3435:
5891:
5236:
6033:, the first quasicrystal found in nature, was discovered in 2009. Most quasicrystals have ceramic-like properties including low electrical conductivity (approaching values seen in insulators) and low thermal conductivity, high hardness, brittleness, and resistance to corrosion, and non-stick properties. Quasicrystals have been used to develop heat insulation, LEDs, diesel engines, and new materials that convert heat to electricity. New applications may take advantage of the low coefficient of friction and the hardness of some quasicrystalline materials, for example embedding particles in plastic to make strong, hard-wearing, low-friction plastic gears. Other potential applications include selective solar absorbers for power conversion, broad-wavelength reflectors, and bone repair and prostheses applications where biocompatibility, low friction, and corrosion resistance are required.
1442:
1667:
5255:
3447:
5039:
5214:
5399:
5836:
5667:
5848:
5271:
3191:
5375:
1430:
3419:
3577:
1406:
1418:
44:
4817:
5626:
5683:
4583:
4465:
3145:
5415:
6013:
community's reaction, it took him two years to publish the results for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 2011. Since this time, hundreds of quasicrystals have been reported and confirmed. They exist in many metallic alloys (and some polymers). Quasicrystals are found most often in aluminum alloys (Al-Li-Cu, Al-Mn-Si, Al-Ni-Co, Al-Pd-Mn, Al-Cu-Fe, Al-Cu-V, etc.), but numerous other compositions are also known (Cd-Yb, Ti-Zr-Ni, Zn-Mg-Ho, Zn-Mg-Sc, In-Ag-Yb, Pd-U-Si, etc.).
3693:
4936:
5994:
3459:
5614:
5027:
4982:, an alloy of copper and zinc made by concurrently smelting the ores of these metals, originate from this period (although pure zinc was not isolated until the 13th century). The malleability of the solid metals led to the first attempts to craft metal ornaments, tools, and weapons. Meteoric iron containing nickel was discovered from time to time and, in some respects this was superior to any industrial steel manufactured up to the 1880s when alloy steels become prominent.
5060:
5655:
5943:
5860:
1473:
1221:
5428:
3718:
10473:
5602:
4841:
alloys. Consequently, it is relatively rare. Some other (less) noble ones—molybdenum, rhenium, the platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum), germanium, and tin—can be counted as siderophiles but only in terms of their primary occurrence in the Earth (core, mantle, and crust), rather the crust. These otherwise occur in the crust, in small quantities, chiefly as chalcophiles (less so in their native form).
5638:
5979:
alloy that research began in earnest, and another ten years before commercial applications emerged. SMA's have applications in robotics and automotive, aerospace, and biomedical industries. There is another type of SMA, called a ferromagnetic shape-memory alloy (FSMA), that changes shape under strong magnetic fields. These materials are of interest as the magnetic response tends to be faster and more efficient than temperature-induced responses.
5436:
5015:
5772:. He noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery. Metallurgists of the 19th century were unable to produce the combination of low carbon and high chromium found in most modern stainless steels, and the high-chromium alloys they could produce were too brittle to be practical. It was not until 1912 that the industrialization of stainless steel alloys occurred in England, Germany, and the United States.
5363:
5387:
4503:
4376:
5003:
1625:
59:
10485:
5451:
5076:
4989:
5202:
5951:
non-crystalline glass-like structure. But unlike common glasses, such as window glass, which are typically electrical insulators, amorphous metals have good electrical conductivity. Amorphous metals are produced in several ways, including extremely rapid cooling, physical vapor deposition, solid-state reaction, ion irradiation, and mechanical alloying. The first reported metallic glass was an alloy (Au
1283:
4771:, while in the r-process ("rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. Therefore, the s-process takes a more-or-less clear path: for example, stable cadmium-110 nuclei are successively bombarded by free neutrons inside a star until they form cadmium-115 nuclei which are unstable and decay to form indium-115 (which is nearly stable, with a half-life
6261:. Such alloys have high electrical and thermal conductivity, thermal shock resistance, damage tolerance, machinability, high elastic stiffness, and low thermal expansion coefficients. They can be polished to a metallic luster because of their excellent electrical conductivities. During mechanical testing, it has been found that polycrystalline Ti
4837:
silicate minerals. Chalcophile elements are mainly the less reactive d-block elements, and the period 4–6 p-block metals. They are usually found in (insoluble) sulfide minerals. Being denser than the lithophiles, hence sinking lower into the crust at the time of its solidification, the chalcophiles tend to be less abundant than the lithophiles.
3434:
4963:
published reports on metal stocks that exist within society and their recycling rates. The authors of the report observed that the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground. They warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones, battery
4778:
times the age of the universe). These nuclei capture neutrons and form indium-116, which is unstable, and decays to form tin-116, and so on. In contrast, there is no such path in the r-process. The s-process stops at bismuth due to the short half-lives of the next two elements, polonium and astatine,
1194:
The history of refined metals is thought to begin with the use of copper about 11,000 years ago. Gold, silver, iron (as meteoric iron), lead, and brass were likewise in use before the first known appearance of bronze in the fifth millennium BCE. Subsequent developments include the production of early
6047:
Complex metallic alloys (CMAs) are intermetallic compounds characterized by large unit cells comprising some tens up to thousands of atoms; the presence of well-defined clusters of atoms (frequently with icosahedral symmetry); and partial disorder within their crystalline lattices. They are composed
5870:
By the end of World War II scientists had synthesized four post-uranium elements, all of which are radioactive (unstable) metals: neptunium (in 1940), plutonium (1940–41), and curium and americium (1944), representing elements 93 to 96. The first two of these were eventually found in nature as well.
5570:
All elemental metals discovered before 1809 had relatively high densities; their heaviness was regarded as a distinguishing criterion. From 1809 onward, light metals such as sodium, potassium, and strontium were isolated. Their low densities challenged conventional wisdom as to the nature of metals.
5495:
Metal is a mineral body, by nature either liquid or somewhat hard. The latter may be melted by the heat of the fire, but when it has cooled down again and lost all heat, it becomes hard again and resumes its proper form. In this respect it differs from the stone which melts in the fire, for although
4844:
The rotating fluid outer core of the Earth's interior, which is composed mostly of iron, is thought to be the source of Earth's protective magnetic field. The core lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle. If it could be rearranged into a column having a 5 m (54 sq ft)
4836:
Metallic elements are primarily found as lithophiles (rock-loving) or chalcophiles (ore-loving). Lithophile elements are mainly the s-block elements, the more reactive of the d-block elements, and the f-block elements. They have a strong affinity for oxygen and mostly exist as relatively low-density
3484:
is any of a range of white-colored alloys with relatively low melting points used mainly for decorative purposes. In
Britain, the fine art trade uses the term "white metal" in auction catalogues to describe foreign silver items which do not carry British Assay Office marks, but which are nonetheless
3202:
Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle, or chemically reactive for practical use. Combining different ratios of metals and other elements in alloys modifies the properties to produce desirable characteristics, for instance more ductile, harder, resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable
1803:
structures (light blue), molecular covalent structures (dark blue), or remain as single atoms (violet). Astatine (At), francium (Fr), and the elements from fermium (Fm) onwards are shown in gray because they are extremely radioactive and have never been produced in bulk. Theoretical and experimental
5978:
A shape-memory alloy (SMA) is an alloy that "remembers" its original shape and when deformed returns to its pre-deformed shape when heated. While the shape memory effect had been first observed in 1932, in an Au-Cd alloy, it was not until 1962, with the accidental discovery of the effect in a Ni-Ti
5898:
Superalloys composed of combinations of Fe, Ni, Co, and Cr, and lesser amounts of W, Mo, Ta, Nb, Ti, and Al were developed shortly after World War II for use in high performance engines, operating at elevated temperatures (above 650 °C (1,200 °F)). They retain most of their strength under
5519:
nor
Stannum is of itself a real metal, but rather an alloy of two metals. Electrum is an alloy of gold and silver, Stannum of lead and silver. And yet if silver be parted from the electrum, then gold remains and not electrum; if silver be taken away from Stannum, then lead remains and not Stannum.
4943:
Demand for metals is closely linked to economic growth given their use in infrastructure, construction, manufacturing, and consumer goods. During the 20th century, the variety of metals used in society grew rapidly. Today, the development of major nations, such as China and India, and technological
5578:
While pure metallic titanium (99.9%) was first prepared in 1910 it was not used outside the laboratory until 1932. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet Union pioneered the use of titanium in military and submarine applications as part of programs related to the Cold War. Starting in the early 1950s,
5194:
of the platinum alloy until the gold melted. After cooling, the resulting conglomeration was hammered and reheated repeatedly until it became homogenous, equivalent to melting all the metals (attaining the melting points of the platinum group metals concerned was beyond the technology of the day).
3704:
which are composites of a non-conducting ceramic and a conducting metal.) One set, the transition metal nitrides has significant ionic character to the bonding, so can be classified as both ceramics and metals. They have partially filled states at the Fermi level so are good thermal and electrical
5574:
Aluminium was discovered in 1824 but it was not until 1886 that an industrial large-scale production method was developed. Prices of aluminium dropped and aluminium became widely used in jewelry, everyday items, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and foil in the 1890s and early 20th
5538:
Platinum, the third precious metal after gold and silver, was discovered in
Ecuador during the period 1736 to 1744 by the Spanish astronomer Antonio de Ulloa and his colleague the mathematician Jorge Juan y Santacilia. Ulloa was the first person to write a scientific description of the metal, in
6012:
In 1984, Israeli metallurgist Dan
Shechtman found an aluminum-manganese alloy having five-fold symmetry, in breach of crystallographic convention at the time which said that crystalline structures could only have two-, three-, four-, or six-fold symmetry. Due to reservation about the scientific
5542:
In 1789, the German chemist Martin
Heinrich Klaproth isolated an oxide of uranium, which he thought was the metal itself. Klaproth was subsequently credited as the discoverer of uranium. It was not until 1841, that the French chemist Eugène-Melchior Péligot, prepared the first sample of uranium
5328:
found in most laboratories. This theory reinforced the belief that all metals were destined to become gold in the bowels of the earth through the proper combinations of heat, digestion, time, and elimination of contaminants, all of which could be developed and hastened through the knowledge and
5554:
to be discovered, in Bastnäs, Sweden by Jöns Jakob
Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger, and independently by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Germany. The lanthanide metals were regarded as oddities until the 1960s when methods were developed to more efficiently separate them from one another. They have
4845:
footprint it would have a height of nearly 700 light years. The magnetic field shields the Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind, and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere (including the ozone layer that limits the transmission of ultraviolet radiation).
4840:
On the other hand, gold is a siderophile, or iron-loving element. It does not readily form compounds with either oxygen or sulfur. At the time of the Earth's formation, and as the most noble (inert) of metallic elements, gold sank into the core due to its tendency to form high-density metallic
1592:
there is an energy gap between the highest filled states of the electrons and the lowest unfilled, so no accessible states with slightly higher momenta. Consequently, semiconductors and nonmetals are poor conductors, although they can carry some current when doped with elements that introduce
6079:
High entropy alloys (HEAs) such as AlLiMgScTi are composed of equal or nearly equal quantities of five or more metals. Compared to conventional alloys with only one or two base metals, HEAs have considerably better strength-to-weight ratios, higher tensile strength, and greater resistance to
4832:
is made of approximately 25% of metallic elements by weight, of which 80% are light metals such as sodium, magnesium, and aluminium. Despite the overall scarcity of some heavier metals such as copper, they can become concentrated in economically extractable quantities as a result of mountain
5950:
A metallic glass (also known as an amorphous or glassy metal) is a solid metallic material, usually an alloy, with a disordered atomic-scale structure. Most pure and alloyed metals, in their solid state, have atoms arranged in a highly ordered crystalline structure. In contrast these have a
5319:
believed that all metals and matter were composed of the principle of sulfur, the father of all metals and carrying the combustible property, and the principle of mercury, the mother of all metals and carrier of the liquidity, fusibility, and volatility properties. These principles were not
5235:
1620:
increases its electrical conductivity when heated in the temperature range of around −175 to +125 °C, with anomalously large thermal expansion coefficient and a phase change from monoclinic to face-centered cubic near 100 °C. There is evidence that this and comparable behavior in
5963:
in 1960. More recently, batches of amorphous steel with three times the strength of conventional steel alloys have been produced. Currently, the most important applications rely on the special magnetic properties of some ferromagnetic metallic glasses. The low magnetization loss is used in
3407:
A refractory metal is a metal that is very resistant to heat and wear. Which metals belong to this category varies; the most common definition includes niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, and rhenium as well as their alloys. They all have melting points above 2000 °C, and a high
3121:
The situation changes with pressure: at extremely high pressures, all elements (and indeed all substances) are expected to metallize. Arsenic (As) has both a stable metallic allotrope and a metastable semiconducting allotrope at standard conditions. A similar situation affects carbon (C):
5511:
when smelted in the crucible and refined has as much right to be regarded as a proper metal as is accorded to lead by writers. If when smelted, a certain portion be added to tin, a bookseller's alloy is produced from which the type is made that is used by those who print books on paper.
5820:
Georges Urbain claimed to have found element 72 in rare-earth residues, while
Vladimir Vernadsky independently found it in orthite. Neither claim was confirmed due to World War I, and neither could be confirmed later, as the chemistry they reported does not match that now known for
5189:
At around the same time indigenous
Ecuadorians were combining gold with a naturally-occurring platinum alloy containing small amounts of palladium, rhodium, and iridium, to produce miniatures and masks of a white gold-platinum alloy. The metal workers involved heated gold with
5899:
these conditions, for prolonged periods, and combine good low-temperature ductility with resistance to corrosion or oxidation. Superalloys can now be found in a wide range of applications including land, maritime, and aerospace turbines, and chemical and petroleum plants.
5546:
In the 1790s, Joseph
Priestley and the Dutch chemist Martinus van Marum observed the effect of metal surfaces on the dehydrogenation of alcohol, a development which subsequently led, in 1831, to the industrial scale synthesis of sulphuric acid using a platinum catalyst.
3737:
There are many polymers which have metallic electrical conduction, typically associated with extended aromatic components such as in the polymers indicated in the Figure. The conduction of the aromatic regions is similar to that of graphite, so is highly directional.
6511:
was sourced from India, and contained one or more carbide-forming elements, such as V, Mo, Cr, Mn, and Nb. Modern analysis of these weapons has shown that these elements supported the catalytic formation of carbon nanotubes, which in turn promoted the formation of
5594:
Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937. The first pound of 99% pure scandium metal was produced in 1960. Production of aluminium-scandium alloys began in 1971 following a U.S. patent. Aluminium-scandium alloys were also developed in the USSR.
4951:
Metals are inherently recyclable, so in principle, can be used over and over again, minimizing these negative environmental impacts and saving energy. For example, 95% of the energy used to make aluminum from bauxite ore is saved by using recycled material.
6080:
fracturing, corrosion, and oxidation. Although HEAs were described as early as 1981, significant interest did not develop until the 2010s; they continue to be a focus of research in materials science and engineering because of their desirable properties.
5907:
The successful development of the atomic bomb at the end of World War II sparked further efforts to synthesize new elements, nearly all of which are, or are expected to be, metals, and all of which are radioactive. It was not until 1949 that element 97
1316:
of the dislocations are fairly small, which also means that the energy needed to produce one is small. In contrast, in an ionic compound like table salt the Burgers vectors are much larger and the energy to move a dislocation is far higher. Reversible
1120:
and some chemical properties the term metal is often used to denote those elements which in pure form and at standard conditions are metals in the sense of electrical conduction mentioned above. The related term metallic may also be used for types of
6297:). Potential applications for MAX phase alloys include: as tough, machinable, thermal shock-resistant refractories; high-temperature heating elements; coatings for electrical contacts; and neutron irradiation resistant parts for nuclear applications.
5186:, an alloy of copper and gold, started being produced in Panama and Costa Rica between 300 and 500 CE. Small metal sculptures were common and an extensive range of tumbaga (and gold) ornaments comprised the usual regalia of persons of high status.
6060:
in 1923, but did not succeed until 1955. At first called "giant unit cell crystals", interest in CMAs, as they came to be called, did not pick up until 2002, with the publication of a paper called "Structurally Complex Alloy Phases", given at the
1399:(hcp). In bcc, each atom is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others. In fcc and hcp, each atom is surrounded by twelve others, but the stacking of the layers differs. Some metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature.
5871:
Curium and americium were by-products of the Manhattan project, which produced the world's first atomic bomb in 1945. The bomb was based on the nuclear fission of uranium, a metal first thought to have been discovered nearly 150 years earlier.
4944:
advances, are fueling ever more demand. The result is that mining activities are expanding, and more and more of the world's metal stocks are above ground in use, rather than below ground as unused reserves. An example is the in-use stock of
3227:) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low-, mid-, and high-carbon steels, with increasing carbon levels reducing ductility and toughness. The addition of
4977:
Copper, which occurs in native form, may have been the first metal discovered given its distinctive appearance, heaviness, and malleability. Gold, silver, iron (as meteoric iron), and lead were likewise discovered in prehistory. Forms of
3705:
conductors, and there is often significant charge transfer from the transition metal atoms to the nitrogen. However, unlike most elemental metals, ceramic metals are often not particularly ductile. Their uses are widespread, for instance
1270:
of significant commercial importance. Their respective densities of 1.7, 2.7, and 4.5 g/cm can be compared to those of the older structural metals, like iron at 7.9 and copper at 8.9 g/cm. The most common lightweight metals are
8284:
6496:
is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12% tin and often with the addition of other metals (such as aluminum, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals or metalloids such as arsenic, phosphorus, or
5254:
6520:
C) nanowires. The malleability of the carbon nanotubes offset the brittle nature of the cementite, and endowed the resulting steel with a unique combination of strength and flexibility. Knowledge of how to make what came to called
5575:
century. Aluminium's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal many uses at the time. During World War I, major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light and strong airframes.
6506:
In Damascus, Syria, blade-smiths forged knives and swords with a distinctive surface pattern composed of swirling patterns of light-etched regions on a nearly black background. These blades had legendary cutting abilities.
5890:
3376:
While nearly all elemental metals are malleable or ductile, a few—beryllium, chromium, manganese, gallium, and bismuth—are brittle. Arsenic and antimony, if admitted as metals, are brittle. Low values of the ratio of bulk
5176:. It soon became the basis for the weaponry of Roman legions; such swords were, "stronger in composition than any existing sword and, because… would not break, provided a psychological advantage to the Roman soldier."
4754:
Heavier elements are not usually formed this way since fusion reactions involving such nuclei would consume rather than release energy. Rather, they are largely synthesised (from elements with a lower atomic number) by
3837:. Unlike a regular metal, semimetals have charge carriers of both types (holes and electrons), although the charge carriers typically occur in much smaller numbers than in a real metal. In this respect they resemble
9249:
Thornton, C.; Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C.; Liezers, M.; Young, S. M. M. (2002). "On pins and needles: tracing the evolution of copper-based alloying at Tepe Yahya, Iran, via ICP-MS analysis of Common-place items".
1681:. However, this does not take into account the detailed structure of the metal's ion lattice. Taking into account the positive potential caused by the arrangement of the ion cores enables consideration of the
3270:
its name—and have many applications today, most importantly in electrical wiring. The alloys of the other three metals have been developed relatively recently; due to their chemical reactivity they need
6269:
cylinders can be repeatedly compressed at room temperature, up to stresses of 1 GPa, and fully recover upon the removal of the load. Some MAX phases are also highly resistant to chemical attack (e.g. Ti
5523:
Whether brass, however, is found as a native metal or not, cannot be ascertained with any surety. We only know of the artificial brass, which consists of copper tinted with the colour of the mineral
4964:
packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology.
3929:
3176:
alloys. An alloy may have a variable or fixed composition. For example, gold and silver form an alloy in which the proportions of gold or silver can be varied; titanium and silicon form an alloy
6065:
Potential applications of CMAs include as heat insulation; solar heating; magnetic refrigerators; using waste heat to generate electricity; and coatings for turbine blades in military engines.
5507:
is also. The ancient Greek writers seem to have been ignorant of bismuth, wherefore Ammonius rightly states that there are many species of metals, animals, and plants which are unknown to us.
1429:
3709:
finds use in orthopedic devices and as a wear resistant coating. In many cases their utility depends upon there being effective deposition methods so they can be used as thin film coatings.
1663:
states that in many metals the ratio between thermal and electrical conductivities is proportional to temperature, with a proportionality constant that is roughly the same for all metals.
1636:
has delocalized states at the Fermi level. They have electrical conductivities similar to those of elemental metals. Liquid forms are also metallic conductors or electricity, for instance
1405:
1417:
1827:
5398:
3446:
1628:
Density of states of TiN, with the occupied states shaded in blue and the Fermi level at the x origin. All the states, as well as those associated with the Ti and N atoms are shown.
5135:
was used, becoming the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late third millennium BCE. Pure tin itself was first isolated in 1800 BCE by Chinese and Japanese metalworkers.
1677:
The contribution of a metal's electrons to its heat capacity and thermal conductivity, and the electrical conductivity of the metal itself can be approximately calculated from the
3515:
alloys are light metals of significant commercial importance. Their densities of 1.7, 2.7 and 4.5 g/cm range from 19 to 56% of the densities of other structural metals, such as
5481:
in 1556, an account of the profession of mining, metallurgy, and the accessory arts and sciences, an extensive treatise on the chemical industry through the sixteenth century.
5107:(an alloy of copper with arsenic or tin) enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and
1644:
is a metallic conductor and the charged particles in a plasma have many properties in common with those of electrons in elemental metals, particularly for white dwarf stars.
