737:
4889:
853:
6097:
1823:
5192:
1902:
3321:: the eldest son's right to inherit the family domains undivided. Nobles were stratified in the land and people over whom they had authority; the lowest-ranking nobles did not hold land, and had no vassals. The nobility was never a closed group; kings could raise commoners to the aristocracy, wealthy commoners could marry into noble families, and impoverished aristocrats could lose their privileged status. Western aristocrats often moved to the peripheries of Latin Christendom with the support of local rulers who appreciated their military skills or as conquerors. French-speaking noblemen mainly settled in the British Isles, southern Italy or Iberia, and German aristocrats preferred Central and Eastern Europe.
2567:
66:
3069:
3872:
566:
4705:
3385:
1190:
1679:
3715:
5665:
2857:
1612:
2403:
2394:
2385:
3170:
19301:
4202:
5842:
2179:
5035:
19414:
1634:, and others on isolated farms. Since legislation made a clear distinction between free and unfree, there was no sharp difference between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat; it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise to the aristocracy through military service. Demand for slaves was covered with warring and raids. After the Anglo-Saxons' conversion to Christianity, slave hunters mainly targeted the pagan Slav tribes; the English word "slave" derives from
1414:
19277:
19397:
3515:
16822:
16812:
19363:
19380:
19346:
3088:-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the later Roman military, although the deployment of highly-specialised troops continued. The invading tribes had different emphases on types of soldiers, ranging from the primarily-infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths, who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies. The greatest change in military affairs was the adoption of the Hunnic
1205:, which allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than had been common in the Roman state, developed into legislative and judicial bodies. Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new political entities was based on Roman intellectual traditions. Many no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rent; with less need for large tax revenues, the
16832:
19329:
1889:. In addition, timber, fur and arms were delivered from Europe to the Mediterranean; Europe imported spices, medicine, incense, and silk. Large rivers, connecting distant regions, facilitated the expansion of transcontinental trade. Contemporaneous reports indicate that Anglo-Saxon merchants visited fairs at Paris, pirates preyed on tradesmen on the Danube, and Eastern Frankish merchants reached as far as
19289:
6125:, when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual culture with the past. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition. One misconception is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the
240:
5119:
abolished in many places, although in other regions (primarily central and eastern Europe) it was imposed on tenants who had been free. The rise of banking continued, fuelled partly by the cross-border movement of papal revenues with the mediation of large merchant houses. They also loaned money to warring royalty at great risk, and some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on loans.
200:
5432:
15332:
3277:. Commoners, about 98 per cent of the total population, were mainly rural peasants and artisans. The number of townspeople was growing, but never exceeded 10 per cent of the total population. Many peasants were no longer settled on isolated farms but had gathered into more-defensible small communities, usually known as manors or villages. In the system of
3368:
field-work at harvest time. Townswomen could engage in trade, but often only by right of their husband; unlike their male competitors, they were not always allowed to train apprentices. Noblewomen could inherit land in the absence of a male heir, but their potential to give birth was considered their principal virtue. Since women were not
4734:(tower castles) were preferred in central Europe and competing urban families built tall towers in Italian cities and towns. The great pilgrimages encouraged the construction of large churches along pilgrimage routes. This led to the development of stone architecture which resembled classical Roman building design and is known as
1560:) were typical of the age. Aristocratic culture focused on great feasts rather than literary pursuits. Family ties among the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour; these ties led to the prevalence of feuds in aristocratic society. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly, with the payment of
2886:, the largest single-roofed structure in the Roman world. As the spacious basilicas became less useful with the decline of urban centres in the west, they gave way to smaller churches until the basilica form of architecture revived in the Carolingian Empire. A new standard feature of Carolingian basilicas is the use of a
5091:. Peasants who survived the pandemic paid lower rents to landlords, but demand for agricultural products declined and lower prices barely covered their costs. Urban workers received higher salaries, but were heavily taxed. Governments occasionally tried to raise rural rents or keep urban salaries low, provoking
2909:, columns, and sculptured discs. After the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire, the spread of aristocratic castles indicates a transition from communal fortifications to private defence. Most castles were wooden structures, but the wealthiest lords built stone fortresses. One or more towers (now known as
3746:. Taxation quickly developed, because revenues from the royal domains could no more cover state expenditures. Extraordinary taxes were initially levied for military purposes, but by the end of the period taxes were collected more regularly. Effective taxation depended on consent which reinforced the role of
