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to resolve the assignment of thematic roles to arguments). Miyake, Carpenter, and Just have proposed that sentence processing relies on such general verbal working memory mechanisms, while Caplan and Waters consider Broca's area to be involved in working memory specifically for syntactic processing. Friederici (2002) breaks Broca's area into its component regions and suggests that
Brodmann's area 44 is involved in working memory for both phonological and syntactic structure. This area becomes active first for phonology and later for syntax as the time course for the comprehension process unfolds. Brodmann's area 45 and Brodmann's area 47 are viewed as being specifically involved in working memory for semantic features and thematic structure where processes of syntactic reanalysis and repair are required. These areas come online after Brodmann's area 44 has finished its processing role and are active when comprehension of complex sentences must rely on general memory resources. All of these theories indicate a move towards a view that syntactic comprehension problems arise from a computational rather than a conceptual deficit. Newer theories take a more dynamic view of how the brain integrates different linguistic and cognitive components and are examining the time course of these operations.
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semantic and syntactic processing, it does require an operation linking phonemic sequences with motor gestures. Findings indicate that this linkage is coordinated by Broca's area through reciprocal interactions with temporal and frontal cortices responsible for phonemic and articulatory representations, respectively, including interactions with the motor cortex before the actual act of speech. Based on these unique findings, it has been proposed that Broca's area is not the seat of articulation, but rather is a key node in manipulating and forwarding neural information across large-scale cortical networks responsible for key components of speech production.
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526:(situated in the anterior part of Broca's area). The increase in reaction times is indicative that that particular area is responsible for processing that cognitive function. Disrupting these areas via TMS disrupts computations performed in the areas leading to an increase in time needed to perform the computations (reflected in reaction times). Later work by Nixon et al. (2004) showed that when the pars opercularis (situated in the posterior part of Broca's area) was stimulated under rTMS there was an increase in reaction times in a
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704:(albeit very roughly) the location of a suspected brain lesion based only on the presence (and severity) of a certain type of aphasia, though this is complicated by the possibility that a patient may have damage to a number of brain areas and may exhibit symptoms of more than one type of aphasia. The examination of lesion data in order to deduce which brain areas are essential in the normal functioning of certain aspects of cognition is called the deficit-lesion method; this method is especially important in the branch of
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area. Lesions to Broca's area alone are known to produce a transient mutism that resolves within 3–6 weeks. This discovery suggests that Broca's area may be included in some aspect of verbalization or articulation; however, this does not address its part in sentence comprehension. Still, Broca's area frequently emerges in functional imaging studies of sentence processing. However, it also becomes activated in word-level tasks. This suggests that Broca's area is not dedicated to
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information, while BA9/46 might be more involved in the manipulation of information in working memory. Since large lesions are typically required to produce a Broca's aphasia, it is likely that these regions may also become compromised in some patients and may contribute to their comprehension deficits for complex morphosyntactic structures.
680:, are individuals who know "what they want to say, they just cannot get it out". They are typically able to comprehend words, and sentences with a simple syntactic structure (see above), but are more or less unable to generate fluent speech. Other symptoms that may be present include problems with fluency, articulation, word-finding,
561:'s area 44 is also found in the motor-related processes. Observation of meaningful hand shadows resembling moving animals activates frontal language area, demonstrating that Broca's area indeed plays a role in interpreting action of others. An activation of BA 44 was also reported during execution of grasping and manipulation.
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Lelong was another patient of Broca's. He also exhibited reduced productive speech. He could only say five words, 'yes', 'no', 'three', 'always', and 'lelo' (a mispronunciation of his own name). A lesion within the lateral frontal lobe was discovered during Lelong's autopsy. Broca's previous patient,
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Neurocognitive studies have already implicated frontal areas adjacent to Broca's area as important for working memory in non-linguistic as well as linguistic tasks. Cabeza and Nyberg's analysis of imaging studies of working memory supports the view that BA45/47 is recruited for selecting or comparing
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Damage to Broca's area is commonly associated with telegraphic speech made up of content vocabulary. For example, a person with Broca's aphasia may say something like, "Drive, store. Mom." meaning to say, "My mom drove me to the store today." Therefore, the content of the information is correct, but
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and intention. This finding helps explain why, when this area is defective, those who use sign language also have language deficits. This finding, that aspects of gestures are translated in words within Broca's area, also explains language development in terms of evolution. Indeed, many authors have
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is further evidence that human language may have evolved from existing neural substrates that evolved for the purpose of gesture recognition. The study, therefore, claims that Broca's area is the "motor center for speech", which assembles and decodes speech sounds in the same way it interprets body
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denoted by Broca as an absence of productive speech also could have been influenced by the lesions in the other region. Another finding is that the region, which was once considered to be critical for speech by Broca, is not precisely the same region as what is now known as Broca's area. This study
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reported in the functional imaging literature that are referred to as part of Broca's area.) The processing of a passive voice sentence, for example, may require working memory to assist in the temporary retention of information while other relevant parts of the sentence are being manipulated (i.e.
