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one another. But bring these people together physically in one place to form a team, and you have trouble, for the most creative people are often not the best team players, and there are not enough top positions in a single organization to keep them all happy. Let them go their separate ways, and each creates his own empire, large or small, and devotes more time to the role of emperor than to the role of problem solver. The principals still get together at meetings. They still visit one another. But the time scale of their communication stretches out, and the correlations among mental models degenerate between meetings so that it may take a year to do a week's communicating. There has to be some way of facilitating communication among people wit bout bringing them together in one place." (Evan
Herbert edited the article and acted as intermediary during its writing between Licklider in Boston and Taylor in Washington.)
630:(AI), but unlike other AI practitioners, he never felt sure that men would be replaced by computer-based beings. As he wrote in the article: "Men will set the goals, formulate the hypotheses, determine the criteria, and perform the evaluations. Computing machines will do the routinizable work that must be done to prepare the way for insights and decisions in technical and scientific thinking". He goes on to write in the same article: "In short, it seems worthwhile to avoid argument with (other) enthusiasts for artificial intelligence by conceding dominance in the distant future of cerebration to machines alone". This approach, focusing on effective use of information technology in augmenting human intelligence, is sometimes called
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2012:, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Licklider, the first director of the Advanced Research Projects Agency's (ARPA) Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO), discusses his work at Lincoln Laboratory and IPTO. Topics include: personnel recruitment; the interrelations between the various Massachusetts Institute of Technology laboratories; Licklider's relationship with
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1238:. "To establish the context of the present work, it is informative to trace the development of time-sharing at MIT. Shortly after the first paper on time-shared computers by C. Strachey at the June 1959 UNESCO Information Processing conference, H.M. Teager and J. McCarthy delivered an unpublished paper "Time-Shared Program Testing" at the August 1959 ACM Meeting."
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In 1959 Christopher
Strachey in the United Kingdom and John McCarthy in the United States independently described something they called time-sharing. Meanwhile, computer pioneer J.C.R. Licklider at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) began to promote the idea of interactive computing as
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In the same 1968 paper, J. C. R. Licklider and Robert W. Taylor wrote, "Take any problem worthy of the name, and you find only a few people who can contribute effectively to its solution. Those people must be brought into close intellectual partnership so that their ideas can come into contact with
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project to create a computer-aided air defense system. The SAGE system included computers that collected and presented data to a human operator, who then chose the appropriate response. He worked as a human factors expert, which helped convince him of the great potential for human/computer
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Advanced
Research Projects Agency, an appointment he kept through July 1964. In April 1963, he sent a memo to his colleagues in outlining the early challenges presented in establishing a time-sharing network of computers with the software of that time. Ultimately his vision led to
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Al Vezza was insistent, remembers Louise
Licklider. "Lick had said that he didn't want any kind of to-do when he died", she says. "He wasn't religious himself, even though his father had been a Southern Baptist minister, so it would seem totally phony if he'd had a big religious
303:, noted that "most of the significant advances in computer technology—including the work that my group did at Xerox PARC—were simply extrapolations of Lick's vision. They were not really new visions of their own. So he was really the father of it all".
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early in his career. His ideas foretold of graphical computing, point-and-click interfaces, digital libraries, e-commerce, online banking, and software that would exist on a network and migrate wherever it was needed. Much like
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Following a second stint as IPTO director (1974–1975), his MIT faculty line was transferred to the
Institute's Laboratory for Computer Science, where he was based for the remainder of his career. He was a founding member of
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field, Licklider is most remembered for his 1951 "Duplex Theory of Pitch
Perception", presented in a paper which has been cited hundreds of times, was reprinted in a 1979 book, and formed the basis for modern models of
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with an early vision of a worldwide computer network long before it was built. He did much to initiate this by funding research that led to significant advances in computing technology, including today's canonical
749:, "So I think we must consider new ways to build a great network for knowledge—not just a broadcast system, but one that employs every means of sending and of storing information that the individual can use".
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Licklider played a similar role in conceiving of and funding early networking research. He formulated the earliest ideas of a global computer network in August 1962 at BBN, in a series of memos discussing the
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was invented. He also did some seminal early work for the
Council on Library Resources, imagining what libraries of the future might look like, which he describes as "thinking centers" in his 1960 paper.
