36:
288:
but also gives the former a chance to be redeemed, which is metaphorically compared to refining silver and to being born. The text likely reflected views about the idealized purpose and results of imprisonment, a punishment well attested in
Mesopotamian records. The use of temporary imprisonment as part of the judicial process meant to help with determining if a person is guilty is also attested in the
569:, the wife of Nergal, who was also a deity associated with the underworld. Similarly, the goddess KAŠ.DIN.NAM, most likely to be read as Kurunnītu, who is assumed to be a late form of Ninkasi appears in association with Bēlet-balāṭi. It has been proposed that the possible connection between beer and underworld deities was meant to serve as a reflection of negative effects of alcohol consumption.
404:. In the last location there was a temple known as Esapar, "house of the net," dedicated to Ninegal. However, in a document listing various temples Esapar is instead said to be the name of a temple of Nungal, with no location listed. Due to the existence of a well attested association between these two goddesses it is possible that there was only one Esapar.
295:
Despite being the goddess of prisons, Nungal was regarded as a compassionate deity. Imprisonment was presumably viewed as compassionate compared to the death penalty, and it is likely that the goddess was regarded as capable of reducing the most severe punishments. She was also portrayed in various
287:
proposed that it was originally composed by a scribe accused of a crime which would warrant a severe penalty. It describes the fate of those who find themselves under the auspice of Nungal. According to this composition, the prison maintained by this goddess separates the guilty from the innocent,
314:
proposed that originally
Manungal and her spouse Birtum were worshiped in a presently unknown city which declined in the third millennium BCE, leading to the transfer of its tutelary deities to Nippur. An analogous process likely occurred also when it comes to other deities, such as
423:
and Uruk. According to an economic document from the late first millennium BCE, in the last of those cities she was worshiped in the temple
Egalmah (Sumerian: "exalted palace"), which instead appears in association with
530:, occurs in the court of Nungal in some sources too, though Jeremiah Peterson considers it possible that there might have been two deities with similar names, one associated with Nungal and the other with Nanaya.
214:
Nungal's name means "Great
Princess" in Sumerian. A plural form of the name attested in some documents can be regarded as analogous to one of the collective terms for Mesopotamian deities,
465:, whose name means "fetter" or "shackle" in Akkadian. While the word is grammatically feminine, the deity was regarded as male. Birtum also appears among underworld gods linked to
35:
590:
to Lagash. It has been proposed that he was associated with her as a judge deity, but it is also possible that he acquired a connection to the underworld because of her.
225:, "mother Nungal." It is first attested in documents from the Ur III period, while in later times it commonly appears in place of the base form in texts written in
579:
appears to syncretise Nungal with the eponymous goddess. Similarly, Bēlet-balāṭi is attested as a form or member of the entourage of another medicine goddess,
202:
Much of the available information about her role in
Mesopotamian beliefs comes from a Sumerian hymn which was a part of the scribal curriculum in the
407:
Under the name Bēlet-balāṭi Nungal continued to be worshiped in Nippur in the first millennium BCE, for example in the temple of the local goddess
469:
in god lists. As Nungal is called a daughter in law of Enlil, Birtum was likely his son. Nungal was also called the "true stewardess of Enlil,"
271:
It is possible that Bēlet-balāṭi, "mistress of life," a goddess known from sources from the first millennium BCE, was a late form of
Manungal.
1598:
393:, contrary to early assumptions in scholarship. Other locations proposed for it include the Egalmah temple in Ur, or the city of Lagash.
1185:
1454:
1283:
1217:
1198:
279:
Jeremiah
Peterson describes punishment and detention as the primary domain of Nungal. Her character is described in the hymn
323:
264:
functions as an epithet of Nungal. This name is otherwise attested either as an epithet of various goddesses, especially
1374:
1310:
1187:
Goddesses in
Context: On Divine Powers, Roles, Relationships and Gender in Mesopotamian Textual and Visual Sources
446:, it is possible to reconcile the different accounts by assuming all three of these goddesses were connected with
1621:
542:
157:
296:
less fearsome roles, for example as a goddess of justice or as one associated with medicine and perhaps birth.
453:
Theophoric names invoking Nungal are known from records from the Ur III period, one example being Ur-Manungal.
1626:
319:, whose cult was transferred from Eresh, which disappears from records after the Ur III period, to Nippur.
299:
Nungal was also an underworld goddess, as evidenced by her association with
Ereshkigal and by the epithet
283:, known from a large number of Old Babylonian copies thanks to its role in the scribal school curriculum.