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Since studies carried out in the late 1970s it has been understood that the relationship between Broca's area and Broca's aphasia is not as consistent as once thought. Lesions to Broca's area alone do not result in Broca's aphasia, nor do Broca's aphasic patients necessarily have lesions in Broca's
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by interpreting the movements of others as meaningful action with an intelligent purpose. It is argued that over time the ability to predict the intended outcome and purpose of a set of movements eventually gave this area the capability to deal with truly abstract ideas, and therefore (eventually)
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symptoms, although case studies show there is not always a one-to-one mapping between lesion location and aphasic symptoms. The correlation between damage to certain specific brain areas (usually in the left hemisphere) and the development of specific types of aphasia makes it possible to deduce
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Broca's area has been previously associated with a variety of processes, including phonological segmentation, syntactic processing, and unification, all of which involve segmenting and linking different types of linguistic information. Although repeating and reading single words does not engage
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Considering the hypothesis that Broca's area may be most involved in articulation, its activation in all of these tasks may be due to subjects' covert articulation while formulating a response. Despite this caveat, a consensus seems to be forming that whatever role Broca's area may play, it may
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This specific group of symptoms distinguishes those who have expressive aphasia from individuals with other types of aphasia. There are several distinct "types" of aphasia, and each type is characterized by a different set of language deficits. Although those who have expressive aphasia tend to
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was based on subjective visual inspection of cytoarchitectonic borders and also
Brodmann analyzed only one hemisphere of one brain, the result is imprecise. Further, because of considerable variability across brains in terms of shape, size, and position relative to sulcal and gyral structure, a
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task. Gough et al. (2005) performed an experiment combining elements of these previous works in which both phonological and semantic tasks were performed with rTMS stimulation directed at either the anterior or the posterior part of Broca's area. The results from this experiment conclusively
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To summarise, the work above shows anatomical specialisation in Broca's area for language comprehension, with the anterior part of Broca's area responsible for understanding the meaning of words (semantics) and the posterior part of Broca's area responsible for understanding how words sound
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intentionally produce manual gestures as well as vocal signals to communicate with humans suggests that the precursors to human language are present at both the behavioral and neuronanatomical levels. More recently, the neocortical distribution of activity-dependent gene expression in
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It has been speculated that because speech-associated gestures could possibly reduce lexical or sentential ambiguity, comprehension should improve in the presence of speech-associated gestures. As a result of improved comprehension, the involvement of Broca's area should be reduced.
696:) than those with other types of aphasia. Although individuals with expressive aphasia tend to have a good ability to self-monitor their language output (they "hear what they say" and make corrections), other types of aphasics can seem entirely unaware of their language deficits.
615:. However, there were minimal language problems three months after removal and the individual returned to his professional work. These minor problems include the inability to create syntactically complex sentences including more than two subjects, multiple causal
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For a long time, it was assumed that the role of Broca's area was more devoted to language production than language comprehension. However, there is evidence to demonstrate that Broca's area also plays a significant role in language comprehension. Patients with
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provided direct evidence that the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which comprises Broca's area in humans and has been associated with auditory processing of species-specific vocalizations and orofacial control in macaques, is engaged during vocal output in a
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have implicated an essential role of Broca's area in various speech and language functions. Further, fMRI studies have also identified activation patterns in Broca's area associated with various language tasks. However, slow destruction of Broca's area by
1035:". The recent finding that Broca's area is active when people are observing others engaged in meaningful action is evidence in support of this idea. It was hypothesized that a precursor to the modern Broca's area was involved in translating gestures into
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in Broca's area who exhibit agrammatical speech production also show inability to use syntactic information to determine the meaning of sentences. Also, a number of neuroimaging studies have implicated an involvement of Broca's area, particularly of the
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has produced several interesting findings. First, the MRI findings suggest that other areas besides Broca's area may also have contributed to the patients' reduced productive speech. This finding is significant because it has been found that, though
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Many neuroimaging studies have also shown activation of Broca's area when representing meaningful arm gestures. A recent study has shown evidence that word and gesture are related at the level of translation of particular gesture aspects such as its
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language and gestures. Consistent with this idea is that the neural substrate that regulated motor control in the common ancestor of apes and humans was most likely modified to enhance cognitive and linguistic ability. Studies of speakers of
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Another recent finding has showed significant areas of activation in subcortical and neocortical areas during the production of communicative manual gestures and vocal signals in chimpanzees. Further, the data indicating that
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is an acquired language disorder affecting all modalities such as writing, reading, speaking, and listening and results from brain damage. It is often a chronic condition that creates changes in all areas of one's life.
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in humans has led to the consideration of a number of evolutionary "models". These models attempt to show how modern language might have evolved, and a common feature of many of these theories is the idea that vocal
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studies have shown that the PTr and Pop, corresponding to areas 45 and 44, respectively, play different functional roles in the human with respect to language comprehension and action recognition/understanding.
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Devlin JT, Matthews PM, Rushworth MF (January 2003). "Semantic processing in the left inferior prefrontal cortex: a combined functional magnetic resonance imaging and transcranial magnetic stimulation study".
949:. The purpose of this study was to scan the brains in three dimensions and to identify the extent of both cortical and subcortical lesions in more detail. The study also sought to locate the exact site of the
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The essential role of the Broca's area in speech production has been questioned since it can be destroyed while leaving language nearly intact. In one case of a computer engineer, a slow-growing
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tasks only showed a decrease in reaction times when stimulation was aimed at the anterior part of Broca's area (where a decrease of 10% (50 ms) was seen compared to a no-TMS control group)
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retain good spoken language comprehension, other types of aphasia can render patients completely unable to understand any language at all, unable to understand any spoken language (
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Friedman L, Kenny JT, Wise AL, Wu D, Stuve TA, Miller DA, Jesberger JA, Lewin JS (September 1998). "Brain activation during silent word generation evaluated with functional MRI".
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There is also specialisation for particular aspects of comprehension within Broca's area. Work by Devlin et al. (2003) showed in a repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (
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Gentilucci M, Bernardis P, Crisi G, Dalla Volta R (July 2006). "Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of Broca's area affects verbal responses to gesture observation".
302:(pars triangularis) (BA45) of the brain. Since then, the approximate region he identified has become known as Broca's area, and the deficit in language production as Broca's
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tasks showed a decrease in reaction times when stimulation was aimed at the posterior part of Broca's area (where a decrease of 6% (30 ms) was seen compared to control)
1071:. These findings putatively set the origin of vocalization-related neocortical circuits to at least 35 million years ago, when the Old and New World monkey lineages split.
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as the "evolutionary refinement of an implicit communication system already present in lower primates, based on a set of hand/mouth goal-directed action representations."