741:. This paper describes a radical departure from the "broadcast" model of television. Instead Licklider advocates for a two-way communications network. The Carnegie Commission led to the creation of the
745:. Although the Commission's report explains that "Dr. Licklider's paper was completed after the Commission had formulated its own conclusions," President Johnson said at the signing of the
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illustrates his vision of network applications and predicts the use of computer networks to support communities of common interest and collaboration without regard to location.
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Licklider was instrumental in conceiving, funding and managing the research that led to modern personal computers and the
Internet. In 1960 his seminal paper on "
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of Joseph Parron
Licklider, a Baptist minister, and Margaret Robnett Licklider. Despite his father's religious background, he was not religious in later life.
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622:", Licklider in 1960 outlined the need for simpler interaction between computers and computer users. Licklider has been credited as an early pioneer of
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1989:, September, 1993, Vol 36, No 9, pp 27–33. A survey of research and development leading to the personal computer including Licklider's contributions.
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from 1964 to 1967, Licklider rejoined MIT as a professor of electrical engineering in 1968. During this period, he concurrently served as director of
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2020:; IPTO's influence of computer science research in the areas of interactive computing and timesharing; the ARPA contracting process; the work of
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589:" foreshadowed interactive computing, and he went on to fund early efforts in time-sharing and application development, most notably the work of
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385:. In 1957, he received the Franklin V. Taylor Award from the Society of Engineering Psychologists. In 1958, he was elected President of the
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1934:
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1966:, pp. 11–18, Vol 39., No 10, October, 1996. A survey of US government-funded research and development preceding and including the
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video documentary, 1972. Licklider explains online resource sharing, about 10 minutes into the documentary, and reappears throughout.
1977:
1952:
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Almost immediately after the 1965 meeting, Donald Davies conceived of the details of a store-and-forward packet switching system
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1820:, J. C. R. Licklider, Supplementary Papers submitted to the Carnegie Commission on Educational Television, 1967
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in 1942 as well as a
Doctorate in Psychology from the University of Rochester, that same year. Thereafter he worked at
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2042:, Minnesota. Kahn discusses the work of various DARPA and IPTO personnel including J. C. R. Licklider.
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2549:
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452:
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Licklider JC (1948). "The influence of interaural phase relations upon the masking of speech by white noise".
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1967:
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at a UNESCO-sponsored conference on Information Processing in Paris in 1959. At BBN he developed the
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17:
838:"Computers Are Helping Scientists Locate That Particular Pebble in the New Avalanche of Information"
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999:
The Dream Machine: J. C. R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made Computing Personal
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and a psychology program for engineering students. While at MIT, Licklider was involved in the
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In 1967 Licklider submitted the paper "Televistas: Looking ahead through side windows" to the
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1938:
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Gillies, James M.; Gillies, James; Gillies, James and Cailliau Robert; Cailliau, R. (2000).
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1974:
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1044:, A Biographical Memoir by Robert M. Fano, National Academies Press, Washington D.C., 1998
8:
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1832:"Remarks of President Lyndon B. Johnson Upon Signing the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967"
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707:" concept. These ideas contained almost everything that the Internet is today, including
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463:(work on which commenced in 1964). Multics provided inspiration for some elements of the
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An Electrical Investigation of Frequency-Localization in the Auditory Cortex of the Cat
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in 1950 as an associate professor, where he served on a committee that established the
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as a research fellow and lecturer in the Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory from 1943 to 1950.
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Guice, Jon (1998), "Controversy and the State: Lord ARPA and Intelligence Computing",
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was designed to be shared by up to 30 simultaneous users, each sitting at a separate
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1623:. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. p. 1965. Archived from
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that an all-encompassing computer network was a very important concept. He met with
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1999:
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The Dream Machine: J.C.R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made Computing Personal
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The Dream Machine: J.C.R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made Computing Personal
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1981:
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833:. Report of the Carnegie Commission on Public Television, 1967, pp. 201–225.
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690:. This time-sharing technology later developed to become what today are known as
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He is particularly remembered for being one of the first to foresee modern-style
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1721:"The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's Artificial Intelligence Vision"
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as a long-term goal and guiding light ever since Licklider's 1960 publication.
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After serving as manager of information sciences, systems and applications at
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Licklider, J. C. R. (1951). "A duplex theory of pitch perception".
