Marcus Aurelius - Knowledge

460: 6805: 1476: 2568: 1875: 2112: 6719: 2586: 1449: 2142: 2301: 2331: 2676: 2959: 1743:– authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147. The first mention of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care. Domitia would die in 151. 6790: 652: 2660: 2103: 1562:

concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'. Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses. In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138. Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'. Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as

2322:, fishing, and comedy), going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure. Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back. Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: ''Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!' 1647:

blows. Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus's tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct, but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: 'he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'. The outcome of the trial is unknown.

1851:, about 19 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome. He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161, he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity). He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died. His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing 1805:, 'to Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia. By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown. In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead sisters. 1283: 2396: 6635: 1404:, as his new successor. As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus, in turn, adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius. Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus's daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius. Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home. 1318:, and possibly for heralding war season's beginning and end. Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends; he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools. One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life. In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough 14311: 1747: 3035: 1814: 2355: 1424:, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'. 31: 14220: 1370:, according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'. While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus on the throne. As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name, Lucius Aelius Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne, he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own. After a brief stationing on the 14280: 3128:. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates. The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. The extent to which the emperor himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians. The early Christian apologist 2930:(r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome. Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a "harbinger of something much more ominous". According to McLaughlin, the disease caused "irreparable" damage to the Roman maritime trade in the 14330: 2316:, a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday. Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?' He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the 2081:

had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: "There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality". Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.

3136:(written between 140 and 150) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman Senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Marcus believed Christian prayer had saved his army from thirst when "water poured from heaven" after which, "immediately we recognized the presence of God." Marcus goes on to request the Senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome. 3150: 1007:, claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395. The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources ( 1980:) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors. The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles. Upon his accession he also devalued the 3091:

himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day.

2090:– or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.' Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection. Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the 1378: 1279:, where he would spend much of his childhood. Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'. He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia. Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did. 2384:

motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor. Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.

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a judge is noble work'. Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it. In any case, Marcus's formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them

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During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome). The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like

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Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost

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and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus

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as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly. The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he

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and others in this circle. Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training. Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would

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Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus. Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first

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at a more southerly point. Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank. Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest

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He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'. His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at

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A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived. The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence.

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on 26 April 121. His birth name is sometimes given as Marcus Annius Verus, but sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age. He may have been known as "Marcus Annius Catilius Severus", at birth or some point in his youth,

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did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived

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revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there. In 168, the two emperors embarked on a new military campaign, expelling the invading Marcomanni

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Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154, and was consul again with Marcus in 161. Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and

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philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to

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viii. 4–5), the flood must have happened before Lucius's departure for the east in 162; because it appears in the biographer's narrative after Antoninus's funeral has finished and the emperors have settled into their offices, it must not have occurred in the spring of 161. A date in autumn 161 or

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The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to

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The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished. Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at

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Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: "It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is". He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's sessions with

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to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla. Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea. Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen. Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's

1440:. The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days. For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'. 2029:

Soon after the emperor's accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle). At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier

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As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators. But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of

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that he had learned 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation. His mother Lucilla did not remarry and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses', and was

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who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective. Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the

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possession but theirs. In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.57–2.67 g (0.091–0.094 oz). However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire.

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Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire. In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his

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Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity. Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior

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or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus's objections. Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is

3074:, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177. Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs; however, it was only the second time that a "non-adoptive" son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when 1561:

On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'. Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is

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Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes, but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power. He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation.

2426:, 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at. Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen. He only accompanied the group as far as 6649:

in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind, and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and

1930:. Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus. It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors. 993:, the writings of "the philosopher" – as contemporary biographers called Marcus – are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. These writings have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death. 2191: 2262:. Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers. 2137:

overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention. In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.