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Leborgne was a patient of Broca's. At 30 years old, he was almost completely unable to produce any words or phrases. He was able to repetitively produce only the word
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distinguished anatomical specialisation within Broca's area for different components of language comprehension. Here the results showed that under rTMS stimulation:
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provides further evidence to support the claim that language and cognition are far more complicated than once thought and involve various networks of brain regions.
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692:), whereas still other types preserve language comprehension, but with deficits. People with expressive aphasia may struggle less with reading and writing (see
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In the classical sense, expressive aphasia is the result of injury to Broca's area; it is often the case that lesions in specific brain areas cause specific,
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to Broca's area alone can possibly cause temporary speech disruption, they do not result in severe speech arrest. Therefore, there is a possibility that the
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The differences between area 45 and 44 in cytoarchitecture and in connectivity suggest that these areas might perform different functions. Indeed, recent
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Leborgne, had a lesion in the same area of his frontal lobe. These two cases led Broca to believe that speech was localized to this particular area.
1031:"Hand/mouth goal-directed action representations" is another way of saying "gestural communication", "gestural language", or "communication through
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became capable of associating sounds (words) with abstract meanings. The observation that frontal language areas are activated when people observe
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Dronkers NF, Wilkins DP, Van Valin RD, Redfern BB, Jaeger JJ (2004). "Lesion analysis of the brain areas involved in language comprehension".
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alone, but supports a function common to both. In fact, Broca's area can show activation in such non-linguistic tasks as imagery of motion.
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and
English suggest that the human brain recruited systems that had evolved to perform more basic functions much earlier; these various
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Experiments have indicated that Broca's area is involved in various cognitive and perceptual tasks. One important contribution of
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Just MA, Carpenter PA, Keller TA, Eddy WF, Thulborn KR (October 1996). "Brain activation modulated by sentence comprehension".
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Mohr JP, Pessin MS, Finkelstein S, Funkenstein HH, Duncan GW, Davis KR (April 1978). "Broca aphasia: pathologic and clinical".
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Burton MW, Small SL, Blumstein SE (July 2000). "The role of segmentation in phonological processing: an fMRI investigation".
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972:(French word for "time"). After his death, a neurosyphilitic lesion was discovered on the surface of his left frontal lobe.
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Simões CS, Vianney PV, de Moura MM, Freire MA, Mello LE, Sameshima K, Araújo JF, Nicolelis MA, Mello CV, Ribeiro S (2010).
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3352:"Paul Broca's discovery of the area of the brain governing articulated language", analysis of Broca's 1861 article, on
1686:"Structural differences in the cerebral cortex of healthy female and male subjects: a magnetic resonance imaging study"
2363:"Speech perception, rapid temporal processing, and the left hemisphere: a case study of unilateral pure word deafness"
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Fadiga L, Craighero L, Destro MF, Finos L, Cotillon-Williams N, Smith AT, Castiello U (2006). "Language in shadow".
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in the frontal lobe in relation to what is now called Broca's area with the extent of subcortical involvement.
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1972:"Dissociating linguistic processes in the left inferior frontal cortex with transcranial magnetic stimulation"
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Plaza M, Gatignol P, Leroy M, Duffau H (August 2009). "Speaking without Broca's area after tumor resection".
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in the nearby cerebral cortex and a shift of some functions to the homologous area in the right hemisphere.
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507:(fMRI) experiments have shown that highly ambiguous sentences result in a more activated inferior frontal
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Corballis MC (April 2003). "From mouth to hand: gesture, speech, and the evolution of right-handedness".
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Metz-Lutz MN, Dahl E (September 1984). "Analysis of word comprehension in a case of pure word deafness".
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Binkofski F, Amunts K, Stephan KM, Posse S, Schormann T, Freund HJ, Zilles K, Seitz RJ (December 2000).
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reported impairments in two patients. They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior
343:(fMRI) has shown language processing to also involve the third part of the inferior frontal gyrus the
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Dronkers NF, Shapiro JK, Redfern B, Knight RT (1992). "The role of Broca's area in Broca's aphasia".
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can leave speech relatively intact, suggesting its functions can shift to nearby areas in the brain.
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2825:"Maintenance versus manipulation of information held in working memory: an event-related fMRI study"
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1778:"The emergence of the unmarked: a new perspective on the language-specific function of Broca's area"
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problems. They also attributed his lack of problems to extensive compensatory mechanisms enabled by
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proposed that speech evolved from a primitive communication that arose from gestures. (See below.)
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434:(POp). The PTr and POp are defined by structural landmarks that only probabilistically divide the
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relate to known working memory functions of the frontal areas. (There is a wide distribution of
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1433:"Paul Broca's historic cases: high resolution MR imaging of the brains of Leborgne and Lelong"
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Fadiga L, Craighero L (May 2006). "Hand actions and speech representation in Broca's area".
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In a study published in 2007, the preserved brains of both
Leborgne and Lelong (patients of
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or by the specification of coordinates in a particular reference space. The currently used
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720:– are branches of neuroscience that also make extensive use of the deficit-lesion method.
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2705:"Broca's region subserves imagery of motion: a combined cytoarchitectonic and fMRI study"
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Grewe T, Bornkessel I, Zysset S, Wiese R, von Cramon DY, Schlesewsky M (November 2005).
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1474:"Nodes and networks in the neural architecture for language: Broca's region and beyond"
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3119:"Dissociating neural subsystems for grammar by contrasting word order and inflection"
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2238:"Recalling routes around london: activation of the right hippocampus in taxi drivers"
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2001:
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1922:"The inferior frontal gyrus and phonological processing: an investigation using rTMS"
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Human brain dissection video (24 sec). Demonstrating the location of Broca's area in
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was initially used to complement a far more dominant mode of communication through
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into anterior and posterior cytoarchitectonic areas of 45 and 44, respectively, by
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Kaan E, Swaab TY (August 2002). "The brain circuitry of syntactic comprehension".