6525:
died out in the eighteenth century possibly due to exhausting ore sources with the right combination of impurities. The techniques involved were not rediscovered until 2009.
3922:
5920:) was found in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion; hydrogen, a nonmetal, had been identified as an element nearly 200 years earlier. Since 1952, elements 101 (
3279:. These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratio is more important than material cost, such as in aerospace and some automotive applications.
5270:
1441:
8230:
8161:
6910:"Electronic structure and physical properties of early transition metal mononitrides: Density-functional theory LDA, GGA, and screened-exchange LDA FLAPW calculations"
7377:
Tsiovkin, Yu. Yu.; Lukoyanov, A. V.; Shorikov, A. O.; Tsiovkina, L. Yu.; Dyachenko, A. A.; Bystrushkin, V. B.; Korotin, M. A.; Anisimov, V. I.; Dremov, V. V. (2011).
7039:
Li, Shuang–Shuang; Yue, Xin; Li, Qing–Yuan; Peng, He–Li; Dong, Bai–Xin; Liu, Tian–Shu; Yang, Hong–Yu; Fan, Jun; Shu, Shi–Li; Qiu, Feng; Jiang, Qi–Chuan (2023-11-01).
6798:
1799:
The elements that form exclusively metallic structures under ordinary conditions are shown in yellow on the periodic table below. The remaining elements either form
3915:
1820:
3418:
5340:. Metallic zinc, which is brittle if impure, was isolated in India by 1300 AD. The first description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the 1540 book
8870:
Wang, Yang; N. Mansour; A. Salem; K.F. Brennan & P.P. Ruden (1992). "Theoretical study of a potential low-noise semimetal-based avalanche photodetector".
3386:
5964:
high-efficiency transformers. Theft control ID tags and other article surveillance schemes often use metallic glasses because of these magnetic properties.
5555:
subsequently found uses in cell phones, magnets, lasers, lighting, batteries, catalytic converters, and in other applications enabling modern technologies.
3700:
There are many ceramic compounds which have metallic electrical conduction, but are not simple combinations of metallic elements. (They are not the same as
1651:, which in metals is transported mainly by the conduction electrons. At higher temperatures the electrons can occupy slightly higher energy levels given by
10278:
1804:
evidence suggests that these uninvestigated elements should be metals, except for oganesson (Og) which DFT calculations indicate would be a semiconductor.
1588:
states (with the higher momenta) available at the highest occupied energies as sketched in the Figure. In a semiconductor like silicon or a nonmetal like
864:
1266:
are expected to be denser than osmium, but their known isotopes are too unstable for bulk production to be possible Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are
1113:
becomes a nonmetal at pressure of just under two million times atmospheric pressure, and at even higher pressures it is expected to become a metal again.
10288:
9184:
874:
5332:
Arsenic, zinc, antimony, and bismuth became known, although these were at first called semimetals or bastard metals on account of their immalleability.
10338:
8257:
1813:
924:
3275:
extraction processes. The alloys of aluminum, titanium, and magnesium are valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios; magnesium can also provide
10522:
10435:
10313:
9304:
Akanuma, H. (2005). "The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey".
9159:
9117:
5613:
3670:. Palladium and platinum, as of summer 2024, were valued at slightly less than half the price of gold, while silver is substantially less expensive.
898:
9520:
9219:
5798:
proved this simultaneously, but his samples were very impure and only contained trace quantities of the new element. Despite this, his chosen name
5241:
Electrum, a natural alloy of silver and gold, was often used for making coins. Shown is the Roman god Apollo, and on the obverse, a Delphi tripod (
981:
10318:
10293:
9739:
6362:
903:
879:
10273:
9989:
859:
507:
3389:) are indicative of intrinsic brittleness. A material is brittle if it is hard for dislocations to move, which is often associated with large
10402:
3684:
In electrochemistry, a valve metal is a metal which passes current in only one direction due to the formation of any insulating oxide later.
197:
10412:
10407:
7285:
4779:
which decay to bismuth or lead. The r-process is so fast it can skip this zone of instability and go on to create heavier elements such as
192:
187:
5835:
5666:
5558:
Other metals discovered and prepared during this time were cobalt, nickel, manganese, molybdenum, tungsten, and chromium; and some of the
10348:
10308:
10303:
10263:
7205:
933:
894:
890:
849:
7352:
5847:
10323:
10258:
10044:
3294:
Metals can be categorised by their composition, physical or chemical properties. Categories described in the subsections below include
1086:
topic. In colloquial use materials such as steel alloys are referred to as metals, while others such as polymers, wood or ceramics are
908:
844:
570:
9323:
8584:"50th Anniversary Perspective : Conducting/Semiconducting Conjugated Polymers. A Personal Perspective on the Past and the Future"
5499:
Traditionally there are six different kinds of metals, namely gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead. There are really others, for
1616:
has an electrical conductivity 1.5 × 10 S/cm. With one exception, metallic elements reduce their electrical conductivity when heated.
10417:
10397:
10184:
6462:, possible crustal disruption, and shock heating (which is what happens if you floor the accelerator in car when the engine is cold).
736:
207:
177:
5374:
5038:
4767:. In the s-process ("s" stands for "slow"), singular captures are separated by years or decades, allowing the less stable nuclei to
10253:
10217:
839:
8736:
1006:
3732:
1024:
5213:
4786:
Metals condense in planets as a result of stellar evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their mass when it is
10298:
10248:
8408:
Santecchia, Eleonora; Hamouda, A. M. S.; Musharavati, Farayi; Zalnezhad, Erfan; Cabibbo, Marcello; Spigarelli, Stefano (2015).
8142:
5092:
884:
834:
5811:. In 1925 Walter Noddack, Ida Eva Tacke, and Otto Berg announced its separation from gadolinite and gave it the present name,
5527:. And yet if any should be dug up, it would be a proper metal. Black and white copper seem to be different from the red kind.
10515:
10343:
10268:
10179:
9685:
9671:
9653:
9638:
9624:
9609:
9591:
9576:
9554:
9510:
9494:
9361:
9229:
9194:
8294:
8267:
8240:
8171:
8076:
7985:
7952:
7661:
7633:
7601:
7566:
7541:
7472:
7320:
7265:
7215:
7188:
7018:
6766:
6741:
6723:
6666:
6634:
6594:
5264:, an alloy of 85–99% tin and (usually) copper. Pewter was first used around the beginning of the Bronze Age in the Near East.
4867:
Metallic elements are often extracted from the Earth by mining ores that are rich sources of the requisite elements, such as
928:
854:
731:
8118:
5515:
Each metal has its own form which it preserves when separated from those metals which were mixed with it. Therefore neither
4883:. In some cases, the sale price of the metal(s) involved make it economically feasible to mine lower concentration sources.
4726:
4722:
9171:
9129:
8003:"Generalization of intrinsic ductile-to-brittle criteria by Pugh and Pettifor for materials with a cubic crystal structure"
4960:
4718:
974:
7905:
9777:
9732:
5179:
228:
8629:
Beygisangchin, Mahnoush; Abdul Rashid, Suraya; Shafie, Suhaidi; Sadrolhosseini, Amir Reza; Lim, Hong Ngee (2021-06-18).
5362:
3573:, and zinc. Copper is considered a base metal as it is oxidized relatively easily, although it does not react with HCl.
1621:
transuranic elements is due to more complex relativistic and spin interactions which are not captured in simple models.
1163:
The strength and resilience of some metals has led to their frequent use in, for example, high-rise building and bridge
10212:
10169:
8774:
Zhai, Enzi; Liang, Tianyu; Liu, Ruizi; Cai, Mingyang; Li, Ran; Shao, Qiming; Su, Cong; Lin, Yuxuan Cosmi (2024-08-01).
5579:
titanium came into use in military aviation, particularly in high-performance jets, starting with aircraft such as the
4811:
1632:
All of the metallic alloys as well as conducting ceramics and polymers are metals by the same definition; for instance
768:
719:
7207:
History of Strength of Materials: With a Brief Account of the History of Theory of Elasticity and Theory of Structures
1514:
is the energy level at which the electrons are in a position to interact with energy levels above them. In metals and
11818:
10385:
8216:
8195:
7240:
5710:
in 1855, the raw material for which was pig iron. His method let him produce steel in large quantities cheaply, thus
3776:
to those of the opposite spin. They were first described in 1983, as an explanation for the electrical properties of
156:
6968:
6445:, the subject nuclei may experience neutron loss or proton gain resulting in the production of (comparatively rare)
5138:
Mercury was known to ancient Chinese and Indians before 2000 BCE, and found in Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BCE.
10508:
6781:, in which he notes... I've thought a lot about 'What is a metal?' and I think one can only answer the question at
5859:
1568:. When a voltage is applied some move a little faster in a given direction, some a little slower so there is a net
1183:
have extended to at least 23 of the chemical elements. There is also extensive use of multi-element metals such as
309:
330:
288:
10333:
10207:
7531:
6557:. These theories retained the four classical elements as underlying the composition of sulfur, mercury, and salt.
967:
918:
302:
295:
5637:
4875:
techniques, followed by the exploration and examination of deposits. Mineral sources are generally divided into
1300:. The nondirectional nature of metallic bonding contributes to the ductility of most metallic solids, where the
323:
11843:
10488:
10370:
9725:
5686:
White-hot steel pours like water from a 35-ton electric furnace, at the Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation, in
5530:
Metal, therefore, is by nature either solid, as I have stated, or fluid, as in the unique case of quicksilver.
5440:
5356:(c. 1546); it had been confused in early times with tin and lead because of its resemblance to those elements.
4880:
796:
165:
9944:
5141:
The earliest known production of steel, an iron-carbon alloy, is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an
3168:
In the context of metals, an alloy is a substance having metallic properties which is composed of two or more
1435:
Hexagonal close-packed crystal structure, with a 6-atom unit cell, as found in e.g. titanium, cobalt, and zinc
337:
316:
10362:
10283:
10173:
7848:"Electromagnetic Shielding Performance of Different Metallic Coatings Deposited by Arc Thermal Spray Process"
5336:
is believed to have been the first to isolate arsenic from a compound in 1250, by heating soap together with
4909:—heated with a reducing agent—to extract the pure metal. Many common metals, such as iron, are smelted using
3172:. Often at least one of these is a metallic element; the term "alloy" is sometimes used more generally as in
1741:, do not react with the atmosphere at all; gold can form compounds where it gains an electron (aurides, e.g.
1411:
Body-centered cubic crystal structure, with a 2-atom unit cell, as found in e.g. chromium, iron, and tungsten
870:
792:
723:
139:
5386:
105:
9167:
9125:
5829:
was thus the last stable element to be discovered, though rhenium was the last to be correctly recognized.
4956:
3611:. They tend to be precious metals, often due to perceived rarity. Examples include gold, platinum, silver,
1423:
Face-centered cubic crystal structure, with a 4-atom unit cell, as found in e.g. aluminum, copper, and gold
1101:
states at the Fermi energy. Many elements and compounds become metallic under high pressures, for example,
9154:
9112:
8488:"Conducting polymers: a comprehensive review on recent advances in synthesis, properties and applications"
7005:, Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 79–113,
5825:. After the war, in 1922, Coster and Hevesy found it by X-ray spectroscopic analysis in Norwegian zircon.
5625:
4751:
reactions inside stars, releasing light and heat and forming heavier elements with higher atomic numbers.
10392:
9235:
6998:
6824:
6550:
writer, added the third principle of salt, carrying the nonvolatile and incombustible properties, in his
3412:
at room temperature. Several compounds such as titanium nitride are also described as refractory metals.
173:
9954:
9949:
11828:
11823:
10227:
9568:
8286:
The Art of RF (Riba-Free) Islamic Banking and Finance: Tools and Techniques for Community-Based Banking
7679:"Oganesson is a Semiconductor: On the Relativistic Band-Gap Narrowing in the Heaviest Noble-Gas Solids"
6052:
added. They include, for example, NaCd2, with 348 sodium atoms and 768 cadmium atoms in the unit cell.
5807:
In 1908, Ogawa found element 75 in thorianite but assigned it as element 43 instead of 75 and named it
5687:
5654:
3458:
3440:
3D print of NASA meatball, made out of GRX-810, an oxide dispersion strengthened high temperature alloy
1690:
1652:
1545:
1489:
804:
395:
8409:
7081:
5768:. The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys had been recognized in 1821 by French metallurgist
5026:
11813:
10160:
9678:
The living rock: The story of metals since earliest times and their impact on developing civilization
9477:, Lehner L. & Pretorias F. 2015, "Probing strong-field gravity through numerical simulation", in
6977:
3826:
3276:
1694:
1682:
1581:
1477:
1318:
712:
9140:
8058:
3841:. This explains why the electrical properties of semimetals are partway between those of metals and
1160:
of an astronomical object is the proportion of its matter made up of the heavier chemical elements.
9762:
8312:"Mechanistic Aspects of the Self-Organization Process for Oxide Nanotube Formation on Valve Metals"
7939:. Topics in Mining, Metallurgy and Materials Engineering. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
6829:
5715:
5201:
5059:
3838:
3090:
1800:
1773:
often have strictly acidic reactions; and oxides of the less electropositive metals such as BeO, Al
1369:
1188:
1075:
112:
10380:
8544:
6732:
Mutlu, H; Theato, P (2021). "Polymers with sulfur-nitrogen bonds". In Zhang, X; Theato, P (eds.).
151:
10476:
10445:
9939:
9896:
9767:
9431:
7378:
6778:
5784:
less than lead (#82), the heaviest stable metal, remained to be discovered: elements 71, 72, 75.
4740:
3243:
to carbon steels (more than 10%) results in stainless steels with enhanced corrosion resistance.
1722:
1660:
1557:
1533:
1337:
1330:
947:
465:
407:
215:
122:
78:
8906:
7417:
6458:
The ejection of matter when two neutron stars collide is attributed to the interaction of their
1136:. In this sense the first four "metals" collecting in stellar cores through nucleosynthesis are
9966:
9793:
8631:"Preparations, Properties, and Applications of Polyaniline and Polyaniline Thin Films—A Review"
8092:
6042:
5787:
5124:
3184:
1461:
1396:
999:
781:
475:
245:
35:
17:
10199:
7677:
Mewes, Jan-Michael; Smits, Odile Rosette; Jerabek, Paul; Schwerdtfeger, Peter (25 July 2019).
1666:
756:
100:
10440:
10021:
7625:
6392:
Trace elements having an abundance equalling or much less than one part per trillion (namely
5465:
5347:
4927:
ores are not reduced directly to the metal but are roasted in air to convert them to oxides.
4887:
4862:
3823:
3769:
3173:
1947:
1079:
540:
9411:
7488:
5790:, in 1906, proved that the old ytterbium also contained a new element (#71), which he named
5014:
3190:
1031:
relatively well. These properties are all associated with having electrons available at the
10551:
10122:
9806:
9430:
Hanaor, D.A.H.; Hu, L.; Kan, W.H.; Proust, G.; Foley, M.; Karaman, I.; Radovic, M. (2016).
9331:
9259:
8918:
8879:
8836:
8701:
8595:
8499:
8323:
7973:
7859:
7739:
7727:
7132:
6921:
6848:
6695:
5916:), was synthesized by firing alpha particles at an americium target. In 1952, element 100 (
5764:
In 1872, the Englishmen Clark and Woods patented an alloy that would today be considered a
5444:
5404:
Bismuth in crystalline form, with a very thin oxidation layer, and a 1 cm bismuth cube
5150:
3954:
3757:
3659:
1938:
1849:
1648:
1585:
1106:
1098:
1087:
1028:
763:
671:
528:
270:
8448:
7783:"An overview of intermetallics research and application: Status of thermal spray coatings"
7337:
261:
8:
11833:
10039:
9546:
9398:
6438:
6342:
5486:
5352:
5142:
4795:
3885:
3177:
1678:
1453:
1392:
1388:
1373:
1309:
816:
9263:
8922:
8883:
8840:
8814:
8705:
8599:
8583:
8503:
8327:
7977:
7863:
7743:
7582:
Kelly, Robert G.; Scully, John R.; Shoesmith, David; Buchheit, Rudolph G. (2002-09-13).
7136:
6925:
6852:
6699:
3792:), most ferromagnets are not half-metals. Many of the known examples of half-metals are
10127:
10087:
9531:
9443:
8942:
8826:
8689:
8665:
8630:
8520:
8487:
8385:
8350:
8311:
8310:
Yasuda, Kouji; Macak, Jan M.; Berger, Steffen; Ghicov, Andrei; Schmuki, Patrik (2007).
8068:
8035:
7882:
7847:
7703:
7678:
6864:
6838:
6547:
6352:
6322:
6074:
5973:
5601:
5337:
5123:) by smelting naturally or artificially mixed ores of copper and arsenic. The earliest
4948:. Between 1932 and 1999, copper in use in the U.S. rose from 73 g to 238 g per person.
4799:
3726:
3630:, that is, those of high economic value. Most coins today are made of base metals with
3368:, but not exclusively. Non-ferrous metals and alloys lack appreciable amounts of iron.
3343:
3299:
3295:
1589:
1377:
1326:
1297:
1263:
1243:
transmits green light. This is due to the freely moving electrons which reflect light.
811:
687:
664:
659:
385:
365:
8349:
van Hove, Ruud P.; Sierevelt, Inger N.; van Royen, Barend J.; Nolte, Peter A. (2015).
7120:
6909:
6785:= 0 (the absolute zero of temperature). There a metal conducts and a nonmetal doesn't.
6471:
Iron, cobalt, nickel, and tin are also siderophiles from a whole of Earth perspective.
5002:
3587:, shown here as 1 g of powder, a 1 g pressed cylinder, and a 1 g pellet
358:
11402:
10222:
10092:
9681:
9667:
9649:
9634:
9620:
9605:
9587:
9572:
9560:
9550:
9506:
9490:
9357:
9225:
9200:
9190:
8946:
8934:
8852:
8795:
8775:
8756:
8717:
8670:
8652:
8611:
8564:
8525:
8468:
8429:
8390:
8372:
8290:
8263:
8236:
8212:
8191:
8167:
8072:
8040:
8022:
8002:
7981:
7948:
7934:
7887:
7804:
7763:
7755:
7708:
7657:
7629:
7597:
7562:
7537:
7468:
7464:
7437:
7433:
7398:
7316:
7281:
7261:
7236:
7211:
7184:
7156:
7148:
7101:
7062:
7014:
6762:
6737:
6719:
6707:
6662:
6630:
6590:
5723:
5580:
5571:
They behaved chemically as metals however, and were subsequently recognized as such.
5500:
5472:
5459:
5342:
5325:
5220:
5108:
5080:
4787:
4426:
3881:
3877:
3658:
currency code. Currently they have industrial uses such as platinum and palladium in
3558:
3347:
2716:
1726:
1637:
1577:
1485:
1384:
1156:
lighter atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium, into heavier atoms over its lifetime. The
1083:
1071:
788:
776:
628:
375:
351:
31:
7583:
6868:
6484:, which enables the transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.
5543:
metal. Henri Becquerel subsequently discovered radioactivity in 1896 using uranium.
5111:
such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper ("
1452:
Many other metals with different elements have more complicated structures, such as
1207:; and, since the end of World War II, the development of more sophisticated alloys.
271:
11466:
11171:
11000:
10829:
10748:
10667:
10640:
10603:
10598:
10593:
10457:
10375:
10151:
10016:
9974:
9934:
9929:
9924:
9919:
9914:
9909:
9904:
9856:
9851:
9846:
9474:
9453:
9267:
8926:
8887:
8844:
8787:
8748:
8709:
8688:
de Groot, R. A.; Mueller, F. M.; Engen, P. G. van; Buschow, K. H. J. (1983-06-20).
8660:
8642:
8603:
8556:
8515:
8507:
8460:
8425:
8421:
8380:
8362:
8331:
8064:
8030:
8014:
7940:
7877:
7867:
7822:
7794:
7747:
7698:
7690:
7617:
7589:
7460:
7429:
7390:
7140:
7093:
7052:
7006:
6929:
6856:
6703:
6682:
Chiang, CK (1977). "Transport and optical properties of polythiazyl bromides: (SNBr
6372:
6367:
6357:
5730:
5707:
5304:
4829:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3850:
3706:
3452:
Rhenium single crystal, a remelted bar, and a 1 cm rhenium cube for comparison
3402:
3303:
3169:
3085:
2780:
2485:
2314:
2143:
2062:
1981:
1954:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1750:
1641:
1633:
1457:
1357:
1341:
1184:
1047:
954:
701:
535:
491:
458:
451:
444:
437:
430:
423:
416:
343:
336:
329:
146:
51:
7394:
7097:
6976:. Dai 2 Kai Hadoron Tataikei no Simulation Symposium, Tokai-mura, Ibaraki, Japan.
6551:
5722:) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, made by lining the converter with a
5168:, which contained tungsten and manganese, to iron ore (and carbon). The resulting
4994:
4988:
43:
11838:
10588:
10583:
10578:
10573:
10568:
10563:
10558:
10328:
10189:
9841:
9836:
9831:
9826:
9821:
9816:
9811:
9285:
Kaufman, Brett. "Metallurgy and Archaeological Change in the Ancient Near East".