6992:, found him contemptible. Historians have seen him as a 'pedant and a bore', his letters offering neither the running political analysis of a Cicero or the conscientious reportage of a Pliny. Recent prosopographic research has rehabilitated his reputation, though not by much. 1598:). The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time, but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome. This was the age of the 2391:

and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch. Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle, saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through', and enjoyed the company of actors. Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.

459: 1991:, and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the Senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A 7041:

There was, however, much precedent. The consulate was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices (under Antoninus, the lieutenant had been Marcus). Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past:

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On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the

1342:– took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133. Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling. Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus's 14053:

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1766:, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius. Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'. He quoted from the 2241:, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days. 2084:

Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors. Marcus told Fronto of his reading –

1631:, perhaps even an alternative to him. He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure 11911:'s biography of Marcus Aurelius.) 'Pius, one of longest-serving emperors, became infirm in his last years, so Marcus Aurelius gradually assumed the imperial duties. By the time he succeeded in 161, he was already well-practised in public administration.' 2910:, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166, mentioned that "fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days" were among the symptoms. It is believed that the plague was 14058:

Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman

2297:, Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties, and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one. 1700:(as opposed to Fronto, the false one). Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts.... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing''. 2636:

had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.

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times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses. Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.

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Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared) and another part poorly compiled from a better biographical source, scholars have accepted these biographical details as

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In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed. The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the

2034:("lacking pomp") behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, "No one missed the lenient ways of Pius". 1762:, 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the 1611:

Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner. Atticus was an inveterate opponent of

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breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'. He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer. He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.

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before his twenty-fourth birthday. The Senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139. Marcus's adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become

1922:), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans. Thus, although the Senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers. The Senate accepted, granting Lucius the 1106:

or "Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus". Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as "Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar" and, upon his ascension, he was "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus" until his death;

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coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138. His remains were buried quietly at

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Freisenbruch, A. 2007. "Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in His Correspondence with an Emperor." In Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography. Edited by R. Morello and A. D. Morrison, 235–256. Oxford: Oxford Univ.

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More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray. Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding

1510:, head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar. Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the 2510:

Cassius's army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely. Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as

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Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled

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of Rome. The emperor's hand is outstretched in an act of clemency offered to a bested enemy, while his weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the

2198:. Inscription: above ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΔΟΥ, right ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΒΟΛΑΓΑΣΟΥ, left ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ, below ΔΙΟΥ (Greek inscription for KING OF KINGS – ARSAKIS VOLAGASES – ILLUSTRIUS PHILELLENE). Year ΔΟΥ = ΥΟΔ΄ = 474 = 162–163. 2170:. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the Senate had been awed: "Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech". Fronto was hugely pleased. 6750:

also gave him the title. The latter went so far as to call him "more philanthropic and philosophic" than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder.

7335: 7074:, imagining that they would accept equal rank. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) or judicial murder (Gemellus by Caligula and Britannicus by Nero). 2380:). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'. 1840:(an office that was as much secretarial as military) when Marcus Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157. In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill. 11251:

ix. 4; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 72; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163; cf. also Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians', p. 39; 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', p. 142, citing the

2507:), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius's reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first. 1209:'s letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the 6918:

Dio asserts that the Annii were near-kin of Hadrian, and that it was to these familial ties that they owed their rise to power. The precise nature of these kinship ties is nowhere stated, but is believed that

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In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina. (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew,

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iv. 4–6.6), however, is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Most of the details are fabricated by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own

6862:, established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. A spiral of carved 1836:. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the 1679:

would have the strongest influence on the boy. He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory. He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of

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devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood.

6695:. It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church, and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus's writings to himself') are from 3082:. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus's erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen. At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an 2728:, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and 2452:

Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata. A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent,

1374:

frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. However, the night before the scheduled speech, he grew ill and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.

