671:
2201:Baekje
2188:Manchu
2130:Korean
2083:, the
2081:Baekje
2065:, and
2023:Zhōuhú
2011:Jinhan
1999:Samhan
1945:Lelang
1866:Others
1800:Manchu
1774:Yemaek
1729:Altaic
1713:) and
1711:Turkic
1699:Altaic
1688:
1683:
1681:
1674:
1672:
1666:
1657:
1655:
1648:
1646:
1641:Turkic
1639:
1637:
1451:jətərp
1430:nilkúp
1413:nirkup
1392:jəsɨ́s
1387:jit-ʂy
1354:tasʌ́s
1189:ɣa-dun
1130:'I', *
1002:>
981:>
969:>
957:>
938:>
926:>
914:>
508:Onsŏng
478:Sejong
276:Hangul
218:Korean
165:Hangul
149:Korean
88:Baekje
80:Yukjin
70:Korean
9253:Warao
9222:Nukak
9193:Kunza
9171:Guató
9160:Cofán
9140:Camsá
8933:Choco
8894:Boran
8843:South
8824:Huave
8759:Mayan
8710:Yuchi
8693:Washo
8643:Karuk
8638:Haida
8577:Utian
8509:Keres
8446:Alsea
8439:Algic
8424:North
8216:Taiap
8210:Sulka
8065:Sepik
7980:Engan
7721:Ongan
7704:Nivkh
7572:Shabo
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