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Nevertheless, Broca's area in the left hemisphere and its homologue in the right
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Examination of the brains of Broca's two historic patients with high-resolution
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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3249:"Activation of frontal neocortical areas by vocal production in marmosets"
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Nixon P, Lazarova J, Hodinott-Hill I, Gough P, Passingham R (March 2004).
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Cortex; A Journal
Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior
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Cortex; A Journal
Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior
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Grodzinsky Y, Santi A (December 2008). "The battle for Broca's region".
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Speech production region in the dominant hemisphere of the hominid brain
2190:
2177:
1637:"Speech-associated gestures, Broca's area, and the human mirror system"
942:
649:
575:
518:) study that there was an increase in reaction times when performing a
396:
126:
1793:
1684:
Schlaepfer TE, Harris GJ, Tien AY, Peng L, Lee S, Pearlson GD (1995).
156:
3933:
3393:
3171:"Sign language study shows multiple brain regions wired for language"
3117:
Newman AJ, Supalla T, Hauser P, Newport EL, Bavelier D (April 2010).
1365:
1025:
535:
527:
519:
3192:"Communicative signaling activates 'Broca's' homolog in chimpanzees"
3190:
Taglialatela JP, Russell JL, Schaeffer JA, Hopkins WD (March 2008).
2412:"Pure word deafness and the bilateral processing of the speech code"
4549:
3189:
2966:
Flinker A, Chang EF, Barbaro NM, Berger MS, Knight RT (June 2011).
2724:
10.1002/1097-0193(200012)11:4<273::AID-HBM40>3.0.CO;2-0
2178:"On the nature and evolution of the neural bases of human language"
2111:
1063:
3046:"Anatomy of Speech & Language | UCSF Memory and Aging Center"
3017:"The man who couldn t speak and how he revolutionized psychology"
2968:"Sub-centimeter language organization in the human temporal lobe"
1021:
999:
995:
928:
Broca's area as a key center in the linking of phonemic sequences
660:
491:
359:
303:
2822:
2503:
2290:
1733:
Caplan D (May 2006). "Why is Broca's area involved in syntax?".
1634:
1430:
595:
tumor was removed. The tumor and the surgery destroyed the left
4085:
2769:
1919:
1635:
Skipper JI, Goldin-Meadow S, Nusbaum HC, Small SL (June 2007).
1257:
950:
592:
85:
2361:
Slevc LR, Martin RC, Hamilton AC, Joanisse MF (January 2011).
1431:
Dronkers NF, Plaisant O, Iba-Zizen MT, Cabanis EA (May 2007).
4544:
652:
is seen to be associated with underactivity in Broca's area.
508:
500:
395:
Broca's area is often identified by visual inspection of the
319:
268:
2823:
D'Esposito M, Postle BR, Ballard D, Lease J (October 1999).
2589:
1777:
3298:
Miller CT, Dimauro A, Pistorio A, Hendry S, Wang X (2010).
3297:
3246:
2702:
2360:
476:
The Broca's area is about 20% larger in women than in men.
262:
233:
195:
189:
97:
3116:
2025:
1775:
1100:
Approximate location of Broca's area highlighted in white.
724:
Major characteristics of different types of acute aphasia
227:
3300:"Vocalization Induced CFos Expression in Marmoset Cortex"
2965:
990:
946:
399:
of the brain either by macrostructural landmarks such as
351:
and these are now often included in a larger area called
2874:"Towards a neural basis of auditory sentence processing"
1683:
1541:
1230:
The
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
667:
310:. Broca's area is now typically defined in terms of the
2608:
2476:
Cognitive science: an introduction to the study of mind
1865:
503:, during the processing of complex sentences. Further,
2236:
Maguire EA, Frackowiak RS, Frith CD (September 1997).
2235:
1011:
The pursuit of a satisfying theory that addresses the
2471:"Evaluating Techniques for the Study of Brain Damage"
902:
Newer implications related to lesions in Broca's area
588:
the grammar and fluidity of the sentence is missing.
265:
230:
192:
2922:
2592:
Journal of
Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology
2468:
945:) were reinspected using high-resolution volumetric
552:
259:
256:
224:
221:
186:
183:
2659:
1223:
276:), is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant
253:
218:
180:
4604:Some categorizations are approximations, and some
1824:
2754:
4618:
1969:
1339:
623:. These were explained by researchers as due to
582:
2356:
2354:
2171:
2169:
2068:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
1825:Rodd JM, Davis MH, Johnsrude IS (August 2005).
1630:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1584:
2757:Co-planar stereotaxic atlas of the human brain
1537:
1535:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1418:
961:
426:are designations usually used to refer to the
3379:
2314:
1970:Gough PM, Nobre AC, Devlin JT (August 2005).
564:
419:resulting localization precision is limited.
3291:
3240:
3183:
3110:
3067:
2959:
2916:
2865:
2816:
2763:
2696:
2540:
2436:
2403:
2351:
2166:
2105:
2062:
2012:
1963:
1913:
1818:
1769:
1726:
1621:
1578:
967:
2653:
2602:
2308:
2229:
2158:Carlson, N. (2013). "Human Communication".
1532:
1471:
1415:
1333:
3386:
3372:
2871:
2497:
2153:
2151:
414:onto a template brain. Because Brodmann's
58:
38:
3325:
3315:
3274:
3264:
3223:
3152:
3142:
3073:
2991:
2899:
2889:
2840:
2791:
2731:
2546:
2427:
2386:
2261:
2189:
2182:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2175:
2162:(11th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
1995:
1880:
1842:
1801:
1701:
1660:
1500:
1448:
1373:
1340:Cantalupo C, Hopkins WD (November 2001).