1252:, was probably born in 122 or 123. His father probably died in 125 or 126 when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship. Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his 10850: 11214: 10752: 10748: 8619: 8615: 7757: 7507:

He preferred Verus on account of his kinship and his age and because he was already giving indication of exceptional strength of character. This led Hadrian to apply to the young man the name

2013:.) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other. On 31 August, she gave birth at 1943:. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior. As the biographer wrote: "Verus obeyed Marcus as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor". 1271:, described as Marcus's maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather. Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the 7907: 1889:

After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The Senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title

11549: 10813: 10794: 10775: 10771: 10456: 10452: 8626: 2682:

of Marcus (176–177). The pile of trophies on the reverse celebrates the end of the Marcomannic Wars. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. GERM. SARM. / TR. P. XXXI, IMP. VIII, COS. III, P. P.

2430:, where they boarded a ship for the east. He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception. 1987:

Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'. If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been cremated on a pyre at the

1620:

was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said. In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his

7083:

The biographer relates the scurrilous (and, in the judgment of Anthony Birley, untrue) rumor that Commodus was an illegitimate child born of a union between Faustina and a gladiator.

14263: 2766:

Professional jurists called him "an emperor most skilled in the law" and "a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor". He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the

2154:

interest in eloquence'. Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of

1758:

In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend

2456:. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus. Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend 2495:

on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the

960:

appears to have increased during his reign, but his involvement in this is unlikely since there is no record of early Christians in the 2nd century calling him a persecutor, and

1494:, Antoninus's daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal. He was made 2523:, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay. On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, 7299: 6804: 1901:, chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power. This may have been a genuine 2625: 1001:

The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus Aurelius are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the

2656:. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion by the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162. 7732:. Prosopographica et genealogica (in Italian). Vol. 2 (illustrated ed.). Unit for Prosopographical Research, Linacre College, University of Oxford. p. 278. 14248: 6687:

It is not known how widely Marcus's writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and

3239: 2051:. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis. Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been 6758:

Alone of the emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and temperate way of life.

6684:. It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy. Meditations sold 16,000 copies in 2012. In 2019, 100,000 copies were sold. 14514: 7097:

spring 162 is probable, and, given the normal seasonal distribution of Tiber flooding, the most probable date is in spring 162. (Birley dates the flood to autumn 161.)

2308:

is holding a shield inscribed 'VIC(toria) PAR(thica)', referring to his victory against the Parthians. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. / TR. P. XX, IMP. IIII, COS. III.

14469: 14432: 14233: 12670: 972:, causing the deaths of five to ten million people. Lucius Verus may have died from the plague in 169. When Marcus himself died in 180, he was succeeded by his son 14288: 14226: 14085: 3326: 2043:

Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of

3100:

Dio adds that from Marcus's first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, "he remained the same and did not change in the least."

1984:. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from 2.68 g (0.095 oz) to 2.57 g (0.091 oz). 1797:. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died. Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, 3202:

had at least 14 children during their 30-year marriage, including two sets of twins. One son and four daughters outlived their father. Their children included:

14483: 12527: 1042:

offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs. The main narrative source for the period is

6989: 6605: 3042:

at the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, represented in purple. His annexation of lands of the Marcomanni and the Jazyges – perhaps to be provincially called

6798:

of Marcus Aurelius (AD December 173 – June 174), with his equestrian statue on the reverse. inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXVIII / IMP. VI, COS III.

1482:

of Antoninus Pius (AD 139), with a portrait of Marcus Aurelius on the reverse. Inscription: ANTONINVS AVG. PIVS P. P. / AVRELIVS CAES. AVG. PII F. COS. DES.

13159: 11887: 7504: 4502: 1205:(also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of 634: 2021:'s birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children. The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage. 19425: 14528: 6769:

Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death.

7118:, whose name he shares. He probably had not been particularly incompetent. A more likely candidate for that incompetence is Nepos's likely predecessor, 2609:

all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a

1658:. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to 12091: 7496: 890:, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year, and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as 12778: 10854: 9669:, p. 158. See also: Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 69–70; Pierre Lambrechts, 'L'empereur Lucius Verus. Essai de réhabilitation' (in French), 11218: 7761: 6824:

The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern period. Crafted of bronze in

2724:, and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like 1545:

Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the

4740: 7406:

Fleury, P. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius' Letters." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by M. van Ackeren, 62–76. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.