1361:"Memorandum For Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network"
817:"Memorandum for Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network"
727:
679:
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571:
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until 1971. Project MAC had produced the first computer time-sharing system,
382:
177:
1889:– An extensive and very thoroughly researched biography of J.C.R. Licklider.
1324:"Man-Computer Symbiosis" Or How I learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Borg
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389:, and in 1990 he received the Commonwealth Award for Distinguished Service.
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Miller, G. A. (1991), "J. C. R. Licklider, psychologist",
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2017:
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consists of ideas, not inventions. He foresaw the need for networked
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2427:
2048:"Joseph C.R. Licklider Dies at 75 – Foresaw New Uses for Computers"
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and its application to all manner of activities; and also as an
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Psychologists's work and dreams led to the rise of the Internet
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925:
Melzack, Ronald (1 January 1982). "Dalbir Bindra: 1922-1980".
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Licklider wrote numerous articles and lectures, and one book:
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and conducted the first public demonstration of time-sharing.
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2027:
2005:
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who is considered to be among the most prominent figures in
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223:
1409:"Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) | MIT History"
1311:, by James Pelkey, Computer History Museum, June 28, 1988.
3195:
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
1507:"Auditory Models as Preprocessors for Speech Recognition"
436:
214:
2006:
Oral history interview with J. C. R. Licklider
1569:"J. C. R. Licklider And The Universal Network"
1562:
27:
American psychologist and computer scientist (1915-1990)
1894:
Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins Of The Internet
1607:
1585:
1583:
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1511:
The Auditory Processing of Speech: From Sounds to Words
1227:
The Compatible Time-Sharing System A Programmer's Guide
574:'s, Licklider's contribution to the development of the
2000:
J. C. R. Licklider And The Universal Network
1975:
Before the Altair – The History of Personal Computing
1505:
R. D. Patterson; J. Holdsworth; M. Allerhand (1992).
1363:. Washington, D.C.: Advanced Research Projects Agency
1309:"Interview of Joseph Carl Robnett (J.C.R.) Licklider"
1196:
How the Web was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web
858:
411:
In October 1962, Licklider was appointed head of the
217:
1578:
1494:. Stroudsburg PA: Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, Inc.
819:. Advanced Research Projects Agency, April 23, 1963.
535:
226:
220:
211:
1053:
237:; March 11, 1915 – June 26, 1990), known simply as
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1927:Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing
1358:
1193:
996:
3135:Washington University in St. Louis mathematicians
392:Licklider left MIT to become a vice president at
3101:
1970:backbone and international connections programs.
1818:"Televistas: Looking ahead through side windows"
1602:IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics
1486:
1383:""Man-Computer Symbiosis" In MIT 150 Exhibition"
1302:
831:"Televistas: Looking ahead through side windows"
1275:
1111:H. Peter Alesso; Craig F. Smith (18 Jan 2008).
548:While at MIT in the 1950s, Licklider worked on
1076:
3140:Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
2081:
1527:
1509:. In Marten Egbertus Hendrik Schouten (ed.).
1131:
739:Carnegie Commission on Educational Television
3145:American artificial intelligence researchers
2045:
1855:
1853:
983:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
810:Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics
528:perception. He was also the first to report
1784:
1754:
1314:
1249:"Computer - Time-sharing and minicomputers"
1164:
1162:
1082:
2088:
2074:
2028:Oral history interview with Robert E. Kahn
1761:Roberts, Dr. Lawrence G. (November 1978).
1171:"J. C. R. Licklider (1915–1990)"
918:
812:, volume HFE-1, pp. 4–11, March 1960.
697:
40:
3130:Washington University in St. Louis alumni
2095:
1862:, J.C.R. Licklider and Robert W. Taylor,
1850:
1613:
1533:
1168:
1137:
613:
560:
311:Licklider was born on March 11, 1915, in
281:, which is the direct predecessor of the
2813:
1908:– Describes the creation of the ARPANET.
1860:"The Computer as a Communication Device"
1159:
844:"The Computer as a Communication Device"
652:Information Processing Techniques Office
539:
413:Information Processing Techniques Office
1916:paper, Douglas Engelbart, October 1962.
1892:Katie Hafner & Matthew Lyon (1998)
1830:Johnson, Lyndon B. (November 7, 1967).
1829:
1790:
1760:
1737:
1718:
1439:Williams, Wayne. "The Next Dimension".