484:
428:triangular part of inferior frontal gyrus
1396:
1006:
634:
432:opercular part of inferior frontal gyrus
2409:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2157:
2148:
1342:"Asymmetric Broca's area in great apes"
1088:Broca's area (shown in red). Animation.
14:
4642:Anatomy named for one who described it
4619:
2462:
2379:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.11.009
1732:
294:has been linked to Broca's area since
3367:
3304:Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience
3253:Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience
3014:
2293:. Atlanta Aphasia Association. 2006.
668:Expressive aphasia vs. other aphasias
505:functional magnetic resonance imaging
341:Functional magnetic resonance imaging
2278:
1399:Introduction to language development
1178:Transversal sections of Broca's area
1074:
4296:Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)
2469:Friedenberg J, Silverman G (2006).
1465:
956:
24:
2254:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-18-07103.1997
384:
374:
25:
4653:
3346:
3082:(2): 199–208, discussion 208–60.
3076:The Behavioral and Brain Sciences
2925:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
2444:"The National Aphasia Foundation"
2114:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
1929:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
1869:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
1154:Sagittal sections of Broca's area
553:Action recognition and production
465:, and inferior parietal regions.
347:, as well as the ventral part of
3177:(Press release). April 30, 2010.
3021:Scientific American Blog Network
2755:Talairach J, Tournoux P (1988).
1528:from the original on 2022-10-09.
1171:
1166:Coronal sections of Broca's area
1159:
1147:
1124:
1105:
1093:
1081:
249:
214:
176:
151:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
4390:Posterior parahippocampal gyrus
4332:Collateral (temporal+occipital)
3056:from the original on 2017-05-03
3038:
3027:from the original on 2016-09-14
3008:
2872:Friederici AD (February 2002).
2784:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.11.002
2748:
2583:
2297:from the original on 2008-12-23
2220:
2214:"Aphasia: Signs & Symptoms"
2206:
1859:
1677:
1481:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
984:
3978:Secondary somatosensory cortex
3670:Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
2901:11858/00-001M-0000-0010-E573-8
2793:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-6912-A
1988:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2307-05.2005
1502:11858/00-001M-0000-0019-FEFE-C
1390:
1302:
1287:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
1274:
1245:
1217:
13:
1:
4593:Poles of cerebral hemispheres
4327:Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)
2891:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01839-8
2561:10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01947-2
2083:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70383-6
1747:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70379-4
1233:(5th ed.). HarperCollins
1210:
1195:Progressive nonfluent aphasia
844:Transcortical sensory aphasia
639:
583:Speaking without Broca's area
522:task under rTMS aimed at the
499:of the left inferior frontal
3966:Primary somatosensory cortex
2878:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
2631:10.1126/science.274.5284.114
2549:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
2329:10.1016/0093-934X(84)90002-6
1703:10.1016/0925-4927(95)02634-a
1587:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
1024:. Human language might have
762:Non-fluent, effortful, slow
479:
405:Talairach and Tournoux atlas
370:
337:of the dominant hemisphere.
7:
4058:Transverse occipital sulcus
2984:10.1016/j.bandl.2010.09.009
2759:. New York: Thieme Medical.
2242:The Journal of Neuroscience
2126:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.7.1059
1976:The Journal of Neuroscience
1653:10.1016/j.bandl.2007.02.008
1183:
962:Louis Victor Leborgne (Tan)
825:Transcortical motor aphasia
806:Mixed transcortical aphasia
607:, the anterior limb of the
280:, usually the left, of the
64:Broca's area (shown in red)
44:Broca's area is made up of
10:
4658:
4470:Isthmus of cingulate gyrus
4291:Central (frontal+parietal)
4026:Occipital pole of cerebrum
2429:10.1207/s15516709cog2505_3
1941:10.1162/089892904322984571
1891:10.1162/089892903321107837
1599:10.1016/j.tics.2008.09.001
1493:10.1016/j.conb.2014.07.013
1315:Collins English Dictionary
1115:connects Broca's area and
936:
655:
565:Speech-associated gestures
442:'s classification scheme.
4601:
4580:
4562:
4532:
4499:
4403:
4358:
4349:
4314:
4283:
4272:
4189:
4127:Transverse temporal gyrus
4119:
4110:
4066:
4018:
4009:
3990:Posterior parietal cortex
3954:
3899:
3827:
3818:
3743:
3709:
3570:
3563:
3536:
3422:
3415:
3406:
3216:10.1016/j.cub.2008.01.049
3088:10.1017/S0140525X03000062
2040:10.1080/17470910600976430
1556:10.1080/13554790902729473
1397:Kennison, Sheila (2013).
975:
718:cognitive neuropsychology
284:with functions linked to
149:
137:
125:
113:
108:
96:
84:
74:
69:
57:
37:
32:
4248:Inferior temporal sulcus
4169:Superior temporal sulcus
3852:Inferior parietal lobule
3835:Superior parietal lobule
3775:Supplementary motor area
3317:10.3389/fnint.2010.00128
3266:10.3389/fnint.2010.00123
459:superior temporal sulcus
318:of the inferior frontal
4253:Inferior temporal gyrus
4197:Occipitotemporal sulcus
4143:Superior temporal gyrus
4036:Lateral occipital gyrus
3787:Supplementary eye field
3528:Inferior frontal sulcus
3523:Superior frontal sulcus
3144:10.1073/pnas.1003174107
2937:10.1162/089892900562309
2410:Poeppel, David (2001).
