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has been reversing the traditional norms of domestic housewives, as more and more women are encouraged to work. Institutionally, Japanese government has been making efforts to close the wage gap and offer better family policies, as part of womenomics proposed under Prime
Minister Shinzo Abe in 2013. Employment wise, female labor-participation rate has gone up from 62.7% in 1997, to 70.1% in 2015. Yet a significant portion of female workers are participating in low wage and part-time jobs, while the wage gap was still the third highest in OECD countries in 2017 and women still felt limited in career development.
343:" and "ranking hierarchy", which includes seniority wages and lifetime employment. It allows employees to learn broad skills to achieve in long-term perspective through job rotation and on-the-job training which is likely to be firm-specific. Since Japanese firms develop firm-specific skills throughout long-term employment, it is difficult to enter the internal labor market which is only open to new graduates from high school or university, or those who can be competitive in the market with their special qualification or knowledge. This internal market worked well in Japanese firms.
371:
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efficacious for typical
Japanese firms where skill-based wages motivate employees to gain experience and build their abilities. However, the notion of non-regular employment was introduced by the employer's association Nikkeiren and has been promoted since the 1990s. The principal reason of innovation in flexible staffing is not for flexibility but economizing labor costs. Non-regular employees are common in the retailing and restaurant sectors: 44.3% in retailing and 63.4% in restaurant/hotel industry compared to 17.7% in construction and 21.4% in manufacturing industry in 2004.
414:
that are rehired to the work force as an irregular employee, which account for the majority of workers between 65 and 69. On the other hand, the regular and irregular employee structure can limit potentially higher elder participation, as "irregular" positions can be insecure and lower paying. As many elders still need to supplement their post-retirement income, the aged worker participation may continue to rise, as 42% of employees above 60 suggest they would like to continue working as long as able.
291:
445:. These people grew up in a Japan that was still largely an agriculturally based economy and had little material wealth. Moreover, they had suffered the hardships of war and had accepted hard work as a part of their lives. In the late twentieth century, these people were being replaced by generations born after the war, and there were indications that the newcomers had different attitudes toward work. Postwar generations were accustomed to prosperity and were also better educated than their elders.
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Japan's work visa program for "specified skilled worker", which had less than 400 applicants, despite an annual goal of attracting 40,000 overseas workers, suggesting Japan faces major challenges in attracting migrants compared to other developed countries. A Gallup poll found that few potential migrants wished to migrate to Japan compared to other G7 countries, consistent with the country's low migrant inflow.
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scholars associated with research and education institutions, professional entertainers, engineers and others specializing in advanced technology, foreign-language teachers, and others with special skills unavailable among
Japanese nationals. In 2019, restaurant, retail shop, and factory production line workers were added to the list. Officially, in 2008 there were 486,400 foreign workers in Japan: 43.3% of
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employers was weakening as well. A survey by the
Management and Coordination Agency revealed that a record 2.7 million workers changed jobs in the one-year period beginning October 1, 1986, and the ratio of those who switched jobs to the total labor force matched the previous high recorded in 1974 (one year after the first
389:
is now facing a shortage of labor caused by two major demographic problems: a shrinking population because of a low fertility rate, which was 1.4 per woman in 2009, and replacement of the postwar generation which is the biggest population range who are now around retirement age. Employers find hiring
322:
By 2021 the size of the labor force changed to 68.60 million, a decrease of 0.08 million from the previous year. Viewing by sex, the male labor force was 38.03 million, a decrease of 0.20 million, and the female labor force was 30.57 million, an increase of 0.13 million. The % of employed people
571:
in 1990. They are mainly located in two less appreciated sectors: 1) comparatively stable but low wage level in small to medium size factories troubled by constant labor shortage, and 2) highly unstable in medium to large size firms needing flexible staffing. The employers prefer
Japanese-Brazilians
469:
of foreigners, although exceptions were made for certain designated activities, provided that the workers have attended a
Japanese university and have a high level of Japanese-language proficiency. Excepted categories have included executives and managers engaged in commercial activities, full-time
409:
in 2019, while Japan's labor force decreased by 4.5 million in the past six years, the employment of women and elderly people each increased by 2 million. With a shortage of work force, Japan has been trying to supplement the labor market with higher female participation. Socially, Japanese society
397:
Recently, Japan has seriously considered introducing "foreign workers" to the nation twice. The first was in the late 1980s, when there was the labor shortage because of the economic boom, however it was forgotten when the economy worsened. The second started in 1999 since the labor shortage caused
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Although it is claimed that this system was designed to support foreigners in their acquisition of technical skills and knowledge of
Japanese advanced technology, in it has often been used to make up for a shortage of unskilled labor in Japan. Because the Japanese government is reluctant to invite
482:
and others (A labor
Ministry survey of Companies). More recent studies suggest that Japan has struggled to attract potential migrants despite immigration laws being relatively lenient (especially for high-skilled workers) compared to other developed countries. This is also apparent when looking at
413:
Another changing demographic of
Japanese labor market is higher elder participation. As the share of population 65 and above jumped from 10% in 1990 to 26.6 percent in 2015, the elderly component of the workforce rose from 7.8% in 2006 to 11.8% in 2016. On one hand, many elders are retired workers
393:
The population aged over 15 to 64 years old is 63.7% (80,730 thousand people) of the total population; most of them are considered as productive population who work and support those who are too old or too young to work, while the percentage of the population aged 65 and over is 23.1% of the total
448:
As might be expected, these socioeconomic changes have affected workers' attitudes. Prior to World War II, surveys indicated that the aspect of life regarded as most worthwhile was work. During the 1980s, the percentage of people who felt this way was declining. Workers' identification with their
486:
Despite the now-reversed upward trend in the unemployment rate, many unpopular jobs go unfilled and the domestic labor market is sluggish. Imported labor is seen as a solution to this situation by some employers, who hire low-paid foreign workers, who are, in turn, enticed by comparatively high
611:
lesson, but also offered 300,000 yen (average wage of 18 to 39 years old in manufacture industry is 241,200 yen) to any unemployed workers who wished to leave the country and 200,000 yen each to their family members on the condition of not returning to Japan within 3 years with the same status
456:
Another indication of changing worker attitudes is the number of people meeting with corporate scouts to discuss the possibility of switching jobs. Corporations' treatment of older workers also affects attitudes: there are fewer positions for older workers, and many find themselves without the
422:
The success of corporations in Japan is attributable to the remarkable motivation of its workers. Also behind this corporate prosperity is the workers' strong sense of loyalty to and identification with their employers. While many theories have evolved to explain the extraordinary attitude of
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workers customarily pay a substantial sum to enter the programs and may have to make a substantial deposit as a guarantee that once in Japan they will work for the assigned employer, nevertheless, once in Japan, a number abandon the program and seek illegal employment in Japan, only the most
361:
Performance-related pay requires short-term evaluation of employees' performance, which means that wage could reflect immediate job performance rather than the skills over the long-term. This could have negative effect on the long-term development. It was suggested that this system cannot be
1471:
transnational migrant laborers into the country, companies have had to look for new ways to find workers. As a result, many foreigners enrolled in the training-internship program—with valid three-year work permits—become a source of cheap labor, and end up working under wretched conditions.
307:
rate 5.1%. The structure of Japan's labor market experienced gradual change in the late 1980s and continued this trend throughout the 1990s. The structure of the labor market is affected by: 1) shrinking population, 2) replacement of postwar baby boom generation, 3) increasing numbers of
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In 2021, the labor force aged 15-64 was 59.31 million, a decrease of 0.15 million. Viewing by sex, the male labor force aged 15-64 was 32.52 million, a decrease of 0.20 million, and the female labor force aged 15-64 was 26.79 million, an increase of 0.06 million.
390:
a big challenge because of the labor shortage, together with the risk aversion nature of
Japanese people. These challenges multiply if the company does not have a big brand name or wishes to hire bilingual people with Japanese and English language skills.
323:
increased to 62.1% from that of 59.6% in 2010. Breaking it by sex, the ratio of employed males was 71.3%, a decrease of 0.1 percent points from the previous year, and the ratio of the labor force of females was 53.5%, an increase of 0.3 percent points.
394:
population in 2011 This impacts the shortage of labor in the physical care of the aged people, and Japanese government started bring in care workers from overseas which is managed by bilateral agreements with Indonesia and the Philippines.