9163:
9121:
8848:
8607:
8560:
7751:
6002:
5769:
5765:
5682:
5477:
5439:
A disc of highly enriched uranium that was recovered from scrap processed at the
5419:
5333:
5308:
5128:
4895:
4816:
4756:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3902:
3378:
3212:
3149:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1754:
1671:
1365:
1276:
1272:
1059:
913:
743:
322:
315:
308:
301:
294:
287:
280:
254:
9416:(1556) Tr. Herbert Clark Hoover & Lou Henry Hoover (1912); Footnote quoting
8713:
5714:
came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used. The
4794:
merger, thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the
3576:
1544:; however, in semiconductors the bands are near enough to the Fermi level to be
1074:; aspects of the electronic and thermal properties are also within the scope of
10531:
10137:
10132:
10102:
10097:
10082:
9748:
9482:
9478:
9457:
9393:
8791:
8018:
7799:
7782:
7057:
7040:
7010:
6933:
6522:
6332:
5937:
5795:
5738:
5703:
5559:
5496:
the latter regain its hardness, yet it loses its pristine form and properties.
5120:
4891:
4876:
4748:
3846:
3842:
3834:
3789:
3785:
3765:
3667:
3635:
3627:
3540:
3390:
3353:
3323:
3112:
1794:
1781:, and PbO, can display both basic and acidic properties. The latter are termed
1742:
1686:
1656:
1597:
1569:
1353:
1345:
1322:
1313:
1301:
1180:
1172:
1168:
1153:
1117:
683:
679:
623:
616:
611:
486:
466:
86:
8351:"Titanium-Nitride Coating of Orthopaedic Implants: A Review of the Literature"
8229:
Tunay, Olcay; Kabdasli, Isik; Arslan-Alaton, Idil; Olmez-Hanci, Tugba (2010).
7944:
5619:
Potassium pearls under paraffin oil. Size of the largest pearl is 0.5 cm.
3692:
11807:
11625:
9597:
9432:"Compressive performance and crack propagation in Al alloy/Ti2AlC composites"
9204:
8856:
8799:
8760:
8721:
8656:
8628:
8615:
8568:
8472:
8433:
8376:
8026:
7808:
7759:
7441:
7402:
7152:
7105:
7066:
6053:
6049:
5781:
5584:
5191:
5157:
3801:
3781:
3773:
3631:
3382:
3195:
3096:
2939:
1609:
1573:
1549:
1537:
1105:
gradually becomes a metal at a pressure of between 40 and 170 thousand times
1094:
8464:
7144:
6245:
is an A group element (mostly group IIIA and IVA, or groups 13 and 14), and
5414:
4798:. When gravitational attraction causes this matter to coalesce and collapse
1023:
that, when polished or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts
344:
11679:
11508:
11213:
10613:
10546:
10452:
10117:
10112:
9866:
9801:
9271:
8938:
8674:
8529:
8394:
8044:
7891:
7767:
7712:
7694:
7160:
6417:
6347:
6312:
6018:
6014:
5998:
5988:
5691:
5169:
5112:
4918:
4791:
4518:
4016:
3949:
3830:
3679:
3498:
3494:
3357:
3307:
3272:
3144:
2993:
2822:
2527:
1911:
1844:
1670:
Battery demonstration unit for conducting polymers built by nobel laureate
1349:
1296:
Metals are typically malleable and ductile, deforming under stress without
1235:, at least when polished, or fractured. Sheets of metal thicker than a few
1164:
647:
635:
523:
357:
260:
8647:
8367:
7781:
Cinca, Nuria; Lima, Carlos Roberto Camello; Guilemany, Jose Maria (2013).
7593:
5503:
is a metal, although the Alchemists disagree with us on this subject, and
1596:
The elemental metals have electrical conductivity values of from 6.9 × 10
1308:
motion, and there are also many combinations of planes and directions for
11733:
11697:
11688:
11598:
11580:
11571:
10608:
10232:
10107:
9861:
9617:
Out of the fiery furnace: The impact of metals on the history of mankind,
7294:
6843:
6774:
6459:
6327:
6006:
5942:
5921:
5699:
5161:
4917:, have no commercially practical reducing agent, and are extracted using
4872:
4011:
3634:; in the past, coins frequently derived their value primarily from their
3623:
3592:
3584:
3536:
3481:
3475:
3319:
3311:
3224:
3203:
color and luster. Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of
3047:
3011:
3002:
2912:
2894:
2885:
1906:
1572:
which leads to an electric current. This involves small changes in which
1519:
1505:
1476:
The energy states available to electrons in different kinds of solids at
1383:
The atoms of simple metallic substances are often in one of three common
1361:
1305:
1267:
1204:
1200:
1157:
1063:
1032:
652:
640:
350:
7119:
Ogawa, Yukiko; Ando, Daisuke; Sutou, Yuji; Koike, Junichi (2016-07-22).
7041:"Development and applications of aluminum alloys for aerospace industry"
11742:
11670:
11643:
11616:
11276:
11258:
11231:
11062:
11053:
10792:
10006:
8511:
7872:
6543:
6481:
6442:
6397:
6393:
6337:
6232:
5993:
5885:
5750:
5711:
5551:
5226:
5173:
5165:
4935:
4768:
4550:
4540:
4295:
4142:
3747:
3608:
3532:
3315:
3283:
3267:
3240:
3220:
3056:
2984:
2957:
2930:
2590:
2572:
2545:
2376:
2367:
2106:
1782:
1472:
1236:
1067:
547:
63:
9532:
Galactic 'Gold Mine' Explains the Origin of Nature's Heaviest Elements
8752:
8335:
6882:
Roe, J.; Roe, M. (1992). "World's coinage uses 24 chemical elements".
3717:
1709:
through electron loss. Most will react with oxygen in the air to form
1132:
metal refers to all chemical elements in a star that are heavier than
1035:, as against nonmetallic materials which do not. Metals are typically
281:
11751:
11724:
11715:
11562:
11544:
11535:
11526:
11312:
11222:
11195:
11143:
11089:
11071:
11035:
11015:
10954:
10891:
10835:
10774:
10763:
10682:
10633:
10623:
10618:
10062:
10031:
9886:
9876:
9871:
9090:
9070:
8930:
8891:
8407:
8228:
7082:"Magnesium-based nanocomposites: Lightweight materials of the future"
6513:
6425:
6421:
6317:
5925:
5909:
4764:
4760:
4736:
4570:
4523:
4508:
4342:
4312:
4302:
4285:
4273:
4236:
4201:
4169:
4132:
4121:
4072:
4036:
4026:
4021:
3813:
3777:
3663:
3651:
3604:
3600:
3554:
3550:
3508:
3504:
3425:
3365:
3282:
Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications, such as
3259:
3216:
3065:
3038:
3029:
2876:
2858:
2849:
2840:
2626:
2536:
2509:
2457:
2403:
2385:
2349:
2329:
2268:
2205:
2149:
2088:
2077:
1996:
1931:
1921:
1916:
1730:
1714:
1617:
1601:
1515:
1488:
for a certain energy in the material listed. The shading follows the
1240:
1129:
1040:
1012:
593:
560:
394:
374:
364:
30:
This article is about metallic materials. For the musical genre, see
9699:
7455:
Skośkiewicz, T. (2005). "Thermal Conductivity at Low Temperatures".
5427:
3822:
is a material with a small energy overlap between the bottom of the
3356:
word meaning "containing iron". This can include pure iron, such as
3183:
in which the ratio of the two components is fixed (also known as an
1640:. In normal conditions no gases are metallic conductors. However, a
1593:
additional partially occupied energy states at higher temperatures.
11706:
11607:
11490:
11472:
11447:
11438:
11411:
11384:
11348:
11339:
11321:
11249:
11240:
11134:
11006:
10972:
10882:
10873:
10864:
10855:
10810:
10729:
10711:
10646:
10054:
10011:
9448:
8831:
7379:"Electrical resistivity of pure transuranium metals under pressure"
6860:
6446:
6413:
6405:
6401:
5800:
5734:
5524:
5516:
5458:
The first systematic text on the arts of mining and metallurgy was
5146:
5084:
4906:
4821:
4790:
late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as a result of a
4535:
4530:
4454:
4431:
4416:
4396:
4391:
4381:
4359:
4337:
4268:
4263:
4246:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4164:
4152:
4111:
4099:
4089:
4062:
4048:
4043:
3873:
3861:
3761:
3655:
3647:
3562:
3512:
3409:
3251:
3247:
3232:
3157:
3123:
3020:
2921:
2804:
2786:
2761:
2752:
2725:
2698:
2662:
2653:
2635:
2563:
2554:
2448:
2320:
2286:
2196:
2187:
2178:
2169:
2124:
2043:
2025:
1960:
1734:
1580:
dictates that one can only have one electron in a given state, the
1561:
1541:
1251:
1232:
1220:
1141:
1020:
580:
552:
9631:
Chemistry in Space: From Interstellar Matter to the Origin of Life
8869:
8410:"Wear resistance investigation of titanium nitride-based coatings"
7376:
6734:
Sulfur-Containing Polymers: From Synthesis to Functional Materials
4905:
When a metallic ore is an ionic compound, the ore must usually be
4717:
Metals left of the dividing line occur (or are sourced) mainly as
1689:
of a metal. Various models are applicable, the simplest being the
1556:
The electronic structure of metals means they are relatively good
11788:
11783:
11778:
11773:
11661:
11652:
11634:
11589:
11517:
11499:
11429:
11375:
11357:
11330:
11303:
11285:
11267:
11177:
11107:
11080:
11044:
11026:
10990:
10981:
10963:
10945:
10844:
10783:
10673:
10628:
10500:
9881:
9717:
7513:
7315:(7th ed.). Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.
6825:"A New Analysis of RR Lyrae Kinematics in the Solar Neighborhood"
6307:
5960:
5917:
5826:
5813:
5754:
5508:
5504:
5316:
5277:
5183:
5116:
4924:
4899:
4868:
4780:
4744:
4597:
4590:
4565:
4555:
4545:
4441:
4411:
4401:
4386:
4364:
4322:
4307:
4290:
4280:
4256:
4251:
4241:
4231:
4174:
4137:
4067:
4031:
3865:
3857:
3797:
3619:
3612:
3580:
3228:
3127:
2975:
2966:
2948:
2903:
2831:
2813:
2743:
2689:
2671:
2644:
2617:
2599:
2581:
2491:
2421:
2394:
2358:
2340:
2304:
2295:
2277:
2259:
2158:
2097:
1987:
1926:
1706:
1576:
the electrons are in, changing to those with the higher momenta.
1565:
1255:
1247:
1224:
1036:
588:
384:
255:
6534:
In ancient times, lead was regarded as the father of all metals.
3115:. If there are several, the most stable allotrope is considered.
11553:
11481:
11366:
11294:
11204:
11186:
11152:
11116:
11098:
10927:
10918:
10909:
10801:
10754:
10720:
10702:
10657:
9704:
of ASM International (formerly the American Society for Metals)
9324:"Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel"
8813:
Armitage, N. P.; Mele, E. J.; Vishwanath, Ashvin (2018-01-22).
8348:
7585:
Electrochemical Techniques in Corrosion Science and Engineering
6589:. Paul McEuen (Global edition, ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
6493:
6480:
Another life-enabling role for iron is as a key constituent of
6409:
6048:
of two or more metallic elements, sometimes with metalloids or
5913:
5758:
5468:, which treats the examination, fusion, and working of metals.
5321:
5261:
5104:
5096:
4945:
4914:
4910:
4858:
4759:, with the two main modes of this repetitive capture being the
4560:
4513:
4406:
4369:
4347:
4327:
4317:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4147:
4116:
4094:
4084:
4055:
3701:
3643:
3566:
3520:
3263:
3255:
3236:
3161:
2867:
2795:
2680:
2608:
2518:
2500:
2466:
2430:
2412:
2241:
2232:
2223:
2115:
2068:
2034:
2016:
1971:
1721:
over years) which depend upon whether the native oxide forms a
1605:
1286:
Schematic appearance of round metal bars after tensile testing.
1259:
1196:
1145:
1137:
1133:
1122:
1110:
1102:
9312:. Tokyo: Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology: 147–158.
7676:
6908:
Stampfl, C.; Mannstadt, W.; Asahi, R.; Freeman, A. J. (2001).
50:, shown here as fragments and a 1 cm cube, is an example of a
11767:
11456:
11161:
10819:
10693:
6508:
5588:
5435:
5045:
4979:
4894:
uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw metals, while
4352:
4157:
4079:
3793:
3361:
3208:
3139:
3080:
2770:
2475:
2133:
2007:
1746:
1710:
1613:
1312:. Due to their having close packed arrangements of atoms the
1055:
67:
58:
9487:
General Relativity and Gravitation: A Centennial Perspective
9224:. London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials.
7581:
7003:
Materials, Design and Manufacturing for Lightweight Vehicles
6907:
5075:
3198:—an alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc that looks like silver
1282:
11420:
11393:
10936:
10900:
10738:
9543:
On Beyond Uranium: Journey to the End of the Periodic Table
9189:. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. pp. 73–84.
8687:
7846:
Jang, J. M.; Lee, H. S.; Singh, J. K. (December 17, 2020).
6999:"3 - Aluminum alloys for lightweight automotive structures"
5997:
A Ho-Mg-Zn icosahedral quasicrystal formed as a pentagonal
5746:
5742:
5172:
came to the attention of Rome when used by Hannibal in the
5088:
5048:
4879:, which are mined by excavation using heavy equipment, and
4436:
4421:
4226:
4206:
4104:
3906:
3639:
3570:
3516:
3204:
2734:
2707:
2250:
2214:
2052:
1806:
1738:
1718:
1176:
1149:
1051:
47:
9596:
Podosek F. A. 2011, "Noble gases", in H. D. Holland &
8232:
Chemical Oxidation Applications for Industrial Wastewaters
8144:
Prsctical guidance in relation to the hallmarking act 1973
5450:
5153:) which are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800 BCE.
5115:") predecessors. Initially, bronze was made of copper and
1624:
11125:
10540:
8737:"Half-metallic ferromagnetism: Example of CrO2 (invited)"
5733:
and low cost, steel came to be a major component used in
5132:
4955:
Globally, metal recycling is generally low. In 2010, the
4854:
4332:
3869:
3153:
2439:
9356:. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 108.
7338:"Plutonium and its alloys: from atoms to microstructure"
9709:
9602:
Isotope Geochemistry: From the Treatise on Geochemistry
9521:
Impossible alloys: How to make never-before-seen metals
9045:
8815:"Weyl and Dirac semimetals in three-dimensional solids"
8309:
7972:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. passim.
7932:
6823:
Martin, John C.; Morrison, Heather L. (May 18, 1998) .
4913:
as a reducing agent. Some metals, such as aluminum and
1447:
Arrangement of atoms in a rock salt crystal such as TiN
9503:
The elements: Their origin, abundance and distribution
8812:
8545:"Review on Conducting Polymers and Their Applications"
8209:
Light Alloys: From Traditional Alloys to Nanocrystals,
9381:. London: Time-Life International. pp. 133, 137.
4939:
A pile of compacted steel scraps, ready for recycling
4743:. In this process, lighter elements from hydrogen to
459:
8690:"New Class of Materials: Half-Metallic Ferromagnets"
7933:
Gialanella, Stefano; Malandruccolo, Alessio (2020).
6951:
5775:
5484:
He gave the following description of a metal in his
5368:
Arsenic, sealed in a container to prevent tarnishing
5131:
in the fifth millennium BCE. It was only later that
3485:
understood to be silver and are priced accordingly.
452:
445:
431:
9354:
The Culture of War: Invention and Early Development
7530:Gross, Eberhard K. U.; Dreizler, Reiner M. (2013).
7118:
6997:Benedyk, J. C. (2010-01-01), Mallick, P. K. (ed.),
3942:abundance and main occurrence or source, by weight
3526:
438:
424:
9646:Structure–property relations in nonferrous metals,
8905:Bubnova, Olga; Zia, Ullah Khan; Wang, Hui (2014).
7780:
6777:(1905–1996) wrote a letter to a fellow physicist,
6659:Materials science and engineering: an introduction
4833:building, erosion, or other geological processes.
1836:Bonding of simple substances in the periodic table
1564:, which average to zero when there is no external
9429:
7970:Structure–Property Relations in Nonferrous Metals
7651:
7616:
6956:(3rd ed.). New York: D. Van Nostrad Company.
6713:
6661:(4th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
5874:
5562:metals, palladium, osmium, iridium, and rhodium.
4890:, usually by chemical or electrolytic reduction.
3337:
3262:. Copper alloys have been known since prehistory—
1336:A temperature change may lead to the movement of
1093:A metal conducts electricity at a temperature of
11805:
7415:
7178:
7174:
7172:
7170:
6652:
6650:
6648:
6646:
4824:, an aluminum oxide hydroxide mineral, α-AlO(OH)
3856:The classic elemental semimetallic elements are
1659:) and can pass on thermal energy. The empirical
1528:lies inside at least one band of energy states.
1254:, there is a wide variation in their densities,
417:
9714:of The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society
9397:, Sept. 1909. Reprinted as the introduction to
8773:
7329:
7306:
7304:
7179:Weertman, Johannes; Weertman, Julia R. (1992).
6736:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 191–234 (191).
6620:
6618:
6616:
6614:
6612:
6610:
6608:
6606:
6443:very high temperature hydrogen rich environment
6363:Properties of metals, metalloids, and nonmetals
3599:. Noble metals are less reactive, resistant to
3246:Other significant metallic alloys are those of
3231:will produce cast irons, while the addition of
70:largely composed of iron, chromium and nickel
9242:
9145:Carolyn Fry, Guardian.co.uk, 22 February 2008.
9114:The Recycling Rates of Metals: A Status Report
8904:
8734:
7230:
6903:
6901:
6899:
6897:
6822:
6718:. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 727.
6624:
6437:In some cases, for example in the presence of
6063:8th International Conference on Quasicrystals.
6017:effectively have infinitely large unit cells.
5294:Copper for the craftsman cunning at his trade.
1788:
1262:(22.59 g/cm) the most dense. Some of the
10516:
9733:
9156:Metal Stocks in Society: Scientific Synthesis
8735:Coey, J. M. D.; Venkatesan, M. (2002-05-15).
8000:
7670:
7647:
7645:
7557:Bockris, J. O'M; Reddy, Amulya K. N. (1977).
7529:
7167:
6643:
6580:
6578:
6576:
6574:
6249:is either carbon or nitrogen. Examples are Hf
5292:Gold is for the mistress—silver for the maid—
5099:. The figure is more than 2 m in height.
4739:(in the periodic table) are largely made via
3923:
3503:A heavy metal is any relatively dense metal.
1821:
975:
9648:John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey,
9330:. Chennai, India. 2009-03-26. Archived from
8282:
8119:"A closer look at the world of white metals"
8001:Senkov, O. N.; Miracle, D. B. (2021-02-25).
7845:
7787:Journal of Materials Research and Technology
7556:
7310:
7301:
7121:"A lightweight shape-memory magnesium alloy"
7045:Journal of Materials Research and Technology
6837:(4) (published October 1, 1998): 1724–1735.
6625:Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1976).
6603:
5533:But enough now concerning the simple kinds.
5298:"But Iron—Cold Iron—is master of them all."
5296:"Good!" said the Baron, sitting in his hall,
5276:A pectoral (ornamental breastplate) made of
4886:Once the ore is mined, the elements must be
3845:. There are additional types, in particular
1705:The elements which form metals usually form
1258:being the least dense (0.534 g/cm) and
9108:
9106:
9091:"Los Alamos National Laboratory – Aluminum"
8998:
8549:Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering
7725:
7454:
7038:
6970:Fission properties of the heaviest elements
6894:
6799:"What we learn from a star's metal content"
6731:
6277:) and high-temperature oxidation in air (Ti
6056:attempted to describe the structure of NaCd
4805:
1246:Although most elemental metals have higher
10523:
10509:
9740:
9726:
8486:K, Namsheer; Rout, Chandra Sekkha (2021).
7967:
7726:Liu, C. T.; Stiegler, J. O. (1984-11-09).
7642:
7561:(3. print ed.). New York: Plenum Pr.
7203:
6571:
6036:
5982:
5565:
3930:
3916:
3393:and only a limited number of slip planes.
3371:
3111:shows bonding of simple substances in the
1828:
1814:
1484:Here, height is energy while width is the
1066:. The general science of metals is called
982:
968:
9604:, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 467–492,
9489:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
9447:
9071:"Los Alamos National Laboratory – Sodium"
8830:
8664:
8646:
8542:
8519:
8449:"Titanium Nitride PVD Coating Technology"
8384:
8366:
8034:
7881:
7871:
7798:
7702:
7536:. Springer Science & Business Media.
7079:
7056:
6966:
6842:
6656:
5865:Hafnium, in the form of a 1.7 kg bar
3626:, the term base metal is contrasted with
3488:
1467:
1043:(they can be hammered into thin sheets).
9485:, J. Isenberg & M. MacCallum (eds),
9217:
9103:
8446:
8211:4th ed., Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford,
7457:Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics
7258:Epitaxial growth of complex metal oxides
7080:Gupta, M.; Wong, W. L. E. (2015-07-01).
6947:
6945:
6943:
6756:
6629:. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
5992:
5941:
5931:
5889:
5681:
5449:
5434:
5426:
5413:
5074:
4934:
4815:
3716:
3691:
3575:
3189:
3143:
1665:
1623:
1471:
1281:
1219:
57:
42:
11623:
9351:
9303:
9221:A History of Metallurgy, Second Edition
9182:
9034:
9022:
8986:
8255:
7448:
6996:
5894:Heat treating superalloy turbine blades
5350:. Bismuth was described by Agricola in
3352:The term "ferrous" is derived from the
2937:
14:
11806:
11677:
11506:
11211:
9376:
9010:
8958:
8956:
8581:
8316:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
8186:Brandes EA & Brook GB (eds) 1998,
7728:"Ductile Ordered Intermetallic Alloys"
7358:from the original on February 24, 2009
7335:
7280:
7255:
6881:
6681:
6584:
6068:
5967:
5392:Antimony, showing its brilliant lustre
3557:, such as reacting easily with dilute
3286:, may contain more than ten elements.