7106:

Since AD 15, the river had been administered by a Tiber Conservancy Board, with a consular senator at its head and a permanent staff. In 161, the

9933: 6337: 1568:, would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina. 19929: 12987: 11730:(1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232ff.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234ff.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236ff.; Dacia: pp. 245ff.; Pannonia Inferior: p. 251. 1486:

Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to

14479: 6866:

wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. A statue of Marcus had stood atop the column but disappeared during the

3125: 957: 12447: 6738:

within his lifetime, and the title would remain after his death; both Dio and the biographer call him "the philosopher". Christians such as

13026: 3319: 1905:, 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a 12289: 1719:

learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his

11831: 5083: 3167: 2234: 14253: 7142:(while Antoninus was alive) while contesting Birley's contention that Marcus had no military experience. (Neither Apollinaris nor the 7032:

shows even more confusion. The mistaken belief that Lucius had the name 'Verus' before becoming emperor has proven especially popular.

19440: 19435: 3636: 2963: 2567: 2001:, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself. The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the 751: 14582: 9625: 6928: 5934: 627: 7005:

is out of order (he is praised immediately after Diognetus, who had introduced Marcus to philosophy), giving him special emphasis.

573: 19415: 19410: 15107: 12976: 10033: 3312: 13430:

The Student's Roman Empire: A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.–180 A.D.)

12874:

The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends

12865:

The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends

1997:, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in 1038:

and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166. Marcus's own

19420: 14268: 13086: 13065: 13047: 7277: 6966:

Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus's eventual succession anyway.

2111: 6324: 1475: 19994: 19400: 15901: 15769: 12356: 11825: 6590: 6480: 2179: 1939:, or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was 1874: 687: 15934:

Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper

14150: 13967: 13892: 6718: 6220:

Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree.

2441:, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year. When Lucius was hailed as 1627:

Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters, he was thought of as second only to

1257:

raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of

19974: 19430: 19405: 15114: 14023: 12053: 7730:

Continuité gentilice et continuité familiale dans les familles sénatoriales romaines à l'époque impériale: mythe et réalité

6811: 6779: 6704: 5736: 3252: 3233: 984: 725: 13671: 12662: 2484:. A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura. 2141: 19959: 19919: 19909: 19894: 19395: 17175: 16963: 15737: 14346: 2202:

On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him. One of those kings,

1275:, an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace beside the 620: 578: 14080: 7830: 7711: 1550:

possible to live the right life in a palace' – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the

19889: 19511: 19384: 18145: 17861: 16729: 15989: 15963: 14204: 14187: 14162: 14097: 14071: 14044: 13979: 13952: 13937: 13919: 13904: 13846: 13829: 13810: 13793: 13776: 13759: 13741: 13722: 13707: 13661: 13644: 13566: 13538: 13518: 13481: 13418: 13401: 13386: 13301: 13264: 13247: 13230: 13204: 12745: 12719: 12385: 12253: 9943: 8353: 7869: 7737: 7197: 3271: 2974:

Marcus Aurelius died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180 of unknown causes in his military quarters either in the city of

2010: 1801:, might not have been born until 153. Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates 13547: 7529: 2293:

The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.