483:" ("Frondienst") by Antoine Cavigneaux and Manfred Krebernik, appears as Nungal's son. According to the
1631:
522:, also appears in her circle, for example in the Nippur god list. It is also assumed that the goddess
41:
374:
is known too. There are also records of offerings being made to her alongside Inanna, Ninegal and
1604:
502:
pole"), possibly regarded as a female deity. She appears to play the role of a prosecutor in the
203:
45:
233:
dialect of
Sumerian. A number of variant spellings of the name are attested in sources from
354:
instead. A single attestation of Nungal receiving offerings in an Inanna temple, alongside
149:
8:
346:. In Nippur she was worshiped as one of the deities belonging to the court and family of
161:
1567:
1534:
1431:
311:
491:, while her father is Anu, though it is possible the later statement is not literal.
432:
from the Old Babylonian period. In the so-called "Standard Babylonian" version of the
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1538:
1526:
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1450:
1435:
1380:
1370:
1316:
1306:
1289:
1279:
1223:
1213:
1194:
434:
400:, where she had a temple, as well as a city gate named in her honor, and possibly in
226:
128:
1593:
429:
1518:
1485:
1423:
554:
443:
289:
1273:
553:
and this fragment she is very rare in known works of Mesopotamian literature. The
330:, worship of her is best attested in the Ur III period, when she was worshiped in
221:
An alternate form of the name, Manungal, was possibly a contraction of the phrase
1636:
1393:
1348:
1329:
1254:
1236:
562:
580:
447:
351:
1489:
1293:
1615:
1563:
1530:
1507:"The Birth of the Prison: The Functions of Imprisonment in Early Mesopotamia"
1497:
1464:
494:
Various courtiers of Nungal are attested in Sumerian and Akkadian texts. Her
1522:
1320:
1227:
350:, while in Ur she received offerings as one of the members of the circle of
1446:
God lists from Old Babylonian Nippur in the University Museum, Philadelphia
1384:
382:
284:
1412:"Two New Sumerian Texts Involving The Netherworld and Funerary Offerings"
420:
367:
1571:
1427:
587:
1547:
546:
488:
475:
192:
188:
79:
1558:. Archiv für Orientforschung (AfO)/Institut für Orientalistik: 19–46.
1052:
923:
921:
919:
817:
815:
813:
811:
809:
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375:
359:
327:
1506:
1473:
1444:
1100:
611:
609:
607:
605:
603:
268:, or as an independent minor deity, associated with royal palaces.
1411:
1275:
Studies in Sumerian Civilization. Selected writings of Miguel Civil
1124:
574:
511:
507:
425:
416:
916:
800:
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566:
558:
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480:
412:
408:
371:
261:
196:
116:
1474:"Runaways and Fugitive-Catchers during the Third Dynasty of Ur"
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331:
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660:
1416:
Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie
638:
636:
519:
347:
215:
184:
1160:
303:, "lady of the underworld," applied to her in incantations.
945:
933:
534:
390:
343:
335:
1278:. Publicacions i Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona.
839:
648:
633:
545:
deities. A fragmentary literary texts associates her with
700:
698:
696:
694:
692:
679:
677:
675:
586:
Nungal appears in the description of a cultic journey of
541:
and Weidner god lists Nungal is classified as one of the
355:
260:, and in a fragment of an otherwise unknown composition,
183:, and she was regarded as a courtier and daughter in law
83:
1478:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
1148:
1112:
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1136:
1088:
1064:
1040:
1028:
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1016:
964:
962:
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790:
788:
518:. The deity Eḫ (Akkadian: Uplum), a deification of the
396:
In the Old Babylonian period she was also worshiped in
339:
173:
761:
727:
725:
689:
672:
133:
1365:
Lambert, Wilfred G. (1980). "The Theology of Death".
1210:
The pantheon of Uruk during the neo-Babylonian period
1183:
1130:
1106:
986:
974:
887:
863:
827:
479:
the deity Dullum, whose name has been translated as "
1608:
in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
1013:
957:
785:
710:
40:
A tablet with part of the hymn to Nungal inscribed.
1303:
House most high: the temples of ancient Mesopotamia
1252:
1184:Asher-Greve, Julia M.; Westenholz, Joan G. (2013).