1421:
1320:
1041:Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider 1915—1990
994:
924:
502:; his cremated remains are interred in
14:
3102:
1935:From World Brain to the World Wide Web
1614:Licklider, J. C. R. (1965).
1218:
1089:. Rochester University. Archived from
988:
822:1965. "Man-Computer Partnership". In:
783:. Ph.D. Thesis University of Rochester
754:The Computer as a Communication Device
650:During his time as director of ARPA's
494:computer games. He retired and became
2812:
2590:
2329:
2328:
2107:
2069:
1793:"The ARPANET & Computer Networks"
1791:Roberts, Dr. Lawrence G. (May 1995).
1640:
1359:J. C. R. Licklider (April 23, 1963).
975:
730:in 1965 and inspired his interest in
666:. He also funded similar projects at
638:, DARPA director in 2020, focused on
346:in psychology in 1938. He received a
3170:People from Arlington, Massachusetts
1712:
1438:
1200:. Oxford University Press. pp.
1003:. New York: Viking Penguin. p.
985:89, no. 4B, pp. 1887–1887
907:List of pioneers in computer science
824:International Science and Technology
654:(IPTO) from 1962 to 1964, he funded
3150:20th-century American psychologists
1763:"The Evolution of Packet Switching"
1264:an alternative to batch processing.
1028:Internet Pioneers: J.C.R. Licklider
743:Corporation for Public Broadcasting
421:United States Department of Defense
381:as head of the team concerned with
295:'s Computer Science Laboratory and
24:
1950:Seeding Networks: the Federal Role
1872:
1146:American Psychological Association
1114:Connections: Patterns of Discovery
995:Waldrop, M. Mitchell (2001).
927:The American Journal of Psychology
792:. Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press (
514:
324:Washington University in St. Louis
159:Washington University in St. Louis
25:
3206:
1993:
550:Semi-Automatic Ground Environment
536:Semi-Automatic Ground Environment
1698:The History of Computing Project
892:
880:
868:
441:Thomas J. Watson Research Center
204:
1919:Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider,
1823:
1811:
1731:
1686:
1634:
1604:, vol. HFE-1, 4-11, March 1960.
1589:Licklider, J. C. R.,
1498:
1480:
1466:
1453:
1432:
1415:
1401:
1375:
1352:
1332:Georgia Institute of Technology
1269:
1241:
1185:
953:"Jerome I. Elkind '51, ScD '56"
770:
765:Licklider Transmission Protocol
747:Public Broadcasting Act of 1967
565:Licklider became interested in
459:setups with the development of
3125:University of Rochester alumni
2591:
1740:"A History of Cloud Computing"
1694:"J. C. R. Licklider"
1058:. Penguin Books. p. 471.
1047:
1033:
1030:, retrieved online: 2009-05-19
1021:
945:
705:Intergalactic Computer Network
688:System Development Corporation
645:
115:Intergalactic Computer Network
97:"Computing's Johnny Appleseed"
13:
1:
3185:Speech processing researchers
3180:MIT Lincoln Laboratory people
912:
387:Acoustical Society of America
297:Digital Equipment Corporation
200:Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider
34:Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider
3160:American computer scientists
2108:
2046:Glenn Fowler (3 July 1990).
2016:; the work of ARPA director
1738:Mohamed, Arif (March 2009).
1575:, accessed 18 September 2012
1280:Computing: A Concise History
1054:M. Mitchell Waldrop (2002).
595:Augmentation Research Center
498:in 1985. He died in 1990 in
306:
7:
1968:National Science Foundation
1878:M. Mitchell Waldrop (2001)
1425:The Art of Unix Programming
1148:, April 2000, Vol 31, No. 4
854:
714:While at IPTO he convinced
599:Stanford Research Institute
582:with easy user interfaces.
428:, the precursor of today's
10:
3211:
2690:Anne-Marie Eklund Löwinder
1913:Augmenting Human Intellect
1657:10.1177/030631298028001004
632:Intelligence amplification
544:A SAGE operator's terminal
445:Yorktown Heights, New York
396:in 1957. He learned about
3120:Scientists from St. Louis
3033:
2903:
2823:
2819:
2808:
2759:
2718:
2662:
2601:
2597:
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2527:
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2395:
2339:
2335:
2324:
2275:
2199:
2118:
2114:
2103:
2032:Charles Babbage Institute
2014:Bolt, Beranek, and Newman
2010:Charles Babbage Institute
1987:Communications of the ACM
1963:Communications of the ACM
1834:. cpb.org. Archived from
1700:. thocp.net. July 8, 2001
1644:Social Studies of Science
1422:Raymond, Eric S. (2003).