19954: 19884: 12818: 6568: 6549: 4889: 3822: 3185: 2629: 811: 13396:, edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–194. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 12962:

Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman empire: From the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III

12637: 12524: 19450: 14552: 14436: 7369:, pp. 229–230. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's 'Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der 7131: 5672: 3262: 2002: 979:

Commodus's succession after Marcus has been a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The

13097: 2585: 1407:

At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the Senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming

19984: 19944: 19934: 19904: 18637: 15703: 15686: 15513: 15501: 14548: 5665: 5152: 3258: 2294: 13156: 6711:, from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards. The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the 2515:

again, earning the title 'imp. III'. Cassius's army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into

1162:

rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a

18687: 18414: 18270: 15674: 15466: 15428: 15388: 15355: 14510: 13581: 13178: 11884: 7536:. After the death of his real father, however, Hadrian called him Annius Verissimus, and, after he assumed the 3670: 3229: 3133: 3051: 2757:. Lucius Verus fell ill and died on his way back Rome, probably due to the plague, in January or February 169. 2617: 2207: 2030:

imperial foundations. Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their

2017:

to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus. Aside from the fact that the twins shared

1798: 1528: 1420:, a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as 969: 922: 227: 11900: 2330: 1650:

By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in

19969: 19773: 18983: 18773: 18705: 18570: 18437: 18347: 18160: 16278: 15889: 15715: 15542: 15508: 15472: 15361: 13879: 13592: 7493: 7263:

Rabbinic Literature and Greco-Roman Philosophy: A Study of Epicurea and Rhetorica in Early Midrashic Writings

6600: 5076: 4287: 3863: 2902:

in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of

2404: 1829:

wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights. He did not marry until 164.

1091: 744: 674: 405: 333: 14338: 8278:, p. 42. Van Ackeren, 142. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 7122:. A military man and consul for 159, Priscus probably looked on the office as little more than 'paid leave'. 2471:, and installed their own king on its throne. In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the 1322:, and would sleep on the ground until his mother persuaded him to sleep on a bed. A new set of tutors – the 19999: 19964: 19949: 18555: 18492: 17775: 15530: 14575: 12775: 9682:

Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 66. Poorly compiled: e.g. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 68.

5715: 3223: 2278:), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions. Three full legions were also sent east: 1639:

Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.

1306:. He trained in wrestling as a youth and into his teenage years, learned to fight in armour and joined the 914: 13333:

Barnes, Timothy D. 'Legislation against the Christians'. Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 58 (1968): 32–50.

12088: 2229:

that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself, Severianus led a legion (perhaps the

20004: 19979: 19821: 18916: 18025: 17937: 17422: 17199: 17190: 15611: 15290: 14756: 14011:

The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100) to Agustulus (A.D. 476)

13307: 11648:

Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts

6471: 4841: 3677: 3160: 3124:

In the first two centuries of the Christian era, local Roman officials were largely responsible for the

2835:, Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at 19606: 19596: 19528: 18745: 18078: 17815: 17642: 17574: 16156: 15921: 15877: 15855: 15806: 15693: 15484: 15253: 14595: 14465: 14360: 13630: 12939: 5708: 3456: 3281: 3103: 2880: 2721: 2659: 2524: 2219: 905:

After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who took the

829: 470: 320: 247: 7110:('Curator of the Tiber Bed and Banks and the City Sewers') was A. Platorius Nepos, son or grandson of 7028:, our main source for the period, cannot keep them straight. The 4th-century ecclesiastical historian 1448: 19266: 17037: 15828: 15796: 15621: 14801: 14560: 14524: 13219:

Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Jancie J.; Lo Upshur, Jiu-Hwa; Whitters, Mark F.

6853: 5375: 3628: 3022: 3018: 2341: 2226: 2066: 1263:

over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different

1249: 1129: 980: 855: 720: 713: 606: 237: 19791: 6474:) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in 2059:

at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (

19869: 19807: 19786: 19671: 17111: 16882: 16744: 15838: 15791: 15338: 14985: 13985:

Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. 'The Roman Empire as Known to Han China'.