2991:
2820:
2525:
1655:. These have slightly higher momenta (
11731:
11695:
11686:
11596:
11578:
11569:
10504:
9721:
9567:, vol. 2, Stars and Stellar Systems,
9538:, 10 May 2016, accessed 11 July 2016.
9063:
9046:Choptuik, Lehner & Pretorias 2015
8780:Nature Reviews Electrical Engineering
8543:Das, Tapan K.; Prusty, Smita (2012).
8485:
8116:
7511:
7183:. New York: Oxford University Press.
6940:
6790:
6761:. Amsterdam: IOS Press. p. 257.
6759:Physics of Metal-Nonmetal Transitions
5902:
5550:In 1803, cerium was the first of the
3666:and also a role as investments and a
3164:, used in bearings to reduce friction
3045:
3009:
3000:
2910:
2892:
2883:
1215:
1171:, tools, pipes, and railroad tracks.
11740:
11668:
11641:
11614:
11274:
11256:
11229:
11060:
11051:
9644:Russell A. M. & Lee K. L. 2005,
9436:Materials Science and Engineering: A
9172:United Nations Environment Programme
9130:United Nations Environment Programme
8776:"The rise of semi-metal electronics"
7652:Siekierski, S.; Burgess, J. (2002).
7231:Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. (2001).
5841:Lutetium, including a 1 cm cube
5672:Scandium, including a 1 cm cube
5454:Ultrapure cerium under argon, 1.5 gm
4961:United Nations Environment Programme
3712:
3687:
3054:
2982:
2955:
2928:
2588:
2570:
2543:
2374:
2365:
2104:
1325:for the restoring forces, where the
11749:
11722:
11713:
11560:
11542:
11533:
11524:
11310:
11220:
11193:
11141:
11087:
11069:
11033:
11013:
10952:
10889:
10790:
10772:
10761:
10680:
10484:
9658:Street A. & Alexander W. 1998,
9505:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
9500:
9284:
9248:
9186:Metallurgy for the non-metallurgist
9057:
8974:
8962:
8953:
8872:IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics
8262:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
7968:Russell, A. M.; Lee, K. L. (2005).
7489:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2000"
6714:Greenwood, NN; Earnshaw, A (1998).
6587:Introduction to solid state physics
5853:Rhenium, including a 1 cm cube
5677:
5380:Zinc fragments and a 1 cm cube
5156:From about 500 BCE sword-makers of
3733:Conductive metal−organic frameworks
3561:(HCl) to form a metal chloride and
3396:
3331:
3327:
3063:
3036:
3027:
2874:
2856:
2847:
2838:
2624:
2534:
2507:
2455:
2401:
2383:
2347:
2327:
2266:
2203:
2147:
2086:
2075:
1994:
1584:. Therefore there have to be empty
1560:. The electrons all have different
1321:in metals can be described well by
24:
11704:
11605:
11488:
11470:
11445:
11436:
11409:
11382:
11337:
11319:
11247:
11238:
11132:
11004:
10970:
10880:
10862:
10853:
10833:
10808:
10530:
9747:
9680:, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge,
9468:
8069:10.1016/b978-0-7506-4681-9.x5000-7
7313:Electrical properties of materials
7204:Timoshenko, Stephen (1983-01-01).
6796:
5409:
5320:necessarily the common substances
5207:A droplet of solidified molten tin
4812:Abundance of the chemical elements
3721:Several of the conducting polymers
3595:is commonly used in opposition to
3018:
2919:
2802:
2784:
2759:
2750:
2723:
2696:
2660:
2651:
2633:
2561:
2552:
2446:
2318:
2284:
2194:
2185:
2176:
2167:
2122:
2041:
2023:
1958:
1062:; or a molecular compound such as
1019: 'mine, quarry, metal') is a
25:
11855:
11659:
11650:
11632:
11587:
11497:
11427:
11400:
11373:
11355:
11346:
11328:
11301:
11283:
11265:
11175:
11105:
11078:
11042:
10988:
10979:
10961:
10943:
10871:
10842:
10781:
10727:
10709:
10671:
10644:
9691:
9252:Journal of Archaeological Science
8150:. Assay offices of Great Britain.
7654:Concise Chemistry of the Elements
7416:Koester, D; Chanmugam, G (1990).
5776:The last stable metallic elements
4635: Most abundant (up to
3549:refers to a metal that is easily
3424:Niobium crystals and a 1 cm
2973:
2964:
2946:
2901:
2829:
2811:
2741:
2714:
2687:
2669:
2642:
2615:
2597:
2579:
2489:
2419:
2392:
2356:
2338:
2302:
2293:
2275:
2257:
2156:
2095:
1985:
1753:. However, oxides with very high
1195:forms of steel; the discovery of
1167:, as well as most vehicles, many
11551:
11515:
11479:
11364:
11292:
11202:
11184:
11114:
11096:
11024:
10925:
10916:
10907:
10752:
10655:
10483:
10472:
10471:
9619:Macmillan Australia, Melbourne,
9379:The Metalsmiths, revised edition
9306:Anatolian Archaeological Studies
6954:Chemistry: A Conceptual Approach
5858:
5846:
5834:
5665:
5653:
5636:
5624:
5612:
5600:
5397:
5385:
5373:
5361:
5269:
5253:
5234:
5212:
5200:
5058:
5037:
5025:
5013:
5001:
4987:
4902:chemistry for the same purpose.
4800:new stars and planets are formed
4581:
4501:
4463:
4374:
3756:is any substance that acts as a
3527:Base, noble, and precious metals
3457:
3445:
3433:
3417:
3326:metals as well as both metallic
2865:
2793:
2678:
2606:
2516:
2498:
2464:
2428:
2410:
2239:
2230:
2221:
2113:
2066:
2032:
2014:
1969:
1440:
1428:
1416:
1404:
1329:is linearly proportional to the
11454:
11159:
11150:
10817:
10799:
10718:
10700:
9423:
9404:
9385:
9370:
9345:
9316:
9297:
9278:
9211:
9176:
9148:
9142:Tread lightly: Aluminium attack
9134:
9083:
9051:
9039:
9028:
9016:
9004:
8992:
8980:
8968:
8898:
8863:
8806:
8767:
8728:
8681:
8622:
8575:
8536:
8479:
8440:
8401:
8342:
8303:
8276:
8249:
8222:
8201:
8190:Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford,
8180:
8154:
8135:
8110:
8093:"Belmont Metals - White Metals"
8085:
8051:
7994:
7961:
7926:
7898:
7839:
7815:
7774:
7719:
7610:
7575:
7550:
7523:
7505:
7481:
7409:
7370:
7311:Solymar, L.; Walsh, D. (2004).
7274:
7249:
7224:
7197:
7112:
7073:
7032:
6990:
6967:Moller, P.; Nix, J. R. (1994).
6960:
6537:
6528:
6500:
6487:
6474:
6465:
6452:
6431:
6386:
5726:material to remove phosphorus.
5702:began with the introduction of
4670: Uncommon (1–99 ppm)
3784:. Although all half-metals are
3673:
2768:
2473:
2131:
2005:
1304:is relatively low allowing for
1292:(c) Completely ductile fracture
1191:in the semiconductor industry.
11418:
11391:
10934:
10898:
10736:
10691:
9802:1 (Hydrogen and alkali metals)
8426:10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.04.152
8117:Roden, Arabella (2019-11-04).
7465:10.1016/b0-12-369401-9/01168-2
7459:. Elsevier. pp. 159–164.
7422:Reports on Progress in Physics
7418:"Physics of white dwarf stars"
6875:
6816:
6750:
6675:
6657:Callister, William D. (1997).
6509:The iron the smiths were using
6241:is an early transition metal,
5879:
5875:Post-World War II developments
5441:Y-12 National Security Complex
5285:
5093:National Archaeological Museum
3469:
3338:Ferrous and non-ferrous metals
2732:
2705:
2248:
2212:
2050:
1749:of elemental metals are often
1039:(can be drawn into wires) and
66:made from stainless steel, an
13:
1:
11123:
10344:Thermal expansion coefficient
10040:Lists of metalloids by source
9660:Metals in the service of man,
8355:BioMed Research International
7395:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2011.03.053
7336:Hecker, Siegfried S. (2000).
7235:. San Diego: Academic Press.
7181:Elementary dislocation theory
7098:10.1016/j.matchar.2015.04.015
6952:Mortimer, Charles E. (1975).
6564:
5280:, an alloy of gold and copper
5242:
5219:
5160:, were making early forms of
5044:
4972:
4848:
3833:, but they do not overlap in
3741:
3289:
2437:
1210:
1203:—in 1809; the rise of modern
571:dividing metals and nonmetals
9666:ed., Penguin Books, London,
9168:International Resource Panel
9126:International Resource Panel
8849:10.1103/RevModPhys.90.015001
8608:10.1021/acs.macromol.7b00582
8561:10.1080/03602559.2012.710697
8283:Abdul-Rahman, Yahia (2014).
8060:Introduction to Dislocations
7752:10.1126/science.226.4675.636
7383:Journal of Nuclear Materials
6708:10.1016/0038-1098(77)90530-0
6083:
5070:
4957:International Resource Panel
4930:
4735:Metallic elements up to the
3911:Metals in the Earth's crust:
3896:
3891:
3807:
1717:burns in seconds while iron
1540:the Fermi level is inside a
1125:atoms or alloying elements.
1097:, which is a consequence of
7:
10083:Platinum-group metals (PGM)
9786:By periodic table structure
9183:Reardon, Arthur C. (2011).
8714:10.1103/PhysRevLett.50.2024
8582:Swager, Timothy M. (2017).
7656:. Horwood. pp. 60–66.
6300:
5164:by adding a mineral called
5127:so far known come from the
3428:niobium cube for comparison
3364:. Ferrous metals are often
3302:metals; brittle metals and
1789:Periodic table distribution
1700:
1647:Metals are relatively good
1486:density of available states
1350:line and screw dislocations
239:By periodic table structure
10:
11860:
11022:
10851:
10770:
10689:
10653:
10555:
10228:Goldschmidt classification
9569:Cambridge University Press
9458:10.1016/j.msea.2016.06.073
9060:, pp. 83, 91, 102–103
8792:10.1038/s44287-024-00068-z
8741:Journal of Applied Physics
8420:(9, Part A): 10349–10379.
8019:10.1038/s41598-021-83953-z
7800:10.1016/j.jmrt.2013.03.013
7559:Modern electrochemistry. 2
7434:10.1088/0034-4885/53/7/001
7086:Materials Characterization
7058:10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.09.274
7011:10.1533/9781845697822.1.79
6934:10.1103/PhysRevB.63.155106
6688:Solid State Communications
6447:neutron deficient isotopes
6230:
6072:
6040:
5986:
5971:
5935:
5912:), next after element 96 (
5883:
5780:By 1900 three metals with
5660:A bar of titanium crystals
5052:nodules and 1 cm cube
4967:
4852:
4809:
4729:) and tin (a lithophile).
4716:
4711:
4693:
4675:
4665:
4647:
4630:
4625:
4491:
4485:
4076:
4052:
3941:
3909:
3900:
3811:
3745:
3730:
3724:
3677:
3615:, iridium, and palladium.
3530:
3492:
3473:
3400:
3341:
3137:
2336:
2165:
2084:
2003:
1967:
1853:
1809:
1792:
1691:nearly free electron model
1231:Most metals are shiny and
1175:were historically used as
1005:
929:expansion coefficient
805:Goldschmidt classification
29:
11765:
11465:
11170:
10999:
10828:
10747:
10666:
10639:
10632:
10627:
10622:
10617:
10612:
10607:
10602:
10597:
10592:
10587:
10582:
10577:
10572:
10567:
10562:
10557:
10550:
10545:
10538:
10466:
10428:
10361:
10241:
10198:
10159:
10150:
10075:
10053:
10030:
9997:
9987:
9965:
9895:
9807:2 (Alkaline earth metals)
9792:
9785:
9776:
9755:
8819:Reviews of Modern Physics
8289:. John Wiley & Sons.
8259:Earth's Natural Resources
8256:Walther, John V. (2013).
7945:10.1007/978-3-030-24440-8
7906:"Metals Program Overview"
7622:Chemistry of the Elements
7620:; Earnshaw, Alan (1997).
7588:(0 ed.). CRC Press.
7533:Density Functional Theory
6978:University of North Texas
6803:John C. Martin's Homepage
6716:Chemistry of the Elements
6208:
6187:
6169:
6148:
6127:
6109:
6104:
6101:
6098:
6095:
5928:) have been synthesized.
4721:; those to the right, as
4578:
4498:
4493:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4477:
4473:
4471:
4129:
4127:
4125:
3839:degenerate semiconductors
3565:. Examples include iron,
3277:electromagnetic shielding
3133:
1945:
1937:
1713:over various timescales (
1695:density functional theory
1693:. Modern methods such as
1683:electronic band structure
1582:Pauli exclusion principle
1558:conductors of electricity
1478:thermodynamic equilibrium
1189:degenerate semiconductors
1179:, but in the modern era,
713:List of chemical elements
11819:Condensed matter physics
9565:Theoretical Astrophysics
9218:Tylecote, R. F. (1992).
8907:"Semi-Metallic Polymers"
7260:. Boston, MA: Elsevier.
6830:The Astronomical Journal
6585:Kittel, Charles (2018).
5946:Metallic Glass Vitreloy4
5716:Gilchrist-Thomas process
5180:In pre-Columbian America
5091:, c. 460 BCE,
5032:A slice of meteoric iron
4806:Abundance and occurrence
4507:
4449:
4447:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
1490:Fermi–Dirac distribution
1076:condensed matter physics
1064:polymeric sulfur nitride
606:By other characteristics
216:Systematic element names
10446:systematic element name
10418:in East Asian languages
9768:Extended periodic table
9633:, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim,
9287:Backdirt: Annual Review
8694:Physical Review Letters
8465:10.1179/sur.1985.1.2.93
8166:. Editions Quae. 2006.
7210:. Courier Corporation.
7145:10.1126/science.aaf6524
6871:– via IOPscience.
6379:
6037:Complex metallic alloys
5983:Quasicrystalline alloys
5566:Light metallic elements
4741:stellar nucleosynthesis
4698: Very rare (
3768:orientation, but as an
3464:Titanium nitride powder
3372:Brittle elemental metal
829:Data pages for elements
508:metallic classification
274:(alkaline earth metals)
62:Metal in the form of a
10289:Electron configuration
10279:Electrical resistivity
10218:Electron configuration
10022:Post-transition metals
9584:The metallic elements,
9272:10.1006/jasc.2002.0809
8414:Ceramics International
8188:Light Metals Handbook,
7695:10.1002/anie.201908327
7512:Burke, Kieron (2007).
6779:Prof. Peter P. Edwards
6439:high energy gamma rays
6043:Complex metallic alloy
6009:
5947:
5895:
5720:basic Bessemer process
5695:
5536:
5455:
5447:
5432:
5424:
5300:
5100:
4940:
4871:. Ores are located by
4825:
4652: Abundant (
3722:
3697:
3588:
3489:Heavy and light metals
3360:, or an alloy such as
3199:
3185:intermetallic compound
3165:
1674:
1653:Fermi–Dirac statistics
1629:
1553:
1468:Electrical and thermal
1462:perovskite (structure)
1397:hexagonal close-packed
1293:
1228:
865:Electrical resistivity
757:Properties of elements
140:Periodic table history
71:
55:
36:Metal (disambiguation)
34:. For other uses, see
11844:Solid-state chemistry
10123:Transuranium elements
8977:, pp. 32, 63, 85
8648:10.3390/polym13122003
8447:Matthews, A. (1985).
7823:"Steel use by sector"
7626:Butterworth-Heinemann
7618:Greenwood, Norman N.
7594:10.1201/9780203909133
6890:(4, 5): 24–25, 18–19.
6757:Yonezawa, F. (2017).
5996:
5945:
5932:Bulk metallic glasses
5893:
5685:
5492:
5471:Sixteen years later,
5466:Vannoccio Biringuccio
5453:
5438:
5430:
5417:
5348:Vannoccio Biringuccio
5290:
5078:
5065:A brass weight (35 g)
4938:
4863:Extractive metallurgy
4819:
3720:
3695:
3579:
3193:
3147:
1669:
1627:
1604:to 6.3 × 10 S/cm for
1475:
1340:in the metal such as
1285:
1223:
1088:nonmetallic materials
1080:solid-state chemistry
617:Platinum-group metals
166:Discovery of elements
61:
46:
10339:Thermal conductivity
10314:Heat of vaporization
9756:Periodic table forms
9547:Taylor & Francis
9352:Gabriel, RA (1990).
8123:jewellermagazine.com
5445:Oak Ridge, Tennessee
5329:methods of alchemy.
5315:Arabic and medieval
3696:TiN coated drill bit
3660:catalytic converters
3194:A sculpture cast in
1729:. Some others, like
1697:are typically used.
1586:delocalized electron
1496:=all states filled,
1464:in some nickelates.
1290:(b) Ductile fracture
1288:(a) Brittle fracture
1264:6d transition metals
1116:When discussing the
1107:atmospheric pressure
899:of vaporization
764:Relative atomic mass
737:by isotope stability
732:by atomic properties
95:Periodic table forms
10371:Element discoveries
10128:Superheavy elements
10088:Rare-earth elements
9676:Wilson A. J. 1994,
9582:Parish R. V. 1977,
9501:Cox, P. A. (1997).
9418:De Natura Fossilium
9410:Georgius Agricola,
9399:Rewards and Fairies
9377:Knauth, P. (1976).
9264:2002JArSc..29.1451T
8923:2014NatMa..13..190B
8884:1992IJQE...28..507W
8841:2018RvMP...90a5001A
8706:1983PhRvL..50.2024D
8600:2017MaMol..50.4867S
8504:2021RSCAd..11.5659K
8453:Surface Engineering
8368:10.1155/2015/485975
8328:2007JElS..154C.472Y
8163:Metal contamination
7978:2005srnm.book.....R
7864:2020Mate...13.5776J
7744:1984Sci...226..636L
7689:(40): 14260–14264.
7256:Koster, G. (2015).
7233:Inorganic Chemistry
7137:2016Sci...353..368O
6926:2001PhRvB..63o5106S
6853:1998AJ....116.1724M
6700:1977SSCom..23..607C
6627:Solid state physics
6343:Metals of antiquity
6092:
6069:High-entropy alloys
5968:Shape-memory alloys
5487:De Natura Fossilium
5353:De Natura Fossilium
5143:archaeological site
4796:interstellar medium
4747:undergo successive
3886:conductive polymers
3829:and the top of the
3632:low intrinsic value
1679:free electron model
1661:Wiedemann–Franz law
1546:thermally populated
1500:=no state filled).
1454:rock-salt structure
1393:face-centered cubic
1389:body-centered cubic
1319:elastic deformation
1310:plastic deformation
1239:appear opaque, but
665:Rare-earth elements
660:Main-group elements
9536:Science Spotlights
9530:Hadhazy A. 2016, "
9519:Crow J. M. 2016, "
9162:2016-01-01 at the
9120:2016-01-01 at the
8512:10.1039/D0RA07800J
8235:. IWA Publishing.
8063:. Elsevier. 2001.
8007:Scientific Reports
7873:10.3390/ma13245776
7345:Los Alamos Science
6884:World Coinage News
6548:German Renaissance
6353:Mineral (nutrient)
6323:Ferrous metallurgy
6088:
6075:High-entropy alloy
6010:
5974:Shape-memory alloy
5948:
5903:Transcurium metals
5896:
5757:, appliances, and
5698:The modern era in
5696:
5631:Strontium crystals
5456:
5448:
5433:
5425:
5338:arsenic trisulfide
5182:, objects made of
5109:building materials
5101:
5020:Crystalline silver
4941:
4826:
4680: Rare (
3878:chemical compounds
3727:Conductive polymer
3723:
3698:
3589:
3344:Ferrous metallurgy
3200:
3166:
1675:
1649:conductors of heat
1630:
1612:metalloid such as
1590:strontium titanate
1554:
1548:with electrons or
1385:crystal structures
1338:structural defects
1294:
1229:
1216:Form and structure
72:
56:
11829:Metallic elements
11824:Materials science
11801:
11800:
11794:
11793:
11760:
11759:
10498:
10497:
10357:
10356:
10319:Ionization energy
10294:Electronegativity
10284:Electron affinity
10223:Electronegativity
10213:Crystal structure
10208:Aqueous chemistry
10185:Nuclear stability
10180:Atomic properties
10146:
10145:
10093:Refractory metals
10071:
10070:
10017:Transition metals
9983:
9982:
9686:978-1-85573-154-7
9672:978-0-14-025776-2
9654:978-0-471-64952-6
9639:978-3-527-32689-1
9625:978-0-333-38024-6
9615:Raymond R. 1984,
9610:978-0-08-096710-3
9592:978-0-582-44278-8
9586:Longman, London,
9577:978-0-521-56241-6
9555:978-0-415-28495-0
9541:Hofmann S. 2002,
9512:978-0-19-855298-7
9495:978-1-107-03731-1
9363:978-0-313-26664-5
9258:(12): 1451–1460.