1058:
927:
821:
773:
749:
722:
627:
615:
456:
1613:
1253:Cavigneaux, Antoine; Krebernik, Manfred (1998),
385:, it is unlikely that the Ekur mentioned in the
187:. Texts also associate her with deities such as
450:and possibly functioned as her manifestations.
1599:Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
1234:
939:
666:
654:
642:
498:(attendant deity) was Nindumgul ("lady/lord
411:. She is also attested in sources linked to
1391:
845:
34:
1442:
1346:
1327:
1166:
1154:
1118:
1082:
1034:
1409:
1207:
1142:
1094:
1070:
1046:
951:
704:
683:
322:While Nungal is already attested in the
1545:
1511:Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History
1364:
1007:
995:
980:
898:
881:
869:
857:
833:
743:
716:
1614:
1300:
1235:Behrens, Herman; Klein, Jacob (1998),
968:
549:and Ereshkigal. With the exception of
160:. She was worshiped especially in the
1517:(2). Walter de Gruyter GmbH: 81–115.
1271:
1022:
910:
794:
731:
156:, sometimes also associated with the
1504:
1471:
779:
767:
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526:, associated with the love goddess
510:, a god who originated as a son of
140:, "great princess"), also known as
13:
14:
1648:
1586:
1131:Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013
1107:Asher-Greve & Westenholz 2013
1369:. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.
1176:
1059:Cavigneaux & Krebernik 1998
928:Cavigneaux & Krebernik 1998
822:Cavigneaux & Krebernik 1998
628:Cavigneaux & Krebernik 1998
616:Cavigneaux & Krebernik 1998
506:. Another of her courtiers was
457:Associations with other deities
438:it is described as a temple of
1:
1212:. Leiden Boston: Brill STYX.
1208:Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2003).
593:
1505:Reid, John Nicholas (2016).
1472:Reid, John Nicholas (2015).
1443:Peterson, Jeremiah (2009a).
1398:Reallexikon der Assyriologie
1353:Reallexikon der Assyriologie
1334:Reallexikon der Assyriologie
1305:. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.
1259:Reallexikon der Assyriologie
1241:Reallexikon der Assyriologie
389:was one and the same as the
274:
7:
1410:Peterson, Jeremiah (2009).
1392:Michalowski, Piotr (1998),
1347:Krebernik, Manfred (2005),
1328:Krebernik, Manfred (1998),
10:
1653:
1552:Archiv für Orientforschung
1449:. Münster: Ugarit Verlag.
1330:"Nin-kasi und Siraš/Siris"
1301:George, Andrew R. (1993).
428:in an inscription of king
306:
132:
1490:10.1163/15685209-12341383
391:temple of Enlil in Nippur
112:
107:
99:
89:
75:
70:
60:
52:
42:Oriental Institute Museum
33:
26:
21:
1546:Sjöberg, Åke W. (1973).
1394:"Nisaba A. Philological"
940:Behrens & Klein 1998
667:Behrens & Klein 1998
655:Behrens & Klein 1998
643:Behrens & Klein 1998
557:places the beer deities
1523:10.1515/janeh-2017-0008
209:
1622:Mesopotamian goddesses
1605:Nin-Isina and the Gods
1272:Civil, Miguel (2017).
1484:(4). Brill: 576–605.
204:Old Babylonian period
46:University of Chicago
1627:Underworld goddesses
1548:"Nungal in the Ekur"
1367:Death in Mesopotamia
565:between Maungal and
461:Nungal's spouse was
150:Mesopotamian goddess
16:Mesopotamian goddess
1428:10.1515/ZA.2009.006
1169:, pp. 166–167.
1061:, pp. 615–616.
954:, pp. 312–313.
913:, pp. 577–578.
669:, pp. 342–343.
514:in the pantheon of
770:, pp. 99–101.
551:Nungal in the Ekur
473:. In the god list
471:agrig-zi-En-lil-lá
312:Wilfred G. Lambert
281:Nungal in the Ekur
258:Nungal in the Ekur
164:in cities such as
28:Goddess of prisons
1632:Justice goddesses
1456:978-3-86835-019-7
1285:978-84-9168-237-0
1219:978-90-04-13024-1
1200:978-3-7278-1738-0
1010:, pp. 22–23.
884:, pp. 25–26.
860:, pp. 21–22.
746:, pp. 20–21.
435:Epic of Gilgamesh
122:
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113:Dilbat equivalent
61:Major cult center
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1594:A hymn to Nungal
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846:Michalowski 1998
843:
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658:
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646:
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631:
625:
619:
613:
555:Weidner god list
487:, her mother is
444:Andrew R. George
334:, Nippur, Umma,
290:Code of Ur-Nammu
251:Ma-nun-gal-an-na
179:Her husband was
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135:
38:
19:
18:
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1157:, p. 163.