13222:

Encyclopedia of World History, Ackerman-Schroeder-Terry-Hwa Lo, 2008: Encyclopedia of World History

12984: 12645: 6815: 5459: 3856: 2675: 2086: 1864: 1506:' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became 1367: 1179: 1175: 910: 875: 871: 737: 681: 51: 6726:

of Marcus Aurelius, which captures the pensive temperament of the philosopher-emperor, now in the

6387:

It is uncertain whether Rupilia Faustina was Frugi's daughter by Salonia Matidia or another woman.

19989: 19800: 19576: 18951: 18866: 18843: 17160: 17022: 16959: 16748: 16548: 16364: 15646: 15626: 15400: 15280: 14568: 12835: 12439: 7533: 6841: 5914: 4527: 3294: 2434: 2203: 2195: 1706:

describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under

1668: 1595: 1268: 1112: 1035: 895: 13253:

An, Jiayao. 'When Glass Was Treasured in China'. Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds),

13023: 7861: 7615: 1624:, in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades. 1011:

or Ignotus), are considered to be more accurate. For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of

19924: 19504: 19455: 19445: 18993: 18972: 18891: 17805: 17665: 17275: 16909: 16869: 16663: 16605: 16489: 16293: 15956: 15916: 15895: 15801: 14591: 14396: 13768:

Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian

12286: 7119: 6985: 6899: 6789: 5948: 4903: 2621: 2460:: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor. 2300: 2185: 2056: 1187: 388: 171: 19781: 11815: 3274:(Commodus) (161–192), twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor, married 1366:, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor and 36: 19465: 18941: 18906: 18886: 18876: 18838: 17438: 17342: 16696: 15850: 15845: 15821: 15816: 15732: 15569: 15557: 15328: 14953: 14238: 13634: 12830: 7111: 6743: 6655: 4098: 3007: 2633: 1998: 1763: 1464: 1327: 1319: 1202: 1107: 7532:

I.9–10. "At the beginning of his life Marcus Antoninus was named Catilius Severus after his

7192:. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. 1843:

Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at

19939: 19581: 19460: 18966: 18921: 18294: 17922: 17857: 17710: 17705: 17412: 17407: 17260: 16686: 16474: 16353: 15833: 15781: 15641: 15616: 15581: 15496: 15410: 15260: 15091: 13524: 8282:

57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, 'Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo',

7135: 7029: 6691:

was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention

6196: 5907: 5403: 5137: 3290: 3199: 2939: 2801: 2787: 2713: 2305: 2258: 1751: 1491: 1460: 948:

began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. He reduced the silver purity of the

899: 252: 182: 12973: 6188:

dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships

3086:

to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:

2690:

of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since AD 19, crossed the Danube together with the

1772:

what he called the "briefest and most familiar saying enough to dispel sorrow and fear":

1514:– for that can happen'. At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges ( 1236:

came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii settled in the colony of Nemausus in

651: 8: 19879: 19874: 19556: 19551: 18956: 18931: 18896: 18833: 18208: 18183: 17387: 17382: 16806: 16237: 15764: 15749: 15727: 15662: 15651: 15606: 15552: 15042: 14980: 14943: 14077: 13587: 9127:, p. 77. On the date, see Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 142, who (with Bowersock, 6924: 6696: 6688: 6669: 6200: 6172: lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned 5452: 4079: 2927: 2923: 2664: 2616:

Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family.

2500: 2487:

By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia:

2468: 2453: 1707: 13912:

Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China

12889: 12885: 9622: 2968: 2819:, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus. In addition to 913:, the Roman Empire witnessed much military conflict. In the East, the Romans fought the 19767: 19571: 19246: 19233: 18810: 17820: 17392: 17367: 16434: 16209: 15811: 15754: 15698: 15680: 15669: 15631: 15601: 15479: 15197: 15101: 14851: 14820: 14813: 14134: 14116: 13998: 13605: 13460: 13365: 13342: 13323: 11849: 11845: 7854: 7327: 7250:. Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines's Loeb edition. 6832: 6727: 5107: 5099: 3014: 2770:

of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (

2557: 2345: 2287: 2218:

like himself. The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was

2211: 2102: 1837: 1697: 1468: 1416: 1401: 1359: 1070: 1064: 987:

still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories.