1284:. The MIT Press. p.
1117:. John Wiley & Sons.
794:alternative online source
640:human-machine partnership
490:in 1979, known for their
193:
183:
173:
168:
154:
149:
145:
137:
129:
101:
89:
70:
48:
39:
32:
1921:Libraries of the Future.
1591:"Man-Computer Symbiosis"
1276:Paul E. Ceruzzi (2012).
806:"Man-Computer Symbiosis"
500:Arlington, Massachusetts
365:He became interested in
275:graphical user interface
257:development and general
82:Arlington, Massachusetts
2036:University of Minnesota
1728:, vol. 41, Summer 2020.
1719:Highnam, Peter (2020).
1617:Libraries of the Future
1492:Psychological Acoustics
1253:Encyclopedia Britannica
1224:F. J. Corbató, et al.,
800:Articles, a selection:
789:Libraries of the future
698:Global computer network
628:artificial intelligence
601:and created the famous
509:
455:, and one of the first
406:BBN Time-Sharing System
394:Bolt Beranek and Newman
356:University of Rochester
330:with a triple major in
301:Systems Research Center
163:University of Rochester
120:Artificial Intelligence
3066:Hartmut Richard Glaser
1864:Science and Technology
1463:(Basel) 7, 4, 128–134.
1385:. 2011. Archived from
848:Science and Technology
620:Man-Computer Symbiosis
614:Man–computer symbiosis
587:Man-Computer Symbiosis
567:information technology
561:Information technology
545:
375:MIT Lincoln Laboratory
367:information technology
326:, where he received a
2736:Karlheinz Brandenburg
2519:Douglas Van Houweling
2097:Internet Hall of Fame
1939:Martin Campbell-Kelly
1513:. Walter de Gruyter.
1173:. Columbia University
959:. MIT. Archived from
957:MIT Energy Initiative
664:"typewriter terminal"
543:
504:Mount Auburn Cemetery
266:interactive computing
110:Interactive computing
2978:Kenneth Klingenstein
2814:Inductees since 2019
2555:Ermanno Pietrosemoli
2413:Anriette Esterhuysen
2222:Kanchana Kanchanasut
2151:Elizabeth J. Feinler
1923:Cambridge, MA, 1965.
1898:Simon & Schuster
767:is named after him.
402:Christopher Strachey
3190:Auditory scientists
2787:Tracy LaQuey Parker
2772:Yvonne Marie Andres
2695:Henning Schulzrinne
1548:1948ASAJ...20..150L
1389:on October 22, 2018
1144:. published by the
732:data communications
724:Lawrence G. Roberts
668:Stanford University
492:interactive fiction
313:St. Louis, Missouri
245:", was an American
150:Academic background
3175:Deaths from asthma
2680:François Flückiger
2629:Lawrence Landweber
2227:J. C. R. Licklider
1980:2006-09-09 at the
1955:2006-09-09 at the
1945:, 9 November 2006.
1596:2005-11-03 at the
1536:J. Acoust. Soc. Am
1447:Imagine Publishing
1230:(MIT Press, 1963)
963:on 4 February 2021
660:mainframe computer
593:, who founded the
546:
530:binaural unmasking
496:professor emeritus
360:Harvard University
251:computer scientist
3165:Internet pioneers
3097:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3089:
3088:
3051:Ivan Moura Campos
2983:Alejandro Pisanty
2921:Hans-Werner Braun
2861:Jean Armour Polly
2804:
2803:
2800:
2799:
2675:John Perry Barlow
2582:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2565:Florencio Utreras
2504:Srinivasan Ramani
2377:Daniel Karrenberg
2330:Global connectors
2320:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2283:Douglas Engelbart
2171:Leonard Kleinrock
2166:Peter T. Kirstein
2002:— Living Internet
1838:on August 8, 2011
1799:on March 24, 2016
1769:on March 24, 2016
1556:10.1121/1.1906358
1520:978-3-11-013589-3
1449:. pp. 30–41.
1236:978-0-262-03008-3
1211:978-0-19-286207-5
1083:Raychel Rappold.