1264:Oxford University Press
740:Auditory comprehension
690:auditory verbal agnosia
455:superior temporal gyrus
103:Superior sagittal sinus
48:(pars opercularis) and
4514:Fimbria of hippocampus
3580:Superior frontal gyrus
3478:Inferior frontal gyrus
3432:Superior frontal gyrus
2842:10.1006/brcg.1999.1096
2674:10.1006/brln.1998.1953
2160:Physiology of Behavior
1140:inferior frontal gyrus
1047:American Sign Language
968:
485:Language comprehension
445:Area 45 receives more
436:inferior frontal gyrus
392:
382:
300:inferior frontal gyrus
4501:Hippocampal formation
4360:Parahippocampal gyrus
4174:Middle temporal gyrus
1844:10.1093/cercor/bhi009
1401:. Los Angeles: Sage.
1260:UK English Dictionary
1007:Evolution of language
917:Talairach coordinates
635:Clinical significance
412:cytoarchitectonic map
388:
378:
327:cytoarchitectonic map
4474:Retrosplenial cortex
4322:Longitudinal fissure
4214:Medial temporal lobe
3891:Intraparietal sulcus
3751:Primary motor cortex
3648:Orbitofrontal cortex
3597:Medial frontal gyrus
3454:Middle frontal gyrus
2518:10.1212/WNL.28.4.311
2176:Lieberman P (2002).
1472:Hagoort, P. (2014).
1450:10.1093/brain/awm042
1205:Jerome of Sandy Cove
601:middle frontal gyrus
447:afferent connections
52:(pars triangularis).
4451:Posterior cingulate
3861:Supramarginal gyrus
3208:2008CBio...18..343T
3135:2010PNAS..107.7539N
2829:Brain and Cognition
2712:Human Brain Mapping
2623:1996Sci...274..114J
2450:on January 22, 2011
2226:Maguire et al. 1994
2184:. Suppl 35: 36–62.
2028:Social Neuroscience
1782:Human Brain Mapping
1358:2001Natur.414..505C
909:sentence processing
725:
611:, and the anterior
358:Studies of chronic
292:Language processing
4509:Hippocampal sulcus
4429:Anterior cingulate
4306:Preoccipital notch
3907:Paracentral lobule
3877:Parietal operculum
3799:Frontal eye fields
3731:Paracentral sulcus
3719:Paracentral lobule
3620:Paraolfactory area
3616:Paraterminal gyrus
3015:Konnikova, Maria.
2972:Brain and Language
2662:Brain and Language
2317:Brain and Language
2191:10.1002/ajpa.10171
1641:Brain and Language
1190:Lobes of the brain
1113:Arcuate fasciculus
1013:origin of language
787:Conduction aphasia
781:Fluent paraphasic
749:Expressive aphasia
723:
716:– to be specific,
674:expressive aphasia
603:, the head of the
393:
383:
308:expressive aphasia
4614:
4613:
4558:
4557:
4383:Postrhinal cortex
4378:Perirhinal cortex
4373:Entorhinal cortex
4345:
4344:
4301:Parieto-occipital
4268:
4267:
4106:
4105:
4005:
4004:
3962:Postcentral gyrus
3814:
3813:
3739:
3738:
3559:
3558:
3551:Precentral sulcus
3514:Pars triangularis
3359:
2490:978-1-4129-2568-6
2416:Cognitive Science
2291:"What is Aphasia"
1794:10.1002/hbm.20154
1443:(Pt 5): 1432–41.
1408:978-1-4522-5629-0
1290:. Merriam-Webster
1133:
1075:Additional images
899:
898:
768:Receptive aphasia
733:Speech repetition
714:Cognitive science
629:neural plasticity
524:pars triangularis
451:prefrontal cortex
322:, represented in
316:pars triangularis
296:Pierre Paul Broca
286:speech production
206:
165:
164:
160:
46:Brodmann areas 44
16:(Redirected from
4649:
4637:Neurolinguistics
4540:Indusium griseum
4405:Cingulate cortex
4395:Prepyriform area
4356:
4355:
4281:
4280:
4161:Planum temporale
4117:
4116:
4098:Calcarine sulcus
4016:
4015:
3825:
3824:
3696:Olfactory sulcus
3682:Subcallosal area
3568:
3567:
3546:Precentral gyrus
3505:Pars opercularis
3420:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3388:
3381:
3374:
3365:
3364:
3358:
3340:
3339:
3329:
3319:
3295:
3289:
3288:
3278:
3268:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3227:
3187:
3181:
3178:
3166:
3156:
3146:
3114:
3108:
3107:
3071:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3032:
3012:
3006:
3005:
2995:
2963:
2957:
2956:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2903:
2893:
2869:
2863:
2862:
2844:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2795:
2767:
2761:
2760:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2735:
2709:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2446:. Archived from
2440:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2390:
2367:Neuropsychologia
2358:
2349:
2348:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2302:
2287:
2276:
2275:
2265:
2233:
2227:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2193:
2173:
2164:
2163:
2155:
2146:
2145:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2023:
2010:
2009:
1999:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1926:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1884:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1846:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1805:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1705:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1664:
1632:
1619:
1618:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1539:
1530:
1529:
1527:
1504:
1478:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1452:
1428:
1413:
1412:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1377:
1366:10.1038/35107134
1337:
1331:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1266:. Archived from
1249:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1221:
1175:
1163:
1151:
1135:
1134:
1109:
1097:
1085:
1069:New World monkey
971:
957:Broca's patients
889:Moderate–severe
851:Moderate–severe
797:Relatively good
759:Mild difficulty
756:Moderate–severe
753:Moderate–severe
729:Type of aphasia
726:
722:
676:, also known as
609:internal capsule
497:pars opercularis
390:Brodmann area 45
380:Brodmann area 44
335:Brodmann area 45
331:Brodmann area 44
312:pars opercularis
275:
274:
271:
270:
267:
264:
261:
258:
255:
248:
240:
239:
236:
235:
232:
229:
226:
223:
220:
213:
204:
202:
201:
198:
197:
194:
191:
188:
185:
182:
157:edit on Wikidata
154:
62:
42:
30:
29:
21:
4657:
4656:
4652:
4651:
4650:
4648:
4647:
4646:
4617:
4616:
4615:
4610:
4597:
4576:
4554:
4528:
4495:
4399:
4341:
4337:Callosal sulcus
4315:Medial/inferior
4310:
4275:
4264:
4190:Medial/inferior
4185:
4157:Wernicke's area
4131:Auditory cortex
4102:
4067:Medial/inferior
4062:
4001:
3950:
3946:Marginal sulcus
3900:Medial/inferior
3895:
3810:
3763:Premotor cortex
3735:
3705:
3564:Medial/inferior
3555:
3532:
3402:
3396:cerebral cortex
3394:Anatomy of the
3392:
3349:
3344:
3343:
3296:
3292:
3245:
3241:
3196:Current Biology
3188:
3184:
3169:
3129:(16): 7539–44.