9231:978-1-902653-79-2
9196:978-1-61503-845-9
9013:, pp. 32, 33
8753:10.1063/1.1447879
8747:(10): 8345–8350.
8700:(25): 2024–2027.
8594:(13): 4867–4886.
8555:(14): 1487–1500.
8498:(10): 5659–5697.
8336:10.1149/1.2749091
8296:978-1-118-77096-2
8269:978-1-4496-3234-2
8242:978-1-84339-307-8
8173:978-2-7592-0011-5
8078:978-0-7506-4681-9
7987:978-0-471-64952-6
7954:978-3-030-24439-2
7913:arpa-e.energy.gov
7738:(4675): 636–642.
7683:Angewandte Chemie
7663:978-1-898563-71-6
7635:978-0-08-037941-8
7603:978-0-203-90913-3
7568:978-0-306-25002-6
7543:978-1-4757-9975-0
7474:978-0-12-369401-0
7322:978-0-19-926793-4
7287:Quantum Mechanics
7267:978-1-78242-245-7
7217:978-0-486-61187-7
7190:978-0-19-506900-6
7131:(6297): 368–370.
7020:978-1-84569-463-0
6914:Physical Review B
6768:978-1-61499-786-3
6743:978-3-527-34670-7
6725:978-0-7506-3365-9
6668:978-0-471-13459-6
6636:978-0-03-083993-1
6596:978-1-119-45416-8
6519:
6229:
6228:
5581:F-100 Super Sabre
5552:lanthanide metals
5473:Georgius Agricola
5461:De la Pirotechnia
5431:Platinum crystals
5343:De la pirotechnia
5103:The discovery of
5081:Artemision Bronze
4733:
4732:
3884:(HgTe), and some
3882:mercury telluride
3876:. There are also
3713:Metallic polymers
3688:Metallic ceramics
3559:hydrochloric acid
3348:Non-ferrous metal
3304:refractory metals
3174:silicon–germanium
3126:is metallic, but
3079:
3078:
1727:diffusion barrier
1723:passivation layer
1608:. In contrast, a
1578:Quantum mechanics
1368:metals. Internal
1084:multidisciplinary
1072:materials science
1046:A metal may be a
992:
991:
904:Ionization energy
880:Electronegativity
789:Electronegativity
769:Crystal structure
629:Refractory metals
478:(s, p, d, f, ...)
32:Heavy metal music
16:(Redirected from
11851:
11814:Chemical physics
11770:
11769:
11756:
11754:
11747:
11745:
11738:
11736:
11729:
11727:
11720:
11718:
11711:
11709:
11702:
11700:
11693:
11691:
11684:
11682:
11675:
11673:
11666:
11664:
11657:
11655:
11648:
11646:
11639:
11637:
11630:
11628:
11621:
11619:
11612:
11610:
11603:
11601:
11594:
11592:
11585:
11583:
11576:
11574:
11567:
11565:
11558:
11556:
11549:
11547:
11540:
11538:
11531:
11529:
11522:
11520:
11513:
11511:
11504:
11502:
11495:
11493:
11486:
11484:
11477:
11475:
11461:
11459:
11452:
11450:
11443:
11441:
11434:
11432:
11425:
11423:
11416:
11414:
11407:
11405:
11398:
11396:
11389:
11387:
11380:
11378:
11371:
11369:
11362:
11360:
11353:
11351:
11344:
11342:
11335:
11333:
11326:
11324:
11317:
11315:
11308:
11306:
11299:
11297:
11290:
11288:
11281:
11279:
11272:
11270:
11263:
11261:
11254:
11252:
11245:
11243:
11236:
11234:
11227:
11225:
11218:
11216:
11209:
11207:
11200:
11198:
11191:
11189:
11182:
11180:
11166:
11164:
11157:
11155:
11148:
11146:
11139:
11137:
11130:
11128:
11121:
11119:
11112:
11110:
11103:
11101:
11094:
11092:
11085:
11083:
11076:
11074:
11067:
11065:
11058:
11056:
11049:
11047:
11040:
11038:
11031:
11029:
11020:
11018:
11011:
11009:
10995:
10993:
10986:
10984:
10977:
10975:
10968:
10966:
10959:
10957:
10950:
10948:
10941:
10939:
10932:
10930:
10923:
10921:
10914:
10912:
10905:
10903:
10896:
10894:
10887:
10885:
10878:
10876:
10869:
10867:
10860:
10858:
10849:
10847:
10840:
10838:
10824:
10822:
10815:
10813:
10806:
10804:
10797:
10795:
10788:
10786:
10779:
10777:
10768:
10766:
10759:
10757:
10743:
10741:
10734:
10732:
10725:
10723:
10716:
10714:
10707:
10705:
10698:
10696:
10687:
10685:
10678:
10676:
10662:
10660:
10651:
10649:
10541:
10525:
10518:
10511:
10502:
10501:
10487:
10486:
10475:
10474:
10458:Dmitri Mendeleev
10386:1869 predictions
10376:Dmitri Mendeleev
10157:
10156:
9995:
9994:
9975:Aufbau principle
9887:18 (Noble gases)
9790:
9789:
9783:
9782:
9778:Sets of elements
9742:
9735:
9728:
9719:
9718:
9713:
9712:
9710:Official website
9703:
9702:
9700:Official website
9629:Rehder D. 2010,
9516:
9462:
9461:
9451:
9427:
9421:
9408:
9402:
9389:
9383:
9382:
9374:
9368:
9367:
9349:
9343:
9342:
9340:
9339:
9320:
9314:
9313:
9301:
9295:
9294:
9282:
9276:
9275:
9246:
9240:
9239:
9234:. Archived from
9215:
9209:
9208:
9180:
9174:
9152:
9146:
9138:
9132:
9110:
9101:
9100:
9098:
9097:
9087:
9081:
9080:
9078:
9077:
9067:
9061:
9055:
9049:
9043:
9037:
9032:
9026:
9025:, pp. 23–24
9020:
9014:
9008:
9002:
8999:Padmanabhan 2001
8996:
8990:
8984:
8978:
8972:
8966:
8965:, pp. 73–89
8960:
8951:
8950:
8931:10.1038/nmat3824
8911:Nature Materials
8902:
8896:
8895:
8892:10.1109/3.123280
8867:
8861:
8860:
8834:
8810:
8804:
8803:
8771:
8765:
8764:
8732:
8726:
8725:
8685:
8679:
8678:
8668:
8650:
8626:
8620:
8619:
8579:
8573:
8572:
8540:
8534:
8533:
8523:
8483:
8477:
8476:
8444:
8438:
8437:
8405:
8399:
8398:
8388:
8370:
8346:
8340:
8339:
8307:
8301:
8300:
8280:
8274:
8273:
8253:
8247:
8246:
8226:
8220:
8207:Polmear I 2006,
8205:
8199:
8184:
8178:
8177:
8158:
8152:
8151:
8149:
8139:
8133:
8132:
8130:
8129:
8114:
8108:
8107:
8105:
8104:
8089:
8083:
8082:
8055:
8049:
8048:
8038:
7998:
7992:
7991:
7965:
7959:
7958:
7936:Aerospace Alloys
7930:
7924:
7923:
7921:
7919:
7910:
7902:
7896:
7895:
7885:
7875:
7843:
7837:
7836:
7834:
7833:
7819:
7813:
7812:
7802:
7778:
7772:
7771:
7723:
7717:
7716:
7706:
7674:
7668:
7667:
7649:
7640:
7639:
7624:(2nd ed.).
7614:
7608:
7607:
7579:
7573:
7572:
7554:
7548:
7547:
7527:
7521:
7520:
7518:
7514:"The ABC of DFT"
7509:
7503:
7502:
7500:
7499:
7485:
7479:
7478:
7452:
7446:
7445:
7413:
7407:
7406:
7374:
7368:
7367:
7365:
7363:
7357:
7342:
7333:
7327:
7326:
7308:
7299:
7298:
7292:
7278:
7272:
7271:
7253:
7247:
7246:
7228:
7222:
7221:
7201:
7195:
7194:
7176:
7165:
7164:
7116:
7110:
7109:
7077:
7071:
7070:
7060:
7036:
7030:
7029:
7028:
7027:
6994:
6988:
6987:
6985:
6984:
6975:
6964:
6958:
6957:
6949:
6938:
6937:
6905:
6892:
6891:
6879:
6873:
6872:
6846:
6844:astro-ph/9806258
6820:
6814:
6813:
6811:
6809:
6797:Martin, John C.
6794:
6788:
6787:
6754:
6748:
6747:
6729:
6711:
6679:
6673:
6672:
6654:
6641:
6640:
6622:
6601:
6600:
6582:
6558:
6541:
6535:
6532:
6526:
6517:
6504:
6498:
6491:
6485:
6478:
6472:
6469:
6463:
6456:
6450:
6435:
6429:
6428:) are not shown.
6390:
6373:Transition metal
6368:Structural steel
6358:Polymetallic ore
6237:In a Max phase,
6093:
6087:
5862:
5850:
5838:
5731:tensile strength
5729:Due to its high
5708:Bessemer process
5678:The age of steel
5669:
5657:
5648:
5645:2.6 grams,
5643:Aluminium chunk,
5640:
5628:
5616:
5607:Chunks of sodium
5604:
5401:
5389:
5377:
5365:
5311:
5273:
5260:A plate made of
5257:
5247:
5244:
5238:
5216:
5204:
5062:
5041:
5029:
5017:
5005:
4991:
4959:, hosted by the
4881:subsurface mines
4777:
4776:
4737:vicinity of iron
4705:
4701:
4697:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4669:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4641:
4640:
4634:
4585:
4584:
4505:
4504:
4467:
4466:
4378:
4377:
3932:
3925:
3918:
3907:
3851:Dirac semimetals
3707:titanium nitride
3461:
3449:
3437:
3421:
3403:Refractory metal
3397:Refractory metal
3387:Pugh's criterion
3306:; white metals;
3116:
3109:Background color
3106:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3093:
3091:Network covalent
3088:
3070:
3068:
3061:
3059:
3052:
3050:
3043:
3041:
3034:
3032:
3025:
3023:
3016:
3014:
3007:
3005:
2998:
2996:
2989:
2987:
2980:
2978:
2971:
2969:
2962:
2960:
2953:
2951:
2944:
2942:
2935:
2933:
2926:
2924:
2917:
2915:
2908:
2906:
2899:
2897:
2890:
2888:
2881:
2879:
2872:
2870:
2863:
2861:
2854:
2852:
2845:
2843:
2836:
2834:
2827:
2825:
2818:
2816:
2809:
2807:
2800:
2798:
2791:
2789:
2775:
2773:
2766:
2764:
2757:
2755:
2748:
2746:
2739:
2737:
2730:
2728:
2721:
2719:
2712:
2710:
2703:
2701:
2694:
2692:
2685:
2683:
2676:
2674:
2667:
2665:
2658:
2656:
2649:
2647:
2640:
2638:
2631:
2629:
2622:
2620:
2613:
2611:
2604:
2602:
2595:
2593:
2586:
2584:
2577:
2575:
2568:
2566:
2559:
2557:
2550:
2548:
2541:
2539:
2532:
2530:
2523:
2521:
2514:
2512:
2505:
2503:
2496:
2494:
2480:
2478:
2471:
2469:
2462:
2460:
2453:
2451:
2444:
2442:
2435:
2433:
2426:
2424:
2417:
2415:
2408:
2406:
2399:
2397:
2390:
2388:
2381:
2379:
2372:
2370:
2363:
2361:
2354:
2352:
2345:
2343:
2334:
2332:
2325:
2323:
2309:
2307:
2300:
2298:
2291:
2289:
2282:
2280:
2273:
2271:
2264:
2262:
2255:
2253:
2246:
2244:
2237:
2235:
2228:
2226:
2219:
2217:
2210:
2208:
2201:
2199:
2192:
2190:
2183:
2181:
2174:
2172:
2163:
2161:
2154:
2152:
2138:
2136:
2129:
2127:
2120:
2118:
2111:
2109:
2102:
2100:
2093:
2091:
2082:
2080:
2073:
2071:
2057:
2055:
2048:
2046:
2039:
2037:
2030:
2028:
2021:
2019:
2012:
2010:
2001:
1999:
1992:
1990:
1976:
1974:
1965:
1963:
1830:
1823:
1816:
1807:
1801:covalent network
1755:oxidation states
1642:plasma (physics)
1634:titanium nitride
1458:titanium nitride
1444:
1432:
1420:
1408:
1380:may also ensue.
1342:grain boundaries
1185:titanium nitride
1070:, a subtopic of
1048:chemical element
1016:
1009:
984:
977:
970:
955:Chemistry Portal
589:nonmetal halogen
492:Aufbau principle
468:
461:
454:
447:
440:
433:
426:
419:
400:
390:
380:
370:
360:
353:
346:
339:
332:
325:
318:
311:
304:
297:
290:
283:
276:
265:
257:
229:Sets of elements
157:1869 predictions
127:
121:
117:
74:
73:
54:that is a metal.
52:chemical element
27:Type of material
21:
11859:
11858:
11854:
11853:
11852:
11850:
11849:
11848:
11804:
11803:
11802:
11797:
11796:
11795:
11761:
11752:
11750:
11743:
11741:
11734:
11732:
11725:
11723:
11716:
11714:
11707:
11705:
11698:
11696:
11689:
11687:
11680:
11678:
11671:
11669:
11662:
11660:
11653:
11651:
11644:
11642:
11635:
11633:
11626:
11624:
11617:
11615:
11608:
11606:
11599:
11597:
11590:
11588:
11581:
11579:
11572:
11570:
11563:
11561:
11554:
11552:
11545:
11543:
11536:
11534:
11527:
11525:
11518:
11516:
11509:
11507:
11500:
11498:
11491:
11489:
11482:
11480:
11473:
11471:
11457:
11455:
11448:
11446:
11439:
11437:
11430:
11428:
11421:
11419:
11412:
11410:
11403:
11401:
11394:
11392:
11385:
11383:
11376:
11374:
11367:
11365:
11358:
11356:
11349:
11347:
11340:
11338:
11331:
11329:
11322:
11320:
11313:
11311:
11304:
11302:
11295:
11293:
11286:
11284:
11277:
11275:
11268:
11266:
11259:
11257:
11250:
11248:
11241:
11239:
11232:
11230:
11223:
11221:
11214:
11212:
11205:
11203:
11196:
11194:
11187:
11185:
11178:
11176:
11162:
11160:
11153:
11151:
11144:
11142:
11135:
11133:
11126:
11124:
11117:
11115:
11108:
11106:
11099:
11097:
11090:
11088:
11081:
11079:
11072:
11070:
11063:
11061:
11054:
11052:
11045:
11043:
11036:
11034:
11027:
11025:
11016:
11014:
11007:
11005:
10991:
10989:
10982:
10980:
10973:
10971:
10964:
10962:
10955:
10953:
10946:
10944:
10937:
10935:
10928:
10926:
10919:
10917:
10910:
10908:
10901:
10899:
10892:
10890:
10883:
10881:
10874:
10872:
10865:
10863:
10856:
10854:
10845:
10843:
10836:
10834:
10820:
10818:
10811:
10809:
10802:
10800:
10793:
10791:
10784:
10782:
10775:
10773:
10764:
10762:
10755:
10753:
10739:
10737:
10730:
10728:
10721:
10719:
10712:
10710:
10703:
10701:
10694:
10692:
10683:
10681:
10674:
10672:
10658:
10656:
10647:
10645:
10534:
10529:
10499:
10494:
10462:
10424:
10353:
10329:Oxidation state
10237:
10194:
10142:
10138:Minor actinides
10133:Major actinides
10098:Precious metals
10067:
10049:
10026:
9979:
9961:
9891:
9877:16 (Chalcogens)
9872:15 (Pnictogens)
9772:
9751:
9746:
9708:
9707:
9698:
9697:
9694:
9665:
9513:
9471:
9469:Further reading
9466:
9465:
9428:
9424:
9413:De Re Metallica
9409:
9405:
9390:
9386:
9375:
9371:
9364:
9350:
9346:
9337:
9335:
9322:
9321:
9317:
9302:
9298:
9283:
9279:
9247:
9243:
9232:
9216:
9212:
9197:
9181:
9177:
9164:Wayback Machine
9153:
9149:
9139:
9135:
9122:Wayback Machine
9111:
9104:
9095:
9093:
9089:
9088:
9084:
9075:
9073:
9069:
9068:
9064:
9056:
9052:
9044:
9040:
9033:
9029:
9021:
9017:
9009:
9005:
8997:
8993:
8985:
8981:
8973:
8969:
8961:
8954:
8903:
8899:
8868:
8864:
8811:
8807:
8772:
8768:
8733:
8729:
8686:
8682:
8627:
8623:
8580:
8576:
8541:
8537:
8484:
8480:
8445:
8441:
8406:
8402:
8347:
8343:
8308:
8304:
8297:
8281:
8277:
8270:
8254:
8250:
8243:
8227:
8223:
8206:
8202:
8185:
8181:
8174:
8160:
8159:
8155:
8147:
8141:
8140:
8136:
8127:
8125:
8115:
8111:
8102:
8100:
8091:
8090:
8086:
8079:
8057:
8056:
8052:
7999:
7995:
7988:
7966:
7962:
7955:
7931:
7927:
7917:
7915:
7908:
7904:
7903:
7899:
7844:
7840:
7831:
7829:
7821:
7820:
7816:
7779:
7775:
7724:
7720:
7675:
7671:
7664:
7650:
7643:
7636:
7615:
7611:
7604:
7580:
7576:
7569:
7555:
7551:
7544:
7528:
7524:
7516:
7510:
7506:
7497:
7495:
7487:
7486:
7482:
7475:
7453:
7449:
7414:
7410:
7375:
7371:
7361:
7359:
7355:
7340:
7334:
7330:
7323:
7309:
7302:
7290:
7282:Schiff, Leonard
7279:
7275:
7268:
7254:
7250:
7243:
7229:
7225:
7218:
7202:
7198:
7191:
7177:
7168:
7117:
7113:
7078:
7074:
7037:
7033:
7025:
7023:
7021:
6995:
6991:
6982:
6980:
6973:
6965:
6961:
6950:
6941:
6906:
6895:
6880:
6876:
6821:
6817:
6807:
6805:
6795:
6791:
6769:
6755:
6751:
6744:
6726:
6685:
6680:
6676:
6669:
6655:
6644:
6637:
6623:
6604:
6597:
6583:
6572:
6567:
6562:
6561:
6542:
6538:
6533:
6529:
6505:
6501:
6492:
6488:
6479:
6475:
6470:
6466:
6457:
6453:
6436:
6432:
6391:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6303:
6296:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6264:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6235:
6216:
6212:
6195:
6191:
6173:
6156:
6152:
6135:
6131:
6113:
6091:alloy examples
6090:
6086:
6077:
6071:
6059:
6045:
6039:
6032:
6028:
6024:
5991:
5985:
5976:
5970:
5958:
5954:
5940:
5934:
5905:
5888:
5882:
5877:
5866:
5863:
5854:
5851:
5842:
5839:
5778:
5770:Pierre Berthier
5766:stainless steel
5680:
5673:
5670:
5661:
5658:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5632:
5629:
5620:
5617:
5608:
5605:
5568:
5535:
5478:De Re Metallica
5420:De re metallica
5412:
5410:The Renaissance
5405:
5402:
5393:
5390:
5381:
5378:
5369:
5366:
5334:Albertus Magnus
5313:
5309:Rudyard Kipling
5302:
5297:
5295:
5293:
5288:
5281:
5274:
5265:
5258:
5249:
5245:
5239:
5230:
5229:
5224:
5217:
5208:
5205:
5151:Kaman-Kalehöyük
5129:Iranian plateau
5083:showing either
5073:
5066:
5063:
5054:
5053:
5051:
5042:
5033:
5030:
5021:
5018:
5009:
5006:
4997:
4992:
4975:
4970:
4933:
4896:hydrometallurgy
4865:
4853:Main articles:
4851:
4814:
4808:
4774:
4772:
4757:neutron capture
4725:except gold (a
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4671:
4667:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4643:
4638:
4636:
4632:
4582:
4502:
4464:
4375:
4348: I
3937:
3936:
3905:
3903:Nucleosynthesis
3899:
3894:
3872:(gray tin) and
3816:
3810:
3750:
3744:
3735:
3729:
3715:
3690:
3682:
3676:
3543:
3531:Main articles:
3529:
3501:
3493:Main articles:
3491:
3478:
3472:
3465:
3462:
3453:
3450:
3441:
3438:
3429:
3422:
3405:
3399:
3391:Burgers vectors
3379:elastic modulus
3374:
3350:
3342:Main articles:
3340:
3292:
3213:stainless steel
3181:
3142:
3136:
3119:
3118:
3107:
3103:
3100:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3083:
3075:
3066:
3064:
3057:
3055:
3048:
3046:
3039:
3037:
3030:
3028:
3021:
3019:
3012:
3010:
3003:
3001:
2994:
2992:
2985:
2983:
2976:
2974:
2967:
2965:
2958:
2956:
2949:
2947:
2940:
2938:
2931:
2929:
2922:
2920:
2913:
2911:
2904:
2902:
2895:
2893:
2886:
2884:
2877:
2875:
2868:
2866:
2859:
2857:
2850:
2848:
2841:
2839:
2832:
2830:
2823:
2821:
2814:
2812:
2805:
2803:
2796:
2794:
2787:
2785:
2771:
2769:
2762:
2760:
2753:
2751:
2744:
2742:
2735:
2733:
2726:
2724:
2717:
2715:
2708:
2706:
2699:
2697:
2690:
2688:
2681:
2679:
2672:
2670:
2663:
2661:
2654:
2652:
2645:
2643:
2636:
2634:
2627:
2625:
2618:
2616:
2609:
2607:
2600:
2598:
2591:
2589:
2582:
2580:
2573:
2571:
2564:
2562:
2555:
2553:
2546:
2544:
2537:
2535:
2528:
2526:
2519:
2517:
2510:
2508:
2501:
2499:
2492:
2490:
2476:
2474:
2467:
2465:
2458:
2456:
2449:
2447:
2440:
2438:
2431:
2429:
2422:
2420:
2413:
2411:
2404:
2402:
2395:
2393:
2386:
2384:
2377:
2375:
2368:
2366:
2359:
2357:
2350:
2348:
2341:
2339:
2330:
2328:
2321:
2319:
2305:
2303:
2296:
2294:
2287:
2285:
2278:
2276:
2269:
2267:
2260:
2258:
2251:
2249:
2242:
2240:
2233:
2231:
2224:
2222:
2215:
2213:
2206:
2204:
2197:
2195:
2188:
2186:
2179:
2177:
2170:
2168:
2159:
2157:
2150:
2148:
2134:
2132:
2125:
2123:
2116:
2114:
2107:
2105:
2098:
2096:
2089:
2087:
2078:
2076:
2069:
2067:
2053:
2051:
2044:
2042:
2035:
2033:
2026:
2024:
2017:
2015:
2008:
2006:
1997:
1995:
1988:
1986:
1972:
1970:
1961:
1959:
1837:
1834:
1797:
1791:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1725:that acts as a
1703:
1672:Alan MacDiarmid
1531:
1527:
1513:
1503:
1483:
1470:
1448:
1445:
1436:
1433:
1424:
1421:
1412:
1409:
1366:non-crystalline
1354:stacking faults
1346:point vacancies
1291:
1289:
1287:
1218:
1213:
1173:Precious metals
1169:home appliances
1060:stainless steel
988:
939:
938:
914:Oxidation state
830:
822:
821:
759:
749:
748:
715:
705:
694:
693:
624:Precious metals
607:
599:
598:
541:post-transition
510:
499:
498:
487:Atomic orbitals
240:
232:
221:
220:
142:
132:
131:
125:
119:
115:
96:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
11857:
11847:
11846:
11841:
11836:
11831:
11826:
11821:
11816:
11799:
11798:
11792:
11791:
11786:
11781:
11776:
11768:
11766:
11763:
11762:
11758:
11757:
11748:
11739:
11730:
11721:
11712:
11703:
11694:
11685:
11676:
11667:
11658:
11649:
11640:
11631:
11622:
11613:
11604:
11595:
11586:
11577:
11568:
11559:
11550:
11541:
11532:
11523:
11514:
11505:
11496:
11487:
11478:
11469:
11463:
11462:
11453:
11444:
11435:
11426:
11417:
11408:
11399:
11390:
11381:
11372:
11363:
11354:
11345:
11336:
11327:
11318:
11309:
11300:
11291:
11282:
11273:
11264:
11255:
11246:
11237:
11228:
11219:
11210:
11201:
11192:
11183:
11174:
11168:
11167:
11158:
11149:
11140:
11131:
11122:
11113:
11104:
11095:
11086:
11077:
11068:
11059:
11050:
11041:
11032:
11023:
11021:
11012:
11003:
10997:
10996:
10987:
10978:
10969:
10960:
10951:
10942:
10933:
10924:
10915:
10906:
10897:
10888:
10879:
10870:
10861:
10852:
10850:
10841:
10832:
10826:
10825:
10816:
10807:
10798:
10789:
10780:
10771:
10769:
10760:
10751:
10745:
10744:
10735:
10726:
10717:
10708:
10699:
10690:
10688:
10679:
10670:
10664:
10663:
10654:
10652:
10643:
10637:
10636:
10631:
10626:
10621:
10616:
10611:
10606:
10601:
10596:
10591:
10586:
10581:
10576:
10571:
10566:
10561:
10556:
10554:
10549:
10544:
10539:
10536:
10535:
10532:Periodic table
10528:
10527:
10520:
10513:
10505:
10496:
10495:
10493:
10492:
10480:
10467:
10464:
10463:
10461:
10460:
10455:
10450:
10449:
10448:
10443:
10432:
10430:
10426:
10425:
10423:
10422:
10421:
10420:
10415:
10410:
10405:
10400:
10390:
10389:
10388:
10383:
10378:
10367:
10365:
10359:
10358:
10355:
10354:
10352:
10351:
10349:Vapor pressure
10346:
10341:
10336:
10334:Speed of sound
10331:
10326:
10321:
10316:
10311:
10309:Heat of fusion
10306:
10301:
10296:
10291:
10286:
10281:
10276:
10271:
10266:
10264:Critical point
10261:
10256:
10251:
10245:
10243:
10239:
10238:
10236:
10235:
10230:
10225:
10220:
10215:
10210:
10204:
10202:
10196:
10195:
10193:
10192:
10187:
10182:
10177:
10165:
10163:
10154:
10148:
10147:
10144:
10143:
10141:
10140:
10135:
10130:
10125:
10120:
10115:
10110:
10105:
10103:Coinage metals
10100:
10095:
10090:
10085:
10079:
10077:
10073:
10072:
10069:
10068:
10066:
10065:
10059:
10057:
10051:
10050:
10048:
10047:
10042:
10036:
10034:
10028:
10027:
10025:
10024:
10019:
10014:
10009:
10003:
10001:
9992:
9985:
9984:
9981:
9980:
9978:
9977:
9971:
9969:
9963:
9962:
9960:
9959:
9958:
9957:
9952:
9947:
9937:
9932:
9927:
9922:
9917:
9912:
9907:
9901:
9899:
9893:
9892:
9890:
9889:
9884:
9879:
9874:
9869:
9864:
9859:
9854:
9849:
9844:
9839:
9834:
9829:
9824:
9819:
9814:
9809:
9804:
9798:
9796:
9787:
9780:
9774:
9773:
9771:
9770:
9765:
9759:
9757:
9753:
9752:
9749:Periodic table
9745:
9744:
9737:
9730:
9722:
9716:
9715:
9705:
9693:
9692:External links
9690:
9689:
9688:
9674:
9663:
9656:
9642:
9627:
9613:
9598:K. K. Turekian
9594:
9580:
9561:Padmanabhan T.