736:
3438:
As local commercial centres developed into towns, economic growth caused a new wave of urbanisation. Kings and aristocrats primarily supported the process in the hope of increased tax revenues. Most urban communities received privileges acknowledging their autonomy, but few cities could eliminate all
1567:
Women participated in aristocratic society primarily as wives and mothers, with the mother of an underage ruler especially prominent in
Francia. The lack of many child rulers in Anglo-Saxon society meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was countered by the increased role played by
4039:) established centralised rule of southern Iberia in the 1110s and 1170s respectively, their empires quickly disintegrated and allowed further expansion of the Christian kingdoms. The Catholic Scandinavian states also expanded; the Norwegian kings assumed control of the Norse colonies in Iceland and
2278:
the Avars, facilitating the development of small Slav principalities primarily ruled by ambitious warlords under
Frankish suzerainty. The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 marked the return of the Western Roman Empire, although the Byzantines did not recognise him as a second
1803:
became rulers of Egypt. The
Islamisation of the countryside in Al-Andalus was slow. Christians were regularly employed in state administration, but violent inter-religious conflicts could lead to their mass migration to the north. Except for Byzantium, Muslim Spain was the only place in Europe where
1127:
To deal with the migrations, the
Eastern Roman elites combined the deployment of armed forces with gifts and grants of offices to the tribal leaders; the Western aristocrats failed to support the army and refused to pay tribute to prevent invasions by the tribes. These invasions led to the division
831:
are frequently exhibited in jurisdictions with liberal regulation such as
England and Wales, but in other countries (such as Italy) finds from unofficial excavations are seldom published. Although medieval images and sculptures may provide useful information about everyday life, a critical approach
5118:
Labour services owed by peasants for their land tenure were often changed into cash rent, providing landlords with a stable source of income. Landlords joined to extort privileges from their governments, but royal administrations began to protect the interests of the poor. Serfdom was officially
1487:
Justinian's re-conquests and building program have been criticised by historians for bringing his realm to the brink of bankruptcy, but many of the difficulties faced by his successors were due to other factors (including the massive expansion of the Avars and their Slav allies). Eastern border
1647:
City life and culture were declining. Although the northern
Italian cities remained inhabited, they decreased significantly in size. Cities also shrank in northern Europe, and civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. Jewish communities survived in Spain,
3367:
Women were officially required to be subordinate to some male: their father, husband, or other kinsman. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestic tasks, such as child care. Peasant women could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home, and they did
1629:
patterns were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented holdings but large, contiguous blocks of land were the norm in other areas. These differences permitted a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others with a great deal of autonomy. Land
3489:
Economic growth provided opportunities for Jewish merchants to spread throughout Europe with the support of local rulers. Jews could not engage in prestigious trades outside their communities, and often took low-status jobs such as ragmen or tax collectors. They were especially active in
5159:
existed at the end of the period. Successful dynasties reigned over several states (primarily in close cooperation with local elites), but could not freely redistribute resources throughout their realms. Fiscal and military matters were regularly discussed with representatives of elite
5827:(d. 1524) reached India in 1498. After visiting the African slave markets, the Portuguese became deeply involved in the slave trade with Europe and the Muslim world. Christopher Columbus proposed a westward, alternative route to India. He gained Isabella of Castile's support for
2425:(r. 814–40) – was still alive by 813. Louis's reign was marked by divisions of the empire among his sons and civil wars between various alliances of father and sons. Three years after his death, his three surviving sons divided the empire among themselves in the
1862:
nearly ceased but bronze Roman coins remained in circulation. Although gold coins were struck, they were mainly used for extraordinary expenditures such as the purchase of land or luxury goods. A shift from gold coinage to the mint of silver pennies began in the late
5289:
Succession trouble was not uncommon in the
Iberian kingdoms; intermarriages between royal houses created conflicting claims to thrones, and royal bastards could successfully claim their paternal inheritance. Portugal opened a new theater of anti-Muslim warfare in
3305:(labour services). Peasants left their homelands in return for economic and legal privileges, typically lower taxes, and the right to administer justice in their communities. Cross-border peasant movement had radical demographic consequences, such as the eastward
5115:. Conflict polarised ethnic groups, and local statutes prohibited intermarriage and limited guild membership along ethnic lines. Private feuds were almost permanent in politically-fragmented regions, and local skirmishes often escalated into full-scale warfare.