3115:
3111:
3072:
3068:
3059:
3057:
3050:memory.ucsf.edu
3044:
3043:
3039:
3030:
3028:
3013:
3009:
2964:
2960:
2921:
2917:
2870:
2866:
2821:
2817:
2778:(1–2): 145–77.
2768:
2764:
2753:
2749:
2707:
2701:
2697:
2658:
2654:
2617:(5284): 114–6.
2607:
2603:
2588:
2584:
2545:
2541:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2467:
2463:
2453:
2451:
2442:
2441:
2437:
2408:
2404:
2359:
2352:
2313:
2309:
2300:
2298:
2289:
2288:
2279:
2248:(18): 7103–10.
2234:
2230:
2225:
2221:
2212:
2211:
2207:
2174:
2167:
2156:
2149:
2110:
2106:
2067:
2063:
2024:
2013:
1968:
1964:
1924:
1918:
1914:
1882:10.1.1.329.8485
1864:
1860:
1831:Cerebral Cortex
1823:
1819:
1774:
1770:
1731:
1727:
1682:
1678:
1633:
1622:
1583:
1579:
1540:
1533:
1525:
1476:
1470:
1466:
1429:
1416:
1409:
1395:
1391:
1338:
1334:
1324:
1322:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1293:
1291:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1251:
1250:
1246:
1236:
1234:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1200:Wernicke's area
1186:
1179:
1176:
1167:
1164:
1155:
1152:
1143:
1136:
1125:
1120:
1117:Wernicke's area
1110:
1101:
1098:
1089:
1086:
1077:
1009:
987:
978:
964:
959:
939:
930:
904:
682:word repetition
678:Broca's aphasia
670:
658:
646:speech disorder
642:
637:
621:reported speech
605:caudate nucleus
585:
567:
555:
487:
482:
373:
252:
243:
242:
217:
208:
207:
179:
175:
161:
91:Middle cerebral
65:
53:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4655:
4645:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4612:
4611:
4606:Brodmann areas
4602:
4599:
4598:
4596:
4595:
4590:
4584:
4582:
4578:
4577:
4575:
4574:
4572:Insular cortex
4568:
4566:
4564:Insular cortex
4560:
4559:
4556:
4555:
4553:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4536:
4534:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4505:
4503:
4497:
4496:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4466:
4465:
4464:
4463:
4458:
4448:
4447:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4426:
4425:
4424:
4417:Subgenual area
4413:
4411:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4386:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4364:
4362:
4353:
4347:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4318:
4316:
4312:
4311:
4309:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4287:
4285:
4278:
4276:sulci/fissures
4270:
4269:
4266:
4265:
4263:
4262:
4261:
4260:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4242:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4211:
4210:
4209:
4202:Fusiform gyrus
4199:
4193:
4191:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4183:
4182:
4181:
4171:
4166:
4165:
4164:
4150:
4140:
4139:
4138:
4123:
4121:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4100:
4094:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4082:
4081:
4070:
4068:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4049:
4048:
4043:
4033:
4031:Occipital gyri
4028:
4022:
4020:
4013:
4011:Occipital lobe
4007:
4006:
4003:
4002:
4000:
3999:
3998:
3997:
3987:
3986:
3985:
3975:
3974:
3973:
3958:
3956:
3952:
3951:
3949:
3948:
3943:
3942:
3941:
3931:
3930:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3903:
3901:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3885:
3884:
3874:
3873:
3872:
3863:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3842:
3831:
3829:
3822:
3816:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3808:
3807:
3806:
3796:
3795:
3794:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3772:
3771:
3770:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3747:
3745:
3741:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3733:
3728:
3727:
3726:
3715:
3713:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3703:
3701:Orbital sulcus
3698:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3679:
3678:
3677:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3632:Straight gyrus
3629:
3628:
3627:
3612:
3611:
3610:
3609:
3604:
3594:
3593:
3592:
3587:
3576:
3574:
3565:
3561:
3560:
3557:
3556:
3554:
3553:
3548:
3542:
3540:
3534:
3533:
3531:
3530:
3525:
3519:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3507:
3493:
3491:Pars orbitalis
3484:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3451:
3450:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3428:
3426:
3417:
3410:
3404:
3403:
3391:
3390:
3383:
3376:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3348:
3347:External links
3345:
3342:
3341:
3290:
3239:
3182:
3180:
3179:
3109:
3066:
3037:
3007:
2958:
2915:
2864:
2815:
2762:
2747:
2695:
2652:
2601:
2582:
2555:(8): 350–356.
2539:
2496:
2489:
2461:
2435:
2402:
2350:
2307:
2277:
2228:
2219:
2205:
2165:
2147:
2120:(7): 1059–74.
2104:
2061:
2011:
1982:(35): 8010–6.
1962:
1935:(2): 289–300.
1912:
1858:
1817:
1768:
1725:
1690:Psychiatry Res
1676:
1620:
1593:(12): 474–80.
1577:
1550:(4): 294–310.
1531:
1464:
1414:
1407:
1389:
1332:
1310:"Broca's area"
1301:
1282:"Broca's area"
1273:
1270:on 2022-08-26.