9558:
9539:
9528:
9525:New Scientist,
9517:
9511:
9498:
9475:Choptuik M. W.
9470:
9467:
9464:
9463:
9422:
9420:(1546), p. 180
9403:
9394:The Delineator
9384:
9369:
9362:
9344:
9315:
9296:
9277:
9241:
9238:on 2015-04-02.
9230:
9210:
9195:
9175:
9147:
9133:
9102:
9082:
9062:
9050:
9038:
9027:
9015:
9003:
8991:
8979:
8967:
8952:
8897:
8878:(2): 507–513.
8862:
8805:
8786:(8): 497–515.
8766:
8727:
8680:
8621:
8588:Macromolecules
8574:
8535:
8478:
8439:
8400:
8341:
8302:
8295:
8275:
8268:
8248:
8241:
8221:
8200:
8198:, p. viii
8179:
8172:
8153:
8134:
8109:
8097:Belmont Metals
8084:
8077:
8050:
7993:
7986:
7960:
7953:
7925:
7897:
7838:
7827:worldsteel.org
7814:
7773:
7718:
7669:
7662:
7641:
7634:
7609:
7602:
7574:
7567:
7549:
7542:
7522:
7504:
7493:NobelPrize.org
7480:
7473:
7447:
7428:(7): 837–915.
7408:
7369:
7328:
7321:
7300:
7273:
7266:
7248:
7241:
7223:
7216:
7196:
7189:
7166:
7111:
7072:
7031:
7019:
6989:
6959:
6939:
6920:(15): 155106.
6893:
6874:
6861:10.1086/300568
6815:
6789:
6767:
6749:
6742:
6724:
6694:(9): 607–612.
6683:
6674:
6667:
6642:
6635:
6602:
6595:
6569:
6568:
6566:
6563:
6560:
6559:
6536:
6527:
6523:Damascus steel
6499:
6486:
6473:
6464:
6451:
6430:
6384:
6383:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6335:
6333:Metal toxicity
6330:
6325:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6294:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6254:
6250:
6231:Main article:
6227:
6226:
6223:
6220:
6217:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6205:
6202:
6199:
6196:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6184:
6181:
6178:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6166:
6163:
6160:
6157:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6145:
6142:
6139:
6136:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6124:
6121:
6118:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6106:
6103:
6100:
6097:
6085:
6082:
6073:Main article:
6070:
6067:
6057:
6041:Main article:
6038:
6035:
6030:
6026:
6022:
5987:Main article:
5984:
5981:
5972:Main article:
5969:
5966:
5959:) produced at
5956:
5952:
5938:Metallic Glass
5936:Main article:
5933:
5930:
5904:
5901:
5884:Main article:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5868:
5867:
5864:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5833:
5782:atomic numbers
5777:
5774:
5739:infrastructure
5704:Henry Bessemer
5679:
5676:
5675:
5674:
5671:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5652:
5650:
5642:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5599:
5567:
5564:
5560:platinum group
5493:
5411:
5408:
5407:
5406:
5403:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5360:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5283:
5282:
5275:
5268:
5266:
5259:
5252:
5250:
5240:
5233:
5231:
5225:poured into a
5218:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5199:
5121:arsenic bronze
5072:
5069:
5068:
5067:
5064:
5057:
5055:
5043:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5000:
4998:
4993:
4986:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4932:
4929:
4892:Pyrometallurgy
4850:
4847:
4807:
4804:
4731:
4730:
4714:
4713:
4709:
4708:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4676:
4673:
4672:
4666:
4663:
4662:
4648:
4645:
4644:
4631:
4628:
4627:
4623:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4616:
4614:
4612:
4610:
4608:
4606:
4604:
4602:
4600:
4595:
4593:
4588:
4586:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4499:
4496:
4495:
4492:
4489:
4488:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4478:
4476:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4468:
4461:
4459:
4457:
4451:
4450:
4448:
4446:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4356:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4298:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4260:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4053:
4051:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3944:
3943:
3939:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3927:
3920:
3912:
3910:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3843:semiconductors
3835:momentum space
3812:Main article:
3809:
3806:
3802:Heusler alloys
3782:Heusler alloys
3746:Main article:
3743:
3740:
3725:Main article:
3714:
3711:
3689:
3686:
3678:Main article:
3675:
3672:
3668:store of value
3662:, are used in
3636:precious metal
3628:precious metal
3607:, unlike most
3541:precious metal
3528:
3525:
3490:
3487:
3474:Main article:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3466:
3463:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3432:
3430:
3423:
3416:
3401:Main article:
3398:
3395:
3373:
3370:
3339:
3336:
3291:
3288:
3179:
3152:, an alloy of
3138:Main article:
3135:
3132:
3113:periodic table
3081:
3077:
3076:
3072:
3071:
3062:
3053:
3044:
3035:
3026:
3017:
3008:
2999:
2990:
2981:
2972:
2963:
2954:
2945:
2936:
2927:
2918:
2909:
2900:
2891:
2882:
2873:
2864:
2855:
2846:
2837:
2828:
2819:
2810:
2801:
2792:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2767:
2758:
2749:
2740:
2731:
2722:
2713:
2704:
2695:
2686:
2677:
2668:
2659:
2650:
2641:
2632:
2623:
2614:
2605:
2596:
2587:
2578:
2569:
2560:
2551:
2542:
2533:
2524:
2515:
2506:
2497:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2472:
2463:
2454:
2445:
2436:
2427:
2418:
2409:
2400:
2391:
2382:
2373:
2364:
2355:
2346:
2337:
2335:
2326:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2301:
2292:
2283:
2274:
2265:
2256:
2247:
2238:
2229:
2220:
2211:
2202:
2193:
2184:
2175:
2166:
2164:
2155:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2130:
2121:
2112:
2103:
2094:
2085:
2083:
2074:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2049:
2040:
2031:
2022:
2013:
2004:
2002:
1993:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1968:
1966:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1943:
1942:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1832:
1825:
1818:
1810:
1795:Periodic table
1790:
1787:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1743:caesium auride
1702:
1699:
1687:binding energy
1657:kinetic energy
1610:semiconducting
1570:drift velocity
1538:semiconductors
1529:
1525:
1511:
1501:
1481:
1469:
1466:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1403:
1314:Burgers vector
1302:Peierls stress
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1181:coinage metals
1118:periodic table
990:
989:
987:
986:
979:
972:
964:
961:
960:
959:
958:
951:
941:
940:
937:
936:
934:Vapor pressure
931:
921:
919:Speed of sound
916:
911:
906:
901:
895:of fusion
887:
882:
877:
869:Electron
867:
862:
857:
852:
850:Critical point
847:
842:
837:
831:
828:
827:
824:
823:
820:
819:
814:
808:
807:
801:
800:
785:
784:
779:
772:
771:
766:
760:
755:
754:
751:
750:
747:
746:
740:
739:
734:
728:
727:
716:
711:
710:
707:
706:
699:
696:
695:
692:
691:
676:
675:
668:
667:
662:
656:
655:
650:
644:
643:
638:
632:
631:
626:
620:
619:
614:
612:Coinage metals
608:
605:
604:
601:
600:
597:
596:
591:
585:
584:
576:
575:
574:
573:
565:
564:
556:
555:
550:
544:
543:
538:
532:
531:
529:alkaline earth
526:
520:
519:
511:
505:
504:
501:
500:
497:
496:
495:
494:
489:
481:
480:
471:
470:
463:
456:
449:
442:
435:
428:
421:
413:
412:
403:
402:
392:
382:
372:
362:
355:
348:
341:
334:
327:
320:
313:
306:
299:
292:
285:
278:
268:
251:
250:
241:
238:
237:
234:
233:
226:
223:
222:
219:
218:
212:
211:
203:
202:
201:
200:
195:
190:
182:
181:
169:
168:
162:
161:
160:
159:
154:
143:
138:
137:
134:
133:
130:
129:
109:
108:
103:
97:
94:
93:
90:
89:
87:Periodic table
83:
82:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11856:
11845:
11842:
11840:
11837:
11835:
11832:
11830:
11827:
11825:
11822:
11820:
11817:
11815:
11812:
11811:
11809:
11790:
11787:
11785:
11782:
11780:
11777:
11775:
11772:
11771:
11764:
11755:
11746:
11737:
11728:
11719:
11710:
11701:
11692:
11683:
11674:
11665:
11656:
11647:
11638:
11629:
11620:
11611:
11602:
11593:
11584:
11575:
11566:
11557:
11548:
11539:
11530:
11521:
11512:
11503:
11494:
11485:
11476:
11468:
11464:
11460:
11451:
11442:
11433:
11424:
11415:
11406:
11397:
11388:
11379:
11370:
11361:
11352:
11343:
11334:
11325:
11316:
11307:
11298:
11289:
11280:
11271:
11262:
11253:
11244:
11235:
11226:
11217:
11208:
11199:
11190:
11181:
11173:
11169:
11165:
11156:
11147:
11138:
11129:
11120:
11111:
11102:
11093:
11084:
11075:
11066:
11057:
11048:
11039:
11030:
11019:
11010:
11002:
10998:
10994:
10985:
10976:
10967:
10958:
10949:
10940:
10931:
10922:
10913:
10904:
10895:
10886:
10877:
10868:
10859:
10848:
10839:
10831:
10827:
10823:
10814:
10805:
10796:
10787:
10778:
10767:
10758:
10750:
10746:
10742:
10733:
10724:
10715:
10706:
10697:
10686:
10677:
10669:
10665:
10661:
10650:
10642:
10638:
10635:
10630:
10625:
10620:
10615:
10610:
10605:
10600:
10595:
10590:
10585:
10580:
10575:
10570:
10565:
10560:
10553:
10548:
10543:
10542:
10537:
10533:
10526:
10521:
10519:
10514:
10512:
10507:
10506:
10503:
10491:
10490:
10481:
10479:
10478:
10469:
10468:
10465:
10459:
10456:
10454:
10451:
10447:
10444:
10442:
10439:
10438:
10437:
10434:
10433:
10431:
10427:
10419:
10416:
10414:
10411:
10409:
10406:
10404:
10403:controversies
10401:
10399:
10396:
10395:
10394:
10391:
10387:
10384:
10382:
10379:
10377:
10374:
10373:
10372:
10369:
10368:
10366:
10364:
10360:
10350:
10347:
10345:
10342:
10340:
10337:
10335:
10332:
10330:
10327:
10325:
10324:Melting point
10322:
10320:
10317:
10315:
10312:
10310:
10307:
10305:
10304:Heat capacity
10302:
10300:
10297:
10295:
10292:
10290:
10287:
10285:
10282:
10280:
10277:
10275:
10272:
10270:
10267:
10265:
10262:
10260:
10259:Boiling point
10257:
10255:
10254:Atomic radius
10252:
10250:
10247:
10246:
10244:
10240:
10234:
10231:
10229:
10226:
10224:
10221:
10219:
10216:
10214:
10211:
10209:
10206:
10205:
10203:
10201:
10197:
10191:
10188:
10186:
10183:
10181:
10178:
10175:
10171:
10167:
10166:
10164:
10162:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10149:
10139:
10136:
10134:
10131:
10129:
10126:
10124:
10121:
10119:
10118:Native metals
10116:
10114:
10111:
10109:
10106:
10104:
10101:
10099:
10096:
10094:
10091:
10089:
10086:
10084:
10081:
10080:
10078:
10074:
10064:
10061:
10060:
10058:
10056:
10052:
10046:
10045:Dividing line
10043:
10041:
10038:
10037:
10035:
10033:
10029:
10023:
10020:
10018:
10015:
10013:
10010:
10008:
10005:
10004:
10002:
10000:
9996:
9993:
9991:
9986:
9976:
9973:
9972:
9970:
9968:
9964:
9956:
9953:
9951:
9948:
9946:
9943:
9942:
9941:
9938:
9936:
9933:
9931:
9928:
9926:
9923:
9921:
9918:
9916:
9913:
9911:
9908:
9906:
9903:
9902:
9900:
9898:
9894:
9888:
9885:
9883:
9882:17 (Halogens)
9880:
9878:
9875:
9873:
9870:
9868:
9865:
9863:
9860:
9858:
9855:
9853:
9850:
9848:
9845:
9843:
9840:
9838:
9835:
9833:
9830:
9828:
9825:
9823:
9820:
9818:
9815:
9813:
9810:
9808:
9805:
9803:
9800:
9799:
9797:
9795:
9791:
9788:
9784:
9781:
9779:
9775:
9769:
9766:
9764:
9761:
9760:
9758:
9754:
9750:
9743:
9738:
9736:
9731:
9729:
9724:
9723:
9720:
9711:
9706:
9701:
9696:
9695:
9687:
9683:
9679:
9675:
9673:
9669:
9661:
9657:
9655:
9651:
9647:
9643:
9640:
9636:
9632:
9628:
9626:
9622:
9618:
9614:
9611:
9607:
9603:
9599:
9595:
9593:
9589:
9585:
9581:
9578:
9574:
9571:, Cambridge,
9570:
9566:
9562:
9559:
9556:
9552:
9548:
9544:
9540:
9537:
9533:
9529:
9526:
9522:
9518:
9514:
9508:
9504:
9499:
9496:
9492:
9488:
9484:
9480:
9476:
9473:
9472:
9459:
9455:
9450:
9445:
9441:
9437:
9433:
9426:
9419:
9415:
9414:
9407:
9400:
9396:
9395:
9391:Published in
9388:
9380:
9373:
9365:
9359:
9355:
9348:
9334:on 2009-03-29
9333:
9329:
9325:
9319:
9311:
9307:
9300:
9292:
9288:
9281:
9273:
9269:
9265:
9261:
9257:
9253:
9245:
9237:
9233:
9227:
9223:
9222:
9214:
9206:
9202:
9198:
9192:
9188:
9187:
9179:
9173:
9169:
9165:
9161:
9158:
9157:
9151:
9144:
9143:
9137:
9131:
9127:
9123:
9119:
9116:
9115:
9109:
9107:
9092:
9086:
9072:
9066:
9059:
9054:
9048:, p. 383
9047:
9042:
9036:
9031:
9024:
9019:
9012:
9007:
9001:, p. 234
9000:
8995:
8989:, p. 482
8988:
8983:
8976:
8971:
8964:
8959:
8957:
8948:
8944:
8940:
8936:
8932:
8928:
8924:
8920:
8916:
8912:
8908:
8901:
8893:
8889:
8885:
8881:
8877:
8873:
8866:
8858:
8854:
8850:
8846:
8842:
8838:
8833:
8828:
8825:(1): 015001.
8824:
8820:
8816:
8809:
8801:
8797:
8793:
8789:
8785:
8781:
8777:
8770:
8762:
8758:
8754:
8750:
8746:
8742:
8738:
8731:
8723:
8719:
8715:
8711:
8707:
8703:
8699:
8695:
8691:
8684:
8676:
8672:
8667:
8662:
8658:
8654:
8649:
8644:
8640:
8636:
8632:
8625:
8617:
8613:
8609:
8605:
8601:
8597:
8593:
8589:
8585:
8578:
8570:
8566:
8562:
8558:
8554:
8550:
8546:
8539:
8531:
8527:
8522:
8517:
8513:
8509:
8505:
8501:
8497:
8493:
8489:
8482:
8474:
8470:
8466:
8462:
8459:(2): 93–104.