628:, reversed the process, and western companies were buying major stakes in big Japanese companies, especially car makers. The process became like that of the 1980s by the early 2000s, when the country experienced a major recovery under the
526:
has become an exporter of labor to Japan to perform low wage "3K" jobs: Kitsui (demanding), Kitanai (dirty), and Kiken (dangerous). Chinese workers are hired by Chinese companies which contract with Japanese industry to provide labor. The
302:
numbered 65.9 million people in 2010, which was 59.6% of the population of 15 years old and older, and amongst them, 62.57 million people were employed, whereas 3.34 million people were unemployed which made the
330:
The labor force participation rate of those aged 15-64 was 80.1%, an increase of 0.5 percent points. Viewing by sex, the participation rate of males aged 15-64 was 86.7%, an increase of 0.2 percent points.
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Since the 1980s, Japan's manufactures have found it increasingly difficult to recruit workers locally, particularly for low-paid, labour-intensive jobs in the so-called 3K industries. At the same time,
535:
administered by the Japan International Training Cooperation Organization (JITCO). Hours are long, pay sub-standard, and the freedom of the workers while in Japan is restricted. The
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reap the highest rewards. Such corporate structure presumably fostered not only a determined interest in the company but also a low percentage of workers who changed jobs.
1190:
73:
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1878:
892:
Keizer, Arjan (July 2009). "Transformation in- and outside the internal labour market: institutional change and continuity in Japanese employment practices".
244:
1483:
453:). This survey also showed that the percentage of workers indicating an interest in changing jobs increased from 4.5 percent in 1971 to 9.9 percent in 1987.
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567:. They were discovered as a new labor source around 1990 and around one fifth of them now reside in Japan, which increased even after the collapse of the
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Japanese workers, perhaps the most noteworthy is that of personnel management. This view holds that loyalty to the company has developed as a result of
1121:
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During 2009, the national unemployment reached 5.7%, which is considerably high in Japan, especially in the manufacture industry which congregates in
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in the 1970s. The outsourcing helped to build local infrastructure and started a technological transfer, and some of the former subsidiaries and
624:
allowed Japanese companies to buy several American firms, adding a large American workforce to Japanese companies. The crisis of the 1990s, the
84:
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Japanese wages. The strict immigration laws are expected to remain on the books, however, although the influx of illegal aliens from nearby
2042:
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932:
Higuchi, Naoto; Tanno, Kiyoto (2003). "What's driving Brazil-Japan Migration? The Making and Remaking of the Brazilian Niche in Japan".
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576:, and caused less xenophobic reaction in factories. Undocumented workers tend to find jobs based on their personal networks whereas
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countries) to participate in the labor market is likely to increase. Japanese companies have also established foreign
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49:
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Oishi, Nana (2012). "The Limits of Immigration Policies: The Challenges of Highly Skilled Migration in Japan".
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358:, and 2) non-regular employment such as part-time, temporary and hiring through human resource agencies.
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to undocumented workers for racial or ethnocultural reasons. Earlier migrants were relatively fluent in
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New visa statuses were introduced last month to bring in blue-collar workers to labor-hungry sectors.
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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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reforms created a huge labour surplus in that country, which had to find employment somewhere.
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do so through institutionalized channels, including recruiting agencies, and are paid more.
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after the burst of economic bubble, and Japanese firms have introduced two developments: 1)
1975:
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1460:. Translated by Adachi. The Asia-Pacific Journal, Shūkan Kin'yōbi April 25, 2008, pp. 30–33
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1489:. Hong Kong: China Labour Bulletin www.clb.org.hk. June 2011. p. 70. Archived from
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Its employment rate for the working-age population (15-64) was the highest in the G7.
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1458:"Japan's Internship Training Program for Foreign Workers: Education or Exploitation?"
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administration. During that time, western stakes were greatly reduced or eliminated.
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1191:"Six years into Abe's womenomics push, women in Japan still struggling to shine"
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441:, the backbone of the labor force was, of course, made up of people born before
1820:
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exploitive being available. There is also a substantial number of workers from
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work in the industry. In April, the Japanese government budgeted 1.08 billion
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1565:"summary: returning support project for unemployed Japanese descent workers"
1949:
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1337:"What is the SSW ? | Japan is looking for Specified Skilled Workers!"