1014:978-0-670-89976-0
591:Douglas Engelbart
259:computing history
197:
196:
174:Doctoral students
16:(Redirected from
3202:
3076:William Schrader
3015:Virginia Travers
3011:
2929:
2896:
2888:Suguru Yamaguchi
2879:
2821:
2820:
2810:
2809:
2700:Richard Stallman
2634:Paul Mockapetris
2599:
2598:
2588:
2587:
2337:
2336:
2326:
2325:
2191:Lawrence Roberts
2156:Charles Herzfeld
2116:
2115:
2105:
2104:
2090:
2083:
2076:
2067:
2066:
2062:
2060:
2058:
1867:
1857:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1795:. Archived from
1788:
1782:
1781:
1776:
1774:
1765:. Archived from
1758:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1742:. ComputerWeekly
1735:
1729:
1724:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1690:
1684:
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1638:
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1622:
1611:
1605:
1587:
1576:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1488:Earl D. Schubert
1484:
1478:
1477:
1474:"Google Scholar"
1470:
1464:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1436:
1430:
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1412:
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1399:
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1379:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1347:
1346:
1340:
1334:. Archived from
1329:
1318:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1283:
1273:
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979:
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942:
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897:
896:
895:
885:
884:
883:
873:
872:
871:
864:
658:at MIT. A large
468:operating system
270:Internet pioneer
255:computer science
236:
235:
232:
231:
228:
225:
222:
219:
216:
213:
210:
188:Jerome I. Elkind
133:Louise Carpenter
90:Other names
77:
65:, Missouri, U.S.
58:
56:
44:
30:
29:
21:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3100:
3099:
3098:
3085:
3081:Guy de Téramond
3061:Peter Eckersley
3029:
3020:George Varghese
3005:
2923:
2899:
2890:
2873:
2871:Michael Stanton
2836:Kimberly Claffy
2815:
2796:
2792:Craig Partridge
2755:
2714:
2670:Marc Andreessen
2658:
2654:Phil Zimmermann
2619:Robert Cailliau
2614:Tim Berners-Lee
2593:
2574:
2560:Tadao Takahashi
2523:
2509:Michael Roberts
2489:Abhaya Induruwa
2474:Masaki Hirabaru
2452:
2448:George Sadowsky
2438:Haruhisa Ishida
2418:Steve Goldstein
2391:
2331:
2312:
2298:Dennis Jennings
2271:
2195:
2110:
2099:
2094:
2056:
2054:
2022:Ivan Sutherland
1996:
1985:, Larry Press,
1982:Wayback Machine
1960:, Larry Press,
1957:Wayback Machine
1943:Gresham College
1875:
1873:Further reading
1870:
1858:
1851:
1841:
1839:
1828:
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1608:
1598:Wayback Machine
1588:
1579:
1573:Living Internet
1567:
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1532:
1528:
1521:
1503:
1499:
1485:
1481:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1458:
1454:
1445:. No. 10.
1437:
1433:
1420:
1416:
1407:
1406:
1402:
1392:
1390:
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1376:
1366:
1364:
1357:
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1344:
1342:
1338:
1330:. published by
1327:
1319:
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1307:
1303:
1296:
1274:
1270:
1257:
1255:
1247:
1246:
1242:
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1212:
1190:
1186:
1176:
1174:
1169:Jay R. Hauben.
1167:
1160:
1151:
1149:
1138:J. CHAMBERLIN.
1136:
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891:
887:Systems science
881:
879:
869:
867:
859:
857:
773:
752:His 1968 paper
716:Ivan Sutherland
709:cloud computing
700:
648:
616:
563:
538:
521:psychoacoustics
517:
515:Psychoacoustics
512:
369:, and moved to
352:psychoacoustics
342:in 1937 and an
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124:Psychoacoustics
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3155:Cyberneticists
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2767:Jaap Akkerhuis
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2649:Linus Torvalds
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2609:Mitchell Baker
2605:
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2535:Nabil Bukhalid
2531:
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2063:
2052:New York Times
2043:
2025:
2003:
1995:
1994:External links
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1991:
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1651:(1): 103–138,
1633:
1630:on 2012-09-16.
1606:
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1542:(2): 150–159.
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607:computer mouse
603:On-Line System
562:
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480:Dennis Ritchie
322:He studied at
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1906:0-684-83267-4
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676:UC Berkeley
656:Project MAC
646:Project MAC
624:cybernetics
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3104:Categories
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