8458:
8454:
8450:
8443:
8435:
8431:
8427:
8423:
8419:
8415:
8411:
8404:
8396:
8392:
8387:
8382:
8378:
8374:
8369:
8364:
8360:
8356:
8352:
8345:
8337:
8333:
8329:
8325:
8321:
8317:
8313:
8306:
8298:
8292:
8288:
8287:
8279:
8271:
8265:
8261:
8260:
8252:
8244:
8238:
8234:
8233:
8225:
8218:
8217:0-7506-6371-5
8214:
8210:
8204:
8197:
8196:0-7506-3625-4
8193:
8189:
8183:
8175:
8169:
8165:
8164:
8157:
8146:
8145:
8138:
8124:
8120:
8113:
8098:
8094:
8088:
8080:
8074:
8070:
8066:
8062:
8061:
8054:
8046:
8042:
8037:
8032:
8028:
8024:
8020:
8016:
8012:
8008:
8004:
7997:
7989:
7983:
7979:
7975:
7971:
7964:
7956:
7950:
7946:
7942:
7938:
7937:
7929:
7914:
7907:
7901:
7893:
7889:
7884:
7879:
7874:
7869:
7865:
7861:
7857:
7853:
7849:
7842:
7828:
7824:
7818:
7810:
7806:
7801:
7796:
7792:
7788:
7784:
7777:
7769:
7765:
7761:
7757:
7753:
7749:
7745:
7741:
7737:
7733:
7729:
7722:
7714:
7710:
7705:
7700:
7696:
7692:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7673:
7665:
7659:
7655:
7648:
7646:
7637:
7631:
7627:
7623:
7619:
7613:
7605:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7587:
7586:
7578:
7570:
7564:
7560:
7553:
7545:
7539:
7535:
7534:
7526:
7515:
7508:
7494:
7490:
7484:
7476:
7470:
7466:
7462:
7458:
7451:
7443:
7439:
7435:
7431:
7427:
7423:
7419:
7412:
7404:
7400:
7396:
7392:
7388:
7384:
7380:
7373:
7354:
7350:
7346:
7339:
7332:
7324:
7318:
7314:
7307:
7305:
7296:
7289:
7288:
7283:
7277:
7269:
7263:
7259:
7252:
7244:
7242:0-12-352651-5
7238:
7234:
7227:
7219:
7213:
7209:
7208:
7200:
7192:
7186:
7182:
7175:
7173:
7171:
7162:
7158:
7154:
7150:
7146:
7142:
7138:
7134:
7130:
7126:
7122:
7115:
7107:
7103:
7099:
7095:
7091:
7087:
7083:
7076:
7068:
7064:
7059:
7054:
7050:
7046:
7042:
7035:
7022:
7016:
7012:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6993:
6979:
6972:
6971:
6963:
6955:
6948:
6946:
6944:
6935:
6931:
6927:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6911:
6904:
6902:
6900:
6898:
6889:
6885:
6878:
6870:
6866:
6862:
6858:
6854:
6850:
6845:
6840:
6836:
6832:
6831:
6826:
6819:
6804:
6800:
6793:
6786:
6784:
6780:
6776:
6770:
6764:
6760:
6753:
6745:
6739:
6735:
6727:
6721:
6717:
6709:
6705:
6701:
6697:
6693:
6689:
6678:
6670:
6664:
6660:
6653:
6651:
6649:
6647:
6638:
6632:
6628:
6621:
6619:
6617:
6615:
6613:
6611:
6609:
6607:
6598:
6592:
6588:
6581:
6579:
6577:
6575:
6570:
6556:
6554:
6549:
6545:
6540:
6531:
6524:
6515:
6510:
6503:
6495:
6490:
6483:
6477:
6468:
6461:
6455:
6448:
6444:
6440:
6434:
6427:
6423:
6419:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6395:
6389:
6385:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6351:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6341:
6339:
6336:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6305:
6298:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6234:
6224:
6221:
6218:
6207:
6203:
6200:
6197:
6186:
6182:
6179:
6176:
6168:
6164:
6161:
6158:
6147:
6143:
6140:
6137:
6126:
6122:
6119:
6116:
6108:
6094:
6081:
6076:
6066:
6064:
6055:
6054:Linus Pauling
6051:
6050:chalcogenides
6044:
6034:
6020:
6016:
6015:Quasicrystals
6008:
6004:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5980:
5975:
5965:
5962:
5944:
5939:
5929:
5927:
5923:
5919:
5915:
5911:
5900:
5892:
5887:
5872:
5861:
5856:
5849:
5844:
5837:
5832:
5831:
5830:
5828:
5824:
5818:
5816:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5804:was adopted.
5803:
5802:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5783:
5773:
5771:
5767:
5762:
5760:
5756:
5752:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5736:
5732:
5727:
5725:
5721:
5717:
5713:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5693:
5689:
5684:
5668:
5663:
5656:
5651:
5639:
5634:
5627:
5622:
5615:
5610:
5603:
5598:
5597:
5596:
5592:
5590:
5586:
5585:Lockheed A-12
5582:
5576:
5572:
5563:
5561:
5556:
5553:
5548:
5544:
5540:
5534:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5521:
5518:
5513:
5510:
5506:
5502:
5497:
5491:
5489:
5488:
5482:
5480:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5467:
5463:
5462:
5452:
5446:
5442:
5437:
5429:
5422:
5421:
5416:
5400:
5395:
5388:
5383:
5376:
5371:
5364:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5355:
5354:
5349:
5345:
5344:
5339:
5335:
5330:
5327:
5323:
5318:
5312:
5310:
5306:
5299:
5279:
5272:
5267:
5263:
5256:
5251:
5237:
5232:
5228:
5222:
5215:
5210:
5203:
5198:
5197:
5196:
5193:
5187:
5185:
5181:
5177:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5159:
5158:Toledo, Spain
5154:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5122:
5118:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5077:
5061:
5056:
5050:
5047:
5040:
5035:
5028:
5023:
5016:
5011:
5008:Gold crystals
5004:
4999:
4996:
4995:Native copper
4990:
4985:
4984:
4983:
4981:
4965:
4962:
4958:
4953:
4949:
4947:
4937:
4928:
4926:
4922:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4908:
4903:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4884:
4882:
4878:
4877:surface mines
4874:
4870:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4831:
4830:Earth's crust
4823:
4818:
4813:
4803:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4784:
4783:and uranium.
4782:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4752:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4692:
4674:
4664:
4646:
4629:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4615:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4605:
4603:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4580:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4500:
4497:
4490:
4482:
4475:
4469:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4452:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4357:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4261:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4060:
4057:
4054:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4041:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3945:
3940:
3933:
3928:
3926:
3921:
3919:
3914:
3913:
3908:
3904:
3889:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3854:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3825:
3821:
3815:
3805:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3790:ferrimagnetic
3787:
3786:ferromagnetic
3783:
3779:
3775:
3774:semiconductor
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3749:
3739:
3734:
3728:
3719:
3710:
3708:
3703:
3694:
3685:
3681:
3671:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3654:each have an
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3500:
3496:
3486:
3483:
3477:
3460:
3455:
3448:
3443:
3436:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3415:
3414:
3413:
3411:
3404:
3394:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3383:shear modulus
3380:
3369:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3345:
3335:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3287:
3285:
3280:
3278:
3274:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3197:
3196:nickel silver
3192:
3188:
3186:
3182:
3175:
3171:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3150:babbitt metal
3146:
3141:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3117:
3114:
3110:
3098:
3092:
3087:
3074:
3073:
3069:
3060:
3051:
3042:
3033:
3024:
3015:
3006:
2997:
2988:
2979:
2970:
2961:
2952:
2943:
2934:
2925:
2916:
2907:
2898:
2889:
2880:
2871:
2862:
2853:
2844:
2835:
2826:
2817:
2808:
2799:
2790:
2782:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2765:
2756:
2747:
2738:
2729:
2720:
2711:
2702:
2693:
2684:
2675:
2666:
2657:
2648:
2639:
2630:
2621:
2612:
2603:
2594:
2585:
2576:
2567:
2558:
2549:
2540:
2531:
2522:
2513:
2504:
2495:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2470:
2461:
2452:
2443:
2434:
2425:
2416:
2407:
2398:
2389:
2380:
2371:
2362:
2353:
2344:
2333:
2324:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2308:
2299:
2290:
2281:
2272:
2263:
2254:
2245:
2236:
2227:
2218:
2209:
2200:
2191:
2182:
2173:
2162:
2153:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2128:
2119:
2110:
2101:
2092:
2081:
2072:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2047:
2038:
2029:
2020:
2011:
2000:
1991:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1964:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1840:
1831:
1826:
1824:
1819:
1817:
1812:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1796:
1786:
1784:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1574:wavefunctions
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1479:
1474:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1443:
1438:
1431:
1426:
1419:
1414:
1407:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1381:
1379:
1378:metal fatigue
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1284:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1226:
1222:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1095:absolute zero
1091:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1008:
1004:
1001:
1000:Ancient Greek
997:
985:
980:
978:
973:
971:
966:
965:
963:
962:
957:
956:
952:
950:
949:
945:
944:
943:
942:
935:
932:
930:
927: /
926:
923:Thermal
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
909:Melting point
907:
905:
902:
900:
897: /
896:
893: /
892:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
875:configuration
873: /
872:
868:
866:
863:
861:
858:
856:
853:
851:
848:
846:
845:Boiling point
843:
841:
840:Atomic radius
838:
836:
833:
832:
826:
825:
818:
815:
813:
810:
809:
806:
803:
802:
798:
794:
790:
787:
786:
783:
782:configuration
780:
778:
774:
773:
770:
767:
765:
762:
761:
758:
753:
752:
745:
742:
741:
738:
735:
733:
730:
729:
725:
724:in human body
721:
718:
717:
714:
709:
708:
704:
703:
698:
697:
689:
685:
681:
678:
677:
673:
670:
669:
666:
663:
661:
658:
657:
654:
651:
649:
648:Native metals
646:
645:
642:
639:
637:
634:
633:
630:
627:
625:
622:
621:
618:
615:
613:
610:
609:
603:
602:
595:
592:
590:
587:
586:
583:
582:
578:
577:
572:
569:
568:
567:
566:
563:
562:
558:
557:
554:
551:
549:
546:
545:
542:
539:
537:
534:
533:
530:
527:
525:
522:
521:
518:
517:
513:
512:
509:
503:
502:
493:
490:
488:
485:
484:
483:
482:
479:
477:
473:
472:
469:
464:
462:
457:
455:
450:
448:
443:
441:
436:
434:
429:
427:
422:
420:
415:
414:
411:
409:
405:
404:
401:
399:
398:(noble gases)
393:
391:
389:
383:
381:
379:
373:
371:
369:
363:
361:
356:
354:
349:
347:
342:
340:
335:
333:
328:
326:
321:
319:
314:
312:
307:
305:
300:
298:
293:
291:
286:
284:
279:
277:
275:
269:
266:
264:
263:alkali metals
258:
253:
252:
249:
247:
243:
242:
236:
235:
231:
230:
225:
224:
217:
214:
213:
209:
205:
204:
199:
198:controversies
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
185:
184:
183:
180:
179:
175:
171:
170:
167:
164:
163:
158:
155:
153:
150:
149:
148:
145:
144:
141:
136:
135:
124:
114:
111:
110:
107:
104:
102:
99:
98:
92:
91:
88:
85:
84:
80:
76:
75:
69:
65:
60:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
10482:
10470:
10453:Trivial name
10441:nomenclature
10113:Heavy metals
10108:Noble metals
9998:
9867:14 (Tetrels)
9763:Alternatives
9677:
9659:
9645:
9630:
9616:
9601:
9583:
9564:
9542:
9535:
9524:
9502:
9486:
9483:B. K. Berger
9439:
9435:
9425:
9417:
9412:
9406:
9392:
9387:
9378:
9372:
9353:
9347:
9336:. Retrieved
9332:the original
9327:
9318:
9309:
9305:
9299:
9290:
9286:
9280:
9255:
9251:
9244:
9236:the original
9220:
9213:
9185:
9178:
9155:
9150:
9141:
9136:
9113:
9094:. Retrieved
9085:
9074:. Retrieved
9065:
9053:
9041:
9035:Hadhazy 2016
9030:
9023:Hofmann 2002
9018:
9006:
8994:
8987:Podosek 2011
8982:
8970:
8917:(2): 190–4.
8914:
8910:
8900:
8875:
8871:
8865:
8822:
8818:
8808:
8783:
8779:
8769:
8744:
8740:
8730:
8697:
8693:
8683:
8641:(12): 2003.
8638:
8634:
8624:
8591:
8587:
8577:
8552:
8548:
8538:
8495:
8492:RSC Advances
8491:
8481:
8456:
8452:
8442:
8417:
8413:
8403:
8358:
8354:
8344:
8319:
8315:
8305:
8285:
8278:
8258:
8251:
8231:
8224:
8208:
8203:
8187:
8182:
8162:
8156:
8143:
8137:
8126:. Retrieved
8122:
8112:
8101:. Retrieved
8099:. 2019-04-17
8096:
8087:
8059:
8053:
8010:
8006:
7996:
7969:
7963:
7935:
7928:
7916:. Retrieved
7912:
7900:
7858:(24): 5776.
7855:
7851:
7841:
7830:. Retrieved
7826:
7817:
7793:(1): 75–86.
7790:
7786:
7776:
7735:
7731:
7721:
7686:
7682:
7672:
7653:
7621:
7612:
7584:
7577:
7558:
7552:
7532:
7525:
7507:
7496:. Retrieved
7492:
7483:
7456:
7450:
7425:
7421:
7411:
7389:(1): 41–46.
7386:
7382:
7372:
7362:February 15,
7360:. Retrieved
7348:
7344:
7331:
7312:
7286:
7276:
7257:
7251:
7232:
7226:
7206:
7199:
7180:
7128:
7124:
7114:
7089:
7085:
7075:
7048:
7044:
7034:
7024:, retrieved
7002:
6992:
6981:. Retrieved
6969:
6962:
6953:
6917:
6913:
6887:
6883:
6877:
6834:
6828:
6818:
6806:. Retrieved
6802:
6792:
6782:
6772:
6758:
6752:
6733:
6715:
6691:
6687:
6677:
6658:
6626:
6586:
6552:
6539:
6530:
6502:
6489:
6476:
6467:
6460:tidal forces
6454:
6433:
6388:
6348:Metalworking
6313:Colored gold
6246:
6242:
6238:
6236:
6078:
6062:
6046:
6019:Icosahedrite
6011:
5999:dodecahedron
5989:Quasicrystal
5977:
5949:
5906:
5897:
5869:
5822:
5819:
5812:
5808:
5806:
5799:
5791:
5788:Von Welsbach
5786:
5779:
5763:
5728:
5719:
5697:
5692:Pennsylvania
5688:Brackenridge
5593:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5557:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5532:
5529:
5522:
5514:
5498:
5494:
5485:
5483:
5476:
5470:
5460:
5457:
5418:
5351:
5341:
5331:
5314:
5301:
5291:
5188:
5178:
5170:Toledo steel
5155:
5140:
5137:
5113:Chalcolithic
5102:
4976:
4954:
4950:
4942:
4923:
4919:electrolysis
4904:
4885:
4866:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4827:
4820:A sample of
4792:neutron star
4785:
4753:
4734:
4723:chalcophiles
3855:
3831:valence band
3819:
3817:
3753:
3751:
3736:
3699:
3683:
3680:Valve metals
3674:Valve metals
3617:
3596:
3590:
3546:
3544:
3502:
3499:Light metals
3495:Heavy metals
3479:
3406:
3375:
3358:wrought iron
3351:
3293:
3281:
3273:electrolytic
3245:
3201:
3167:
3120:
3108:
3101:Single atoms
3082:
1798:
1704:
1676:
1646:
1631:
1595:
1555:
1522:
1508:
1497:
1493:
1451:
1382:
1335:
1295:
1268:light metals
1245:
1230:
1205:alloy steels
1193:
1165:construction
1162:
1127:
1115:
1092:
1045:
1013:
1010:
1003:
995:
993:
953:
946:
925:conductivity
720:by abundance
700:
672:Transuranium
653:Noble metals
641:Light metals
636:Heavy metals
579:
559:
515:
514:
474:
406:
397:
387:
378:(chalcogens)
377:
368:(pnictogens)
367:
273:
262:
244:
227:
208:in East Asia
172:
147:D. Mendeleev
40:
10489:WikiProject
10233:Term symbol
10063:Noble gases
10007:Lanthanides
9990:metallicity
9862:13 (Triels)
9479:A. Ashtekar
9442:: 247–256.
9011:Rehder 2010
8322:(9): C472.
8219:, p. 1
7351:: 290–335.
7295:McGraw-Hill
7051:: 944–983.
6775:Nevill Mott
6328:Metal theft
6007:icosahedron
5922:Mendelevium
5880:Superalloys
5792:cassiopeium
5751:automobiles
5700:steelmaking
5501:quicksilver
5286:Middle Ages
5162:alloy steel
4873:prospecting
4727:siderophile
4719:lithophiles
3624:numismatics
3609:base metals
3593:noble metal
3585:noble metal
3537:noble metal
3482:white metal
3476:White metal
3470:White metal
3300:non-ferrous
3284:jet engines
3225:alloy steel
3148:Samples of
1757:such as CrO
1520:Fermi level
1506:Fermi level
1395:(fcc), and
1362:crystalline
1323:Hooke's Law
1306:dislocation
1237:micrometres
1201:light metal
1199:—the first
1158:metallicity
1099:delocalized
1033:Fermi level
1025:electricity
113:Alternative
11834:Metallurgy
11808:Categories
10413:for people
10408:for places
10381:1871 table
10274:Elasticity
10242:Data pages
10200:Properties
10076:Other sets
10032:Metalloids
9549:, London,
9527:12 October
9449:1908.08757
9338:2009-03-27
9096:2007-06-08
9076:2007-06-08
8832:1705.01111
8128:2024-07-08
8103:2024-07-08
7832:2024-09-18
7498:2024-07-23
7026:2024-07-23
6983:2020-02-16
6565:References
6553:tria prima
6546:, a later
6544:Paracelsus
6482:hemoglobin
6338:Metallurgy
6253:SnC and Ti
6233:MAX phases
5924:) to 118 (
5886:Superalloy
5712:mild steel
5475:published
5464:(1540) by
5317:alchemists
5248:–305 BCE).
5246: 310
5227:petri dish
5174:Punic Wars
5166:wolframite
4973:Prehistory
4849:Extraction
4810:See also:
4769:beta decay
3901:See also:
3880:, such as
3824:conduction
3754:half-metal
3748:Half-metal
3742:Half metal
3731:See also:
3597:base metal
3547:base metal
3533:Base metal
3519:(7.9) and
3290:Categories
3268:Bronze Age
3241:molybdenum
3221:tool steel
3095:Molecular
1793:See also:
1783:amphoteric
1534:insulators
1516:semimetals
1211:Properties
1082:, it is a
1068:metallurgy
998:(from
889:Heat
860:Elasticity
561:Metalloids
548:lanthanide
536:transition
410:(1–7, ...)
388:(halogens)
193:for places
188:for people
152:1871 table
64:gravy boat
10398:etymology
10249:Abundance
10174:in humans
10170:Abundance
10055:Nonmetals
10012:Actinides
9328:The Hindu
9205:780082219
8947:205409397
8857:0034-6861
8800:2948-1201
8761:0021-8979
8722:0031-9007
8657:2073-4360
8616:0024-9297
8569:0360-2559
8473:0267-0844
8434:0272-8842
8377:2314-6133
8027:2045-2322
7852:Materials
7809:2238-7854
7760:0036-8075
7442:0034-4885
7403:0022-3115
7153:0036-8075
7106:1044-5803
7092:: 30–46.
7067:2238-7854
6808:March 25,
6514:cementite
6318:Ductility
6089:MAX phase
6084:MAX phase
5926:Oganesson
5910:Berkelium
5809:nipponium
5735:buildings
5305:Cold Iron
5125:artifacts
5119:(forming
5071:Antiquity
4931:Recycling
4921:instead.
4888:extracted
4765:r-process
4761:s-process
3897:Formation
3892:Lifecycle
3820:semimetal
3814:Semimetal
3808:Semimetal
3778:manganese
3770:insulator
3762:electrons
3758:conductor
3664:jewellery
3652:palladium
3638:content;
3605:oxidation
3601:corrosion
3591:The term
3545:The term
3509:aluminium
3505:Magnesium
3266:gave the
3260:magnesium
3217:cast iron
1769:, and OsO
1731:palladium
1715:potassium
1618:Plutonium
1602:manganese
1387:, namely
1277:magnesium
1273:aluminium
1252:nonmetals
1248:densities
1241:gold leaf
1152:. A star
1130:astronomy
1041:malleable
835:Abundance
812:Nutrition
775:Electron
744:by symbol
690:actinides
594:noble gas
581:Nonmetals
178:etymology
106:32-column
101:18-column
10477:Category
10429:See also
10299:Hardness
10152:Elements
9401:in 1910.
9160:Archived
9118:Archived
9058:Cox 1997
8975:Cox 1997
8963:Cox 1997
8939:24317188
8675:34207392
8635:Polymers
8530:35686160
8395:26583113
8045:33633140
7892:33348891
7768:17774926
7713:31343819
7353:Archived
7284:(1959).
7161:27463668
6869:18530430
6555:doctrine
6497:silicon.