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1273:"Japan to open up job fields for foreign graduates from universities"
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1484:"Throwaway Labour: The exploitation of Chinese "trainees" in Japan"
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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1361:"Japan cries 'Help wanted,' but few foreigners heed the call"
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Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
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1080:"Managing borders and managing bodies in contemporary Japan"
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As of 2019, Japan's unemployment rate was the lowest in the
1803:
690:
488:
374:
Labor force participation rate (15-64 age) in Japan, by sex
74:
personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
1386:"Number of Potential Migrants Worldwide Tops 700 Million"
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to profit from low wages overseas. This trend started in
1899:
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
465:
Traditionally, Japan has had strict laws regarding the
1046:
1024:"Hiring in Japan – the Challenges and Tips - ReachExt"
1003:
873:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
825:
339:
The basic Japanese employment structure is known as "
1677:
Foreign commerce and shipping of the Empire of Japan
642:
587:, where estimated 83,000 of Japanese-Brazilians and
1248:"Keeping elderly workers in the labor force longer"
427:and a wage system in which those with the greatest
145:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1147:"What Is Womenomics, and Is It Working for Japan?"
1145:Shoko, Oda; Reynolds, Isabel (19 September 2018).
894:International Journal of Human Resource Management
1523:Department of Chibu Economy, Trade and Industry.
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846:
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1879:Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
1223:"Senior-Citizen Workers in Japan Top 8 Million"
1122:"Elderly workers: Expectations and challenges"
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457:rewards that their predecessors had enjoyed.
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828:"Summary of the 2010 Yearly Average Results"
798:, OECD Labour Force Statistics, OECD, 2020,
752:, OECD Economic Surveys: Japan, OECD, 2019,
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856:Portal Site of Official Statistics of Japan
50:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2121:Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association
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1166:"The Results Are In—Womenomics Is Working"
991:"Fertility Rate, Total (births per woman)"
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205:Learn how and when to remove this message
103:Learn how and when to remove this message
1940:Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates
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953:, OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, 2021,
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1084:Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy
515:developed into fierce competitors.
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1049:"News Bulletin September 15, 2011"
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1047:Japan MIC Statistic Bureau.
1004:Japan MIC Statistic Bureau.
951:OECD Employment Outlook 2021
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1915:Japanese labour law
1894:National Tax Agency
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1851:Government agencies
1525:"Summary of labour"
1365:Nikkei Asian Review
1006:"Population Trends"
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2060:Construction
1950:Nenko System
1945:Shūshin koyō
1935:Labor unions
1930:Labor market
1929:
1908:Labor market
1779:Japanese yen
1702:Lost Decades
1623:at Wikiquote
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1491:the original
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622:Japanese yen
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626:lost decade
491:countries (
474:, 20.4% of
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2197:Categories
2048:Automotive
1816:Nikkei 225
1774:Japan Mint
1548:13 October
1439:2020-03-16
1395:2020-03-16
1390:Gallup.com
1370:2020-03-17
1346:2022-07-23
1258:2019-07-31
1233:2019-07-31
1227:nippon.com
1208:2019-07-31
1175:2019-07-31
1131:2019-07-31
1054:13 October
1033:2022-07-23
1022:ReachExt.
861:2022-07-23
736:References
695:employment
578:Brazilians
541:Vietnamese
478:, 8.3% of
476:Brazilians
467:employment
451:oil crisis
403:Shinzo Abe
352:capitalism
165:newspapers
36:improve it
2182:Amakudari
2172:Nemawashi
2095:Transport
1955:Salaryman
1434:OECD Data
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601:immigrant
597:US dollar
589:Peruvians
509:Singapore
480:Filipinos
429:seniority
335:Character
237:summarize
93:June 2010
42:talk page
2036:Industry
2005:Rankings
1757:Currency
1748:Taxation
1717:Keiretsu
1712:Zaibatsu
1500:June 14,
1464:June 14,
1404:cite web
703:training
693:(not in
687:jobbers)
681:Freeters
639:See also
605:training
574:Japanese
561:Japanese
253:May 2020
195:May 2020
2100:Whaling
2065:Defense
1808:finance
1804:Banking
1665:History
1283:23 June
833:23 July
633:Koizumi
546:Vietnam
537:Chinese
472:Chinese
436:postwar
179:scholar
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