833: 398: 7609: 6984:

Modern scholars have not offered as positive an assessment. His second modern editor,

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Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'.

14093: 14067: 14040: 13975: 13948: 13933: 13915: 13900: 13860: 13842: 13825: 13806: 13789: 13772: 13755: 13737: 13718: 13703: 13683: 13657: 13640: 13620: 13577: 13562: 13534: 13514: 13504: 13494: 13477: 13471: 13434: 13414: 13397: 13382: 13297: 13277: 13260: 13243: 13226: 13200: 13174: 13123: 13009: 12965: 12931: 12923: 12915: 12877: 12851: 12807: 12767: 12741: 12715: 12249: 11821: 9939: 7865: 7733: 7331: 7319: 7193: 7115: 7059: 6837: 6723: 6586: 6564: 6545: 6526:"De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families" 3063: 3059: 2995: 2991: 2979: 2915: 2860: 2388: 2283: 2146: 2070: 1681: 1400:

On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt

1335: 1287: 1206: 206: 159: 150: 14293: 14193:

Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds),

13576:. Translated from Italian by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta, 1977. 13073: 13055: 13037: 7503:"Marcus Annius Verus This Marcus Annius, earlier named Catilius, was a grandson of 7274: 2671:. Inscription: M. ANTONINVS AVG. ARM. PARTH. MAX. / TR. P. XXII, IMP. IIII, COS III. 2414:

In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to

2076:

Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in

1154:, Spain); they were of Italic origins, and had legendary claims of descendance from 1143: 19843: 19480: 19307: 19135: 18901: 18655: 18238: 17535: 17431: 17372: 16796: 16776: 15906: 15883: 15786: 15759: 15744: 15710: 15636: 15596: 15586: 15311: 15238: 15208: 15071: 15026: 15021: 14893: 14315: 14108: 13990: 13852: 13597: 13452: 13357: 13334: 13315: 12649: 10576:, p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, 'The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos,' 7524: 7311: 7092:

Because both Lucius and Marcus are said to have taken active part in the recovery (

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In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without

1693: 1599: 1564: 1421: 1311: 1294:, his modern biographer, writes of the bust: 'This is certainly a grave young man'. 1183: 1059: 1003: 945: 941: 859: 779: 692: 352: 14196:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220

12353: 11637:(London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. 4479: 1377: 19252: 19222: 19181: 18861: 18791: 18661: 18000: 17655: 17377: 16771: 16409: 16377: 16216: 15547: 15537: 15446: 15233: 15141: 15129: 15123: 14975: 14796: 14766: 14709: 14342: 14297: 14194: 14177: 14154: 14145: 14089: 14051: 14034: 14027: 14018: 14009: 13971: 13962: 13896: 13887: 13836: 13819: 13800: 13783: 13766: 13697: 13675: 13651: 13551: 13528: 13508: 13488: 13444: 13428: 13408: 13291: 13271: 13254: 13237: 13220: 13163: 13101: 13090: 13069: 13051: 13030: 12991: 12980: 12846: 12822: 12782: 12641: 12531: 12389: 12360: 12293: 12095: 12057: 11904: 11891: 9629: 8357: 7715: 7500: 7281: 7210: 7187: 6712: 5466: 5411: 4090: 3848: 3621: 3047: 3017:

in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a

2895: 2884: 2864: 2859:(c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the 2832: 2791: 2641: 2496: 1676: 1591: 1259: 1191: 1028: 965: 918: 891: 697: 599: 16958: 12050: 9288:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): 'Conversion to Philosophy'. 9284:

17:3 (1967): p. 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's

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l. Richardson, jr; Richardson, Professor of Latin (Emeritus) L. (October 1992).

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After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for

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Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305

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The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome. Volume 7, Temples – Zoology

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