1155:Krebernik 2005
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1145:, p. 313.
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1121:, p. 444.
1119:Krebernik 1998
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1083:Krebernik 1998
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618:, p. 615.
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504:Hymn to Nungal
485:Hymn to Nungal
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387:Hymn to Nungal
326:god list from
324:Early Dynastic
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1349:"Pabilsaĝ(a)"
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1095:Beaulieu 2003
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1079:
1072:
1071:Peterson 2009
1067:
1060:
1055:
1048:
1047:Peterson 2009
1043:
1037:, p. 57.
1036:
1031:
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1019:
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1004:
998:, p. 22.
997:
992:
990:
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982:
977:
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970:
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952:Beaulieu 2003
948:
941:
936:
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1514:
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1477:
1445:
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1258:
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1177:Bibliography
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1150:
1138:
1126:
1114:
1102:
1090:
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1008:Sjöberg 1973
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981:Sjöberg 1973
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935:
906:
899:Sjöberg 1973
882:Sjöberg 1973
877:
870:Sjöberg 1973
865:
858:Sjöberg 1973
853:
841:
834:Lambert 1980
829:
775:
763:
751:
744:Sjöberg 1973
739:
717:Sjöberg 1973
712:
662:
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623:
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577:and the Gods
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383:Miguel Civil
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285:Miguel Civil
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270:
257:
256:In the hymn
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250:
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222:
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178:
146:Bēlet-balāṭi
145:
141:
137:
124:
123:
1336:(in German)
1261:(in German)
1237:"Ninegalla"
969:George 1993
368:Geshtinanna
108:Equivalents
53:Other names
1616:Categories
1577:2022-02-23
1403:2022-02-22
1358:2022-02-22
1340:2022-05-25
1294:1193017085
1265:2022-02-22
1246:2022-02-22
1023:Civil 2017
911:Civil 2017
795:Civil 2017
732:Civil 2017
594:References
547:Nintinugga
543:underworld
489:Ereshkigal
239:Nun-gal-la
229:or in the
223:ama Nungal
193:Nintinugga
189:Ereshkigal
158:underworld
148:, was the
80:Ereshkigal
1564:0066-6440
1539:165703190
1531:2328-9562
1498:0022-4995
1465:460044951
1436:162329196
780:Reid 2016
768:Reid 2016
756:Reid 2015
575:Nin-Isina
572:The text
539:An = Anum
476:An = Anum
430:Sîn-kāšid
376:Annunitum
360:Ninshubur
275:Character
71:Genealogy
1572:41637722
1321:27813103
1255:"Nungal"
1228:51944564
588:Pabilsag
512:Ningirsu
508:Igalimma
426:Ninisina
417:Borsippa
301:Ninkurra
243:Ma-ga-la
227:Akkadian
142:Manungal
129:Sumerian
100:Children
56:Manungal
1597:in the
1385:7124686
559:Ninkasi
533:In the
500:mooring
481:serfdom
413:Babylon
409:Ninimma
307:Worship
262:Ninegal
197:Ninkasi
154:prisons
138:Nun-gal
117:Ninegal
90:Consort
76:Parents
1637:Lagash
1570:
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528:Nanaya
524:Bizila
516:Lagash
496:sukkal
467:Nergal
463:Birtum
440:Ninsun
402:Dilbat
398:Sippar
372:Dumuzi
364:Nanaya
332:Lagash
317:Nisaba
266:Inanna
235:Ugarit
231:Emesal
181:Birtum
170:Lagash
166:Nippur
134:𒀭𒎏𒃲
125:Nungal
103:Dullum
94:Birtum
65:Nippur
22:Nungal
1568:JSTOR
1535:S2CID
1432:S2CID
1422:(2).
1191:(PDF)
563:Siraš
520:louse
348:Enlil
216:Igigi
185:Enlil
1560:ISSN
1527:ISSN
1494:ISSN
1461:OCLC
1451:ISBN
1381:OCLC
1371:ISBN
1317:OCLC
1307:ISBN
1290:OCLC
1280:ISBN
1224:OCLC
1214:ISBN
1195:ISBN
581:Gula
561:and
535:Isin
448:Gula
370:and
352:Gula
344:Uruk
336:Susa
328:Fara
210:Name
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