6441:or in a
6301:See also
6289:, and Ti
5801:lutetium
5755:machines
5647:1 x 2 cm
5525:calamine
5517:electrum
5490:(1546):
5147:Anatolia
5085:Poseidon
5046:oxidised
4898:employs
4822:diaspore
4763:and the
3874:graphite
3862:antimony
3798:sulfides
3656:ISO 4217
3648:platinum
3563:hydrogen
3555:corroded
3551:oxidized
3513:titanium
3426:anodized
3410:hardness
3366:magnetic
3332:polymers
3328:ceramics
3324:precious
3314:metals;
3252:titanium
3248:aluminum
3233:chromium
3170:elements
3158:antimony
3130:is not.
3124:graphite
3097:covalent
3086:Metallic
1941: →
1785:oxides.
1735:platinum
1701:Chemical
1600:/cm for
1542:band gap
1360:in both
1298:cleaving
1279:alloys.
1233:lustrous
1227:crystals
1142:nitrogen
1058:such as
1050:such as
1021:material
1014:métallon
1007:μέταλλον
948:Category
891:capacity
885:Hardness
871:affinity
777:affinity
702:Elements
674:elements
553:actinide
123:extended
79:a series
77:Part of
11789:p-block
11784:d-block
11779:f-block
11774:s-block
10363:History
10269:Density
9897:Periods
9600:(eds),
9260:Bibcode
8919:Bibcode
8880:Bibcode
8837:Bibcode
8702:Bibcode
8666:8234317
8596:Bibcode
8521:9133880
8500:Bibcode
8386:4637053
8361:: 1–9.
8324:Bibcode
8036:7907099
7974:Bibcode
7918:June 4,
7883:7767199
7860:Bibcode
7740:Bibcode
7732:Science
7704:6790653
7133:Bibcode
7125:Science
6922:Bibcode
6849:Bibcode
6696:Bibcode
6308:Bimetal
6281:AlC, Cr
6005:of the
5961:Caltech
5918:Fermium
5827:Hafnium
5823:hafnium
5814:rhenium
5759:weapons
5509:Stibium
5505:bismuth
5326:mercury
5278:tumbaga
5221:Mercury
5184:tumbaga
5117:arsenic
4968:History
4925:Sulfide
4907:smelted
4900:aqueous
4869:bauxite
4788:ejected
4781:thorium
4745:silicon
4712:
4626:
4494:
3866:bismuth
3858:arsenic
3780:-based
3764:of one
3702:cermets
3620:alchemy
3613:rhodium
3581:Rhodium
3523:(8.9).
3296:ferrous
3229:silicon
3128:diamond
3104:Unknown
1946:↓
1745:). The
1707:cations
1638:mercury
1566:voltage
1562:momenta
1391:(bcc),
1256:lithium
1225:Gallium
1177:coinage
1037:ductile
855:Density
817:Valence
797:Pauling
408:Periods
11839:Metals
10393:Naming
10190:Symbol
9999:Metals
9967:Blocks
9955:Pyykkö
9950:Fricke
9945:Aufbau
9794:Groups
9684:
9670:
9652:
9637:
9623:
9608:
9590:
9575:
9563:2001,
9553:
9509:
9493:
9360:
9228:
9203:
9193:
9166:2010,
9124:2010,
8945:
8937:
8855:
8798:
8759:
8720:
8673:
8663:
8655:
8614:
8567:
8528:
8518:
8471:
8432:
8393:
8383:
8375:
8293:
8266:
8239:
8215:
8194:
8170:
8075:
8043:
8033:
8025:
7984:
7951:
7890:
7880:
7807:
7766:
7758:
7711:
7701:
7660:
7632:
7600:
7565:
7540:
7471:
7440:
7401:
7319:
7264:
7239:
7214:
7187:
7159:
7151:
7104:
7065:
7017:
6867:
6765:
6740:
6722:
6665:
6633:
6593:
6494:Bronze
6424:, and
6001:, the
5914:Curium
5796:Urbain
5539:1748.
5423:, 1555
5322:sulfur
5262:pewter
5192:grains
5105:bronze
5097:Athens
4946:copper
4915:sodium
4911:carbon
4861:, and
4859:Mining
4749:fusion
4704:0.0099
4700:0.0001
4696:
4678:
4668:
4650:
4633:
3794:oxides
3650:, and
3644:silver
3567:nickel
3539:, and
3521:copper
3322:, and
3264:bronze
3258:, and
3256:copper
3239:, and
3237:nickel
3162:copper
3160:, and
3134:Alloys
1948:Period
1747:oxides
1737:, and
1711:oxides
1606:silver
1530:
1502:
1482:
1376:, and
1331:strain
1327:stress
1260:osmium
1197:sodium
1148:, and
1146:oxygen
1138:carbon
1134:helium
1123:dopant
1111:Sodium
1103:iodine
688:trans-
524:alkali
516:Metals
476:Blocks
248:(1–18)
246:Groups
174:Naming
126:
120:
116:
81:on the
18:Metals
10436:IUPAC
10161:Lists
9444:arXiv
9293:: 86.
8943:S2CID
8827:arXiv
8148:(PDF)
8013:(1).
7909:(PDF)
7517:(PDF)
7356:(PDF)
7341:(PDF)
7291:(PDF)
6974:(PDF)
6865:S2CID
6839:arXiv
6686:)x".
5747:ships
5743:tools
5724:basic
5589:SR-71
5443:, in
5303:from
5223:being
4980:brass
3800:, or
3362:steel
3354:Latin
3320:noble
3312:light
3308:heavy
3209:steel
3140:Alloy
1939:Group
1751:basic
1719:rusts
1614:boron
1550:holes
1498:white
1494:black
1374:creep
1358:twins
1250:than
1154:fuses
1056:alloy
1054:; an
1002:
996:metal
793:Allen
684:minor
680:Major
128:forms
68:alloy
10168:By:
9682:ISBN
9668:ISBN
9650:ISBN
9635:ISBN
9621:ISBN
9606:ISBN
9588:ISBN
9573:ISBN
9551:ISBN
9507:ISBN
9491:ISBN
9358:ISBN
9291:2011
9226:ISBN
9201:OCLC
9191:ISBN
8935:PMID
8853:ISSN
8796:ISSN
8757:ISSN
8718:ISSN
8671:PMID
8653:ISSN
8612:ISSN
8565:ISSN
8526:PMID
8469:ISSN
8430:ISSN
8391:PMID
8373:ISSN
8359:2015
8291:ISBN
8264:ISBN
8237:ISBN
8213:ISBN
8192:ISBN
8168:ISBN
8073:ISBN
8041:PMID
8023:ISSN
7982:ISBN
7949:ISBN
7920:2024
7888:PMID
7805:ISSN
7764:PMID
7756:ISSN
7709:PMID
7658:ISBN
7630:ISBN
7598:ISBN
7563:ISBN
7538:ISBN
7469:ISBN
7438:ISSN
7399:ISSN
7364:2009
7317:ISBN
7262:ISBN
7237:ISBN
7212:ISBN
7185:ISBN
7157:PMID
7149:ISSN
7102:ISSN
7063:ISSN
7015:ISBN
6810:2021
6773:Sir
6763:ISBN
6738:ISBN
6720:ISBN
6663:ISBN
6631:ISBN
6591:ISBN
6380:Note
6174:AlC
6114:SnC
6096:MAX
6003:dual
5718:(or
5587:and
5583:and
5324:and
5089:Zeus
5079:The
5049:lead
4828:The
4706:ppm)
4688:ppm)
4686:0.99
4682:0.01
4660:ppm)
4642:ppm)
3868:, α-
3849:and
3847:Weyl
3827:band
3788:(or
3766:spin
3640:gold
3622:and
3583:, a
3571:lead
3517:iron
3511:and
3497:and
3346:and
3330:and
3316:base
3310:and
3298:and
3205:iron
3178:TiSi
1761:, Mn
1739:gold
1685:and
1536:and
1518:the
1504:The
1370:slip
1364:and
1356:and
1275:and
1150:neon
1078:and
1052:iron
1029:heat
1027:and
686:and
176:and
48:Iron
9988:By
9534:",
9523:",
9454:doi
9440:672
9268:doi
8927:doi
8888:doi
8845:doi
8788:doi
8749:doi
8710:doi
8661:PMC
8643:doi
8604:doi
8557:doi
8516:PMC
8508:doi
8461:doi
8422:doi
8381:PMC
8363:doi
8332:doi
8320:154
8065:doi
8031:PMC
8015:doi
7941:doi
7878:PMC
7868:doi
7795:doi
7748:doi
7736:226
7699:PMC
7691:doi
7590:doi
7461:doi
7430:doi
7391:doi
7387:413
7141:doi
7129:353
7094:doi
7090:105
7053:doi
7007:doi
6930:doi
6857:doi
6835:116
6704:doi
6684:0.4
6516:(Fe
6293:AlC
6285:AlC
6273:SiC
6265:SiC
6257:AlN
6213:AlC
6192:AlC
6153:SiC
6132:AlN
5706:'s
5346:by
5307:by
5145:in
5133:tin
5087:or
4855:Ore
4775:000
4658:999
4654:100
4639:000
3870:tin
3772:or
3760:to
3618:In
3603:or
3553:or
3381:to
3187:).
3154:tin
1532:In
1460:or
1456:in
1187:or
1128:In
506:By
396:18
386:17
376:16
366:15
118:and
11810::
11753:Og
11744:Ts
11735:Lv
11726:Mc
11717:Fl
11708:Nh
11699:Cn
11690:Rg
11681:Ds
11672:Mt
11663:Hs
11654:Bh
11645:Sg
11636:Db
11627:Rf
11618:Lr
11609:No
11600:Md
11591:Fm
11582:Es
11573:Cf
11564:Bk
11555:Cm
11546:Am
11537:Pu
11528:Np
11510:Pa
11501:Th
11492:Ac
11483:Ra
11474:Fr
11458:Rn
11449:At
11440:Po
11431:Bi
11422:Pb
11413:Tl
11404:Hg
11395:Au
11386:Pt
11377:Ir
11368:Os
11359:Re
11341:Ta
11332:Hf
11323:Lu
11314:Yb
11305:Tm
11296:Er
11287:Ho
11278:Dy
11269:Tb
11260:Gd
11251:Eu
11242:Sm
11233:Pm
11224:Nd
11215:Pr
11206:Ce
11197:La
11188:Ba
11179:Cs
11163:Xe
11145:Te
11136:Sb
11127:Sn
11118:In
11109:Cd
11100:Ag
11091:Pd
11082:Rh
11073:Ru
11064:Tc
11055:Mo
11046:Nb
11037:Zr
11017:Sr
11008:Rb
10992:Kr
10983:Br
10974:Se
10965:As
10956:Ge
10947:Ga
10938:Zn
10929:Cu
10920:Ni
10911:Co
10902:Fe
10893:Mn
10884:Cr
10866:Ti
10857:Sc
10846:Ca
10821:Ar
10812:Cl
10785:Si
10776:Al
10765:Mg
10756:Na
10740:Ne
10684:Be
10675:Li
10659:He
10634:18
10629:17
10624:16
10619:15
10614:14
10609:13
10604:12
10599:11
10594:10
9940:8+
9857:12
9852:11
9847:10
9664:th
9662:11
9545:,
9481:,
9452:.
9438:.
9434:.
9326:.
9310:14
9308:.
9289:.
9266:.
9256:29
9254:.
9199:.
9170:,
9128:,
9105:^
8955:^
8941:.
8933:.
8925:.
8915:13
8913:.
8909:.
8886:.
8876:28
8874:.
8851:.
8843:.
8835:.
8823:90
8821:.
8817:.
8794:.
8782:.
8778:.
8755:.
8745:91
8743:.
8739:.
8716:.
8708:.
8698:50
8696:.
8692:.
8669:.
8659:.
8651:.
8639:13
8637:.
8633:.
8610:.
8602:.
8592:50
8590:.
8586:.
8563:.
8553:51
8551:.
8547:.
8524:.
8514:.
8506:.
8496:11
8494:.
8490:.
8467:.
8455:.
8451:.
8428:.
8418:41
8416:.
8412:.
8389:.
8379:.
8371:.
8357:.
8353:.
8330:.
8318:.
8314:.
8121:.
8095:.
8071:.
8039:.
8029:.
8021:.
8011:11
8009:.
8005:.
7980:.
7947:.
7911:.
7886:.
7876:.
7866:.
7856:13
7854:.
7850:.
7825:.
7803:.
7789:.
7785:.
7762:.
7754:.
7746:.
7734:.
7730:.
7707:.
7697:.
7687:58
7685:.
7681:.
7644:^
7628:.
7596:.
7491:.
7467:.
7436:.
7426:53
7424:.
7420:.
7397:.
7385:.
7381:.
7349:26
7347:.
7343:.
7303:^
7293:.
7169:^
7155:.
7147:.
7139:.
7127:.
7123:.
7100:.
7088:.
7084:.
7061:.
7049:27
7047:.
7043:.
7013:,
7001:,
6942:^
6928:.
6918:63
6916:.
6912:.
6896:^
6888:19
6886:.
6863:.
6855:.
6847:.
6833:.
6827:.
6801:.
6771:.
6730:;
6712:;
6702:.
6692:23
6690:.
6645:^
6605:^
6573:^
6426:Pu
6422:Np
6420:,
6418:Pa
6416:,
6414:Ac
6412:,
6410:Ra
6408:,
6406:At
6404:,
6402:Po
6400:,
6398:Pm
6396:,
6394:Tc
6225:C
6222:Al
6219:Ti
6209:Ti
6204:C
6201:Al
6198:Cr
6188:Cr
6183:C
6180:Al
6177:Ti
6170:Ti
6165:C
6162:Si
6159:Ti
6149:Ti
6144:N
6141:Al
6138:Ti
6128:Ti
6123:C
6120:Sn
6117:Hf
6110:Hf
6105:X
6102:A
6099:M
6031:13
6029:Fe
6027:24
6025:Cu
6023:63
6021:Al
5957:25
5955:Si
5953:75
5817:.
5794:.
5761:.
5753:,
5749:,
5745:,
5741:,
5737:,
5690:,
5591:.
5243:c.
5095:,
4857:,
4802:.
4773:30
4637:82
4591:Th
4571:Yb
4566:Tm
4561:Er
4556:Ho
4551:Dy
4546:Tb
4541:Gd
4536:Eu
4531:Sm
4524:Nd
4519:Pr
4514:Ce
4509:La
4442:Bi
4437:Pb
4432:Tl
4427:Hg
4422:Au
4417:Pt
4412:Ir
4407:Os
4402:Re
4392:Ta
4387:Hf
4382:Lu
4370:Ba
4365:Cs
4353:Xe
4343:Te
4338:Sb
4333:Sn
4328:In
4323:Cd
4318:Ag
4313:Pd
4308:Rh
4303:Ru
4296:Mo
4291:Nb
4286:Zr
4274:Sr
4269:Rb
4257:Kr
4252:Br
4247:Se
4242:As
4237:Ge
4232:Ga
4227:Zn
4222:Cu
4217:Ni
4212:Co
4207:Fe
4202:Mn
4197:Cr
4187:Ti
4182:Sc
4175:Ca
4158:Ar
4153:Cl
4138:Si
4133:Al
4122:Mg
4117:Na
4105:Ne
4073:Be
4068:Li
4056:He
4037:18
4032:17
4027:16
4022:15
4017:14
4012:13
4007:12
4002:11
3997:10
3888:.
3864:,
3860:,
3853:.
3818:A
3804:.
3796:,
3752:A
3646:,
3642:,
3569:,
3535:,
3507:,
3480:A
3334:.
3318:,
3254:,
3250:,
3235:,
3223:,
3219:,
3215:,
3211:,
3156:,
3067:Og
3058:Ts
3049:Lv
3040:Mc
3031:Fl
3022:Nh
3013:Cn
3004:Rg
2995:Ds
2986:Mt
2977:Hs
2968:Bh
2959:Sg
2950:Db
2941:Rf
2932:Lr
2923:No
2914:Md
2905:Fm
2896:Es
2887:Cf
2878:Bk
2869:Cm
2860:Am
2851:Pu
2842:Np
2824:Pa
2815:Th
2806:Ac
2797:Ra
2788:Fr
2772:Rn
2763:At
2754:Po
2745:Bi
2736:Pb
2727:Tl
2718:Hg
2709:Au
2700:Pt
2691:Ir
2682:Os
2673:Re
2655:Ta
2646:Hf
2637:Lu
2628:Yb
2619:Tm
2610:Er
2601:Ho
2592:Dy
2583:Tb
2574:Gd
2565:Eu
2556:Sm
2547:Pm
2538:Nd
2529:Pr
2520:Ce
2511:La
2502:Ba
2493:Cs
2477:Xe
2459:Te
2450:Sb
2441:Sn
2432:In
2423:Cd
2414:Ag
2405:Pd
2396:Rh
2387:Ru
2378:Tc
2369:Mo
2360:Nb
2351:Zr
2331:Sr
2322:Rb
2306:Kr
2297:Br
2288:Se
2279:As
2270:Ge
2261:Ga
2252:Zn
2243:Cu
2234:Ni
2225:Co
2216:Fe
2207:Mn
2198:Cr
2180:Ti
2171:Sc
2160:Ca
2135:Ar
2126:Cl
2099:Si
2090:Al
2079:Mg
2070:Na
2054:Ne
1998:Be
1989:Li
1973:He
1932:18
1927:17
1922:16
1917:15
1912:14
1907:13
1902:12
1897:11
1892:10
1733:,
1552:.
1480:.
1372:,
1352:,
1348:,
1344:,
1333:.
1144:,
1140:,
1109:.
1090:.
994:A
795:,
682:,
467:8+
359:14
352:13
345:12
338:11
331:10
272:2
11519:U
11467:7
11350:W
11172:6
11154:I
11028:Y
11001:5
10875:V
10837:K
10830:4
10803:S
10794:P
10749:3
10731:F
10722:O
10713:N
10704:C
10695:B
10668:2
10648:H
10641:1
10589:9
10584:8
10579:7
10574:6
10569:5
10564:4
10559:3
10552:2
10547:1
10524:e
10517:t
10510:v
10176:)
10172:(
9935:7
9930:6
9925:5
9920:4
9915:3
9910:2
9905:1
9842:9
9837:8
9832:7
9827:6
9822:5
9817:4
9812:3
9741:e
9734:t
9727:v
9641:.
9612:.
9579:.
9557:.
9515:.
9497:.
9460:.
9456::
9446::
9366:.
9341:.
9274:.
9270::
9262::
9207:.
9099:.
9079:.
8949:.
8929::
8921::
8894:.
8890::
8882::
8859:.
8847::
8839::
8829::
8802:.
8790::
8784:1
8763:.
8751::
8724:.
8712::
8704::
8677:.
8645::
8618:.
8606::
8598::
8571:.
8559::
8532:.
8510::
8502::
8475:.
8463::
8457:1
8436:.
8424::
8397:.
8365::
8338:.
8334::
8326::
8299:.
8272:.
8245:.
8176:.
8131:.
8106:.
8081:.
8067::
8047:.
8017::
7990:.
7976::
7957:.
7943::
7922:.
7894:.
7870::
7862::
7835:.
7811:.
7797::
7791:2
7770:.
7750::
7742::
7715:.
7693::
7666:.
7638:.
7606:.
7592::
7571:.
7546:.
7519:.
7501:.
7477:.
7463::
7444:.
7432::
7405:.
7393::
7366:.
7325:.
7297:.
7270:.
7245:.
7220:.
7193:.
7163:.
7143::
7135::
7108:.
7096::
7069:.
7055::
7009::
6986:.
6936:.
6932::
6924::
6859::
6851::
6841::
6812:.
6783:T
6746:.
6728:.
6710:.
6706::
6698::
6671:.
6639:.
6599:.
6518:3
6449:.
6295:2
6291:3
6287:2
6283:2
6279:2
6275:2
6271:3
6267:2
6263:3
6259:3
6255:4
6251:2
6247:X
6243:A
6239:M
6215:2
6211:3
6194:2
6190:2
6172:2
6155:2
6151:3
6134:3
6130:4
6112:2
6058:2
5908:(
5694:.
5149:(
4702:–
4684:–
4656:–
4598:U
4455:7
4397:W
4360:6
4281:Y
4264:5
4192:V
4170:K
4165:4
4148:S
4143:P
4112:3
4100:F
4095:O
4090:N
4085:C
4080:B
4063:2
4049:H
4044:1
3992:9
3987:8
3982:7
3977:6
3972:5
3967:4
3962:3
3955:2
3950:1
3931:e
3924:t
3917:v
3385:(
3207:(
3180:2
2833:U
2781:7
2664:W
2486:6
2468:I
2342:Y
2315:5
2189:V
2151:K
2144:4
2117:S
2108:P
2063:3
2045:F
2036:O
2027:N
2018:C
2009:B
1982:2
1962:H
1955:1
1887:9
1882:8
1877:7
1872:6
1867:5
1862:4
1857:3
1850:2
1845:1
1829:e
1822:t
1815:v
1779:3
1777:O
1775:2
1771:4
1767:7
1765:O
1763:2
1759:3
1598:S
1526:F
1523:E
1512:F
1509:E
1492:(
1017:)
1011:(
983:e
976:t
969:v
799:)
791:(
726:)
722:(
460:7
453:6
446:5
439:4
432:3
425:2
418:1
324:9
317:8
310:7
303:6
296:5
289:4
282:3
267:)
259:(
256:1
210:)
206:(
38:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.