15250:
1441:. Political life was marked by closer relations between the political state and the Christian Church, with theological matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of
2659:
in Rome in 962 demonstrated his claim to
Charlemagne's legacy. Otto's successors remained keenly interested in Italian affairs, but the absentee German kings were unable to assert permanent authority over the local aristocracy. In the Iberian Peninsula, the
799:
and other narrative sources focusing on the deeds of powerful men. Professional historians treat medieval narratives cautiously, since they are often filled with distorted facts or unrealistic information. Documents of state or church administration such as
1842:
As migrations and conquests disrupted trade networks throughout the old Roman lands, goods from long-range trade were replaced with local products. Non-local goods in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods or metal works. In the 7th and
3400:
in the 11th century. People with surplus cash began investing in commodities such as salt, pepper, silk, wine and honey in faraway markets. Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first
5806:
Several factors, primarily a growing demand for gold and
European merchants' eagerness to avoid customs payments, prompted the search for a direct maritime route to India along the African coasts. Initially, the Portuguese led the explorations;
4141:: a virtually-autonomous Mongol state. The Mongols extracted heavy tribute from the Rus' principalities, and the Rus' princes had to ingratiate themselves with the Mongol khans for economic and political concessions. Under Mongol pressure, the
6561:
These two groups—Germans and
Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated when dealing with the northern rulers; the Italian city-states engaged in internecine strife, culminating in the
5009:. In contrast, the Mongols remained lightly-armoured steppe horsemen even after they adopted Chinese military devices. The extensive use of spies for reconnoitering enemy land was a prominent factor in their successful military campaigns.
453:
in regions where central authority was weak, but state power was on the rise by the end of the period. The settlement of Western European peasants and aristocrats towards the eastern and southern peripheries of Europe, often spurred by
1917:
The idea of Christian unity endured, although differences in ideology and practice between the Eastern and Western Churches were increasing. Native Roman aversion to Arian conquerors reinforced the traditional Christian concept of the
6771:
Those who decided to participate in a crusade took an oath and placed the mark of the cross on their clothes. The crusaders enjoyed privileges (including a moratorium on debts), but those who failed to fulfil the crusader oath faced
6197:. Monographs on the medieval history of certain groups such as women, Jews, slaves, heretics and homosexuals have been regularly published since the 1970s, with the influx of people from diverse social backgrounds into universities.
6133:
said, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed in the Age of Reason, they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".
5933:
reached much of Europe around 1400, producing masterpieces in sculpture and miniature. Throughout Europe, secular art increase in quantity and quality; the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons during the
1922:
in the west; this concept was alien to eastern clergymen, however, who regarded the Roman state as an instrument of divine providence. After the Muslim conquests, Byzantine emperors could less effectively intervene in the west. When
2460:
in 884, although its units retained separate administrations. By his death, early in 888, the Carolingians were close to extinction; non-dynastic claimants assumed power in most of the successor states, such as the Parisian count
1468:, a popular revolt that destroyed half of Constantinople in 532. After crushing the revolt, he reinforced the autocratic elements of the imperial government and mobilised his troops against the western Arian kingdoms. The general
3043:
freely enriched their Insular heritage with Carolingian motifs such as sprigs of foliage. In post-Carolingian Germany, manuscripts illustrated with lively pictorial cycles indicate the impact of contemporary Byzantine art on
6592:
Most compromises were based on a distinction between a prelate's spiritual and temporal responsibilities, allowing bishops and abbots to swear an oath of fealty to the emperor (or king) in return for their investment in the
2453:(r. 843–77) received the western Frankish lands making up most of modern-day France. Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms among their descendants, eventually destroying all internal cohesion.
14210:
5319:
The idea of elective kingship revived in the central European and Scandinavian monarchies for a variety of reasons, including aristocratic aversion to foreign influence. Royal power was restored in Poland early in the
5122:
The Jewish communities were permanently expelled from France and, provisionally, from most German cities and principalities. In contrast, Hungarian and Polish rulers encouraged the immigration of Jewish moneylenders.
3843:
efforts to dominate Italy eventually led to the fall of his dynasty. In Germany, a period of interregnum civil war began during which Sicily—Frederick's maternal inheritance—was seized by the ambitious French prince
3596:, also involving other powers because kings did not relinquish control of appointments to bishoprics or abbeys voluntarily. All conflicts ended with a compromise—in the case of the Holy Roman Emperors, with the 1122
14016:
6117:, the medieval period has frequently been described as a "time of barbarism, ignorance, and superstition" which placed "religious authority above personal experience and rational activity". This is a legacy of the
5596:(d. 1327), a critic of Aquinas, urged the faithful to focus on perfecting their inner divine core. Although his works were censured for heresy, copies of his sermons survived which were read by Protestant reformer
3127:
The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period with the increasing dominance of elite heavy cavalry, although a large proportion of the armies appear to have been
3011:. The more naturalistic Mediterranean style was an important inspiration for western artists under Charlemagne, who considered the visual arts a powerful instrument of education and propaganda. After a long pause,
4477:
literature, but references to them could no longer override rational arguments. Scholastic academics summarised their (and other authors') views on specific subjects in comprehensive sentence collections known as
2477:(r. 911–18) as king. The dynasty was restored in West Francia in 898 and 936, but the last Carolingians could not control the aristocracy. In 987, the dynasty was replaced with the crowning of powerful aristocrat
6614:, Hildegard endorsed the traditional view of female fragility in her early works but later she emphasised that men and women were dependent on each other. Although a nun, she provided the first description of a
4125:(r. 1206–27), a new expansionist power reached Europe. The Mongols conquered Volga Bulgaria, shattered the Rus' principalities, and laid waste to large regions in Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia and Bulgaria
2484:
Frankish culture and the Carolingian methods of state administration had a significant impact on neighboring peoples. Frankish threat triggered the formation of new states along the empire's eastern frontier:
4502:
1061:. The settlement did not go smoothly and, when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder. Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the
1270:
marked by its co-operation between the natives and the conquerors. Power struggles between Romanised and traditionalist Ostrogothic groups followed his death, providing the opportunity for the Byzantines to
4907:
Technology developed primarily in minor innovations and the adoption of advanced technologies from Asia with Muslim mediation. Major technological advances included the first mechanical clocks and convex
3204:
experienced anomalous cold. The ensuing famines led to riots and military coups in the Byzantine Empire, the Abbasid Caliphate, and Egypt, and forced masses of nomadic Turks to seek new pasture lands in
1295:, the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. Unlike other Germanic peoples, the Franks preferred mainstream Christianity to Arianism; this facilitated their cooperation with the native
3316:
were integrated into the traditional aristocracy, and the others were assimilated into the peasantry. The new elite's position was stabilised through the adoption of strict inheritance customs, such as
1719:
Religious beliefs were in flux along the Eastern Roman and Persian frontiers, as state-sponsored Roman missionaries proselytised among the pagan steppe peoples and the Persians made attempts to enforce
4655:, which led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Around 1140, the monk Gratian (fl. 12th century)—a