1253:"Broca's area"
1244:
1225:"Broca's area"
1215:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1180:
1177:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1146:
1144:
1137:
1123:
1121:
1111:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1080:
1076:
1073:
1051:brain circuits
1037:abstract ideas
1008:
1005:
986:
983:
977:
974:
963:
960:
958:
955:
938:
935:
929:
926:
903:
900:
897:
896:
893:
890:
887:
884:
882:Anomic aphasia
878:
877:
874:
871:
868:
865:
863:Global aphasia
859:
858:
855:
852:
849:
846:
840:
839:
836:
833:
830:
827:
821:
820:
817:
814:
811:
808:
802:
801:
798:
795:
792:
789:
783:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
764:
763:
760:
757:
754:
751:
745:
744:
741:
738:
735:
730:
672:Patients with
669:
666:
657:
654:
641:
638:
636:
633:
625:working memory
584:
581:
566:
563:
554:
551:
546:
545:
539:
486:
483:
481:
478:
430:(PTr) and the
372:
369:
353:Broca's region
345:pars orbitalis
306:, also called
163:
162:
153:
147:
146:
141:
135:
134:
129:
123:
122:
117:
111:
110:
106:
105:
100:
94:
93:
88:
82:
81:
76:
72:
71:
67:
66:
63:
55:
54:
43:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4654:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4609:
4607:
4600:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4585:
4583:
4579:
4573:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4565:
4561:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4537:
4535:
4531:
4525:
4524:Rhinal sulcus
4522:
4520:
4519:Dentate gyrus
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4506:
4504:
4502:
4498:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4476:
4475:
4471:
4468:
4467:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4449:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4431:
4430:
4427:
4423:
4420:
4419:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4412:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4370:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4361:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4348:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4317:
4313:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4288:
4286:
4284:Superolateral
4282:
4279:
4277:
4271:
4259:
4256:
4255:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4245:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4216:
4215:
4212:
4208:
4205:
4204:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4194:
4192:
4188:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4145:
4144:
4141:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4132:
4128:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4120:Superolateral
4118:
4115:
4113:
4112:Temporal lobe
4109:
4099:
4096:
4095:
4092:
4091:Lingual gyrus
4089:
4087:
4084:
4080:
4077:
4076:
4075:
4074:Visual cortex
4072:
4071:
4069:
4065:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4053:Lunate sulcus
4051:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4038:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4019:Superolateral
4017:
4014:
4012:
4008:
3996:
3993:
3992:
3991:
3988:
3984:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3976:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3967:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3953:
3947:
3944:
3940:
3937:
3936:
3935:
3932:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3909:
3908:
3905:
3904:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3883:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3875:
3871:
3870:Angular gyrus
3867:
3864:
3862:
3858:
3855:
3854:
3853:
3850:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3837:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3830:
3828:Superolateral
3826:
3823:
3821:
3820:Parietal lobe
3817:
3805:
3802:
3801:
3800:
3797:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3788:
3785:
3781:
3778:
3777:
3776:
3773:
3769:
3766:
3765:
3764:
3761:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3742:
3732:
3729:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3708:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3693:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3680:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3668:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3650:
3649:
3645:
3642:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3630:
3626:
3623:
3622:
3621:
3617:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3595:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3581:
3578:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3566:
3562:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3499:
3498:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3456:
3455:
3452:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3430:
3429:
3427:
3425:
3421:
3418:
3416:Superolateral
3414:
3411:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3389:
3384:
3382:
3377:
3375:
3370:
3369:
3366:
3357:
3356:
3351:
3350:
3337:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3294:
3286:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3186:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3167:
3164:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3113:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3070:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3041:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3011:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2962:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2931:(4): 679–90.
2930:
2926:
2919:
2911:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2868:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2819:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2766:
2758:
2751:
2743:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2718:(4): 273–85.
2717:
2713:
2706:
2699:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2668:(2): 231–56.
2667:
2663:
2656:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2512:(4): 311–24.
2511:
2507:
2500:
2492:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2465:
2449:
2445:
2439:
2430:
2425:
2422:(5): 679–93.
2421:
2417:
2413:
2406:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2373:(2): 216–30.
2372:
2368:
2364:
2357:
2355:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2296:
2292:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2273:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2232:
2223:
2215:
2209:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2172:
2170:
2161:
2154:
2152:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2077:(4): 486–90.
2076:
2072:
2065:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1862:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1837:(8): 1261–9.
1836:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1788:(3): 178–90.
1787:
1783:
1779:
1772:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1741:(4): 469–71.
1740:
1736:
1729:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1696:(3): 129–35.
1695:
1691:
1687:
1680:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1647:(3): 260–77.
1646:
1642:
1638:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1536:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1475:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1410:
1404:
1400:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1352:(6863): 505.
1351:
1347:
1343:
1336:
1321:
1320:HarperCollins
1317:
1316:
1311:
1305:
1289:
1288:
1283:
1277:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1259:
1254:
1248:
1232:
1231:
1226:
1220:
1216:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1187:
1174:
1169:
1162:
1157:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1108:
1103:
1096:
1091:
1084:
1079:
1078:
1072:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1033:body language
1029:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1018:communication
1014:
1004:
1001:
997:
992:
982:
973:
970:
954:
952:
948:
944:
934:
925:
921:
918:
912:
910:
894:
891:
888:
885:
883:
880:
879:
875:
872:
869:
866:
864:
861:
860:
856:
853:
850:
847:
845:
842:
841:
837:
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4351:Limbic lobe
3400:human brain
2479:. pp.
2454:January 15,
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1294:8 September
1237:8 September
1059:chimpanzees
876:Non-fluent
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710:aphasiology
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416:parcelation
109:Identifiers
4621:Categories
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3971:3, 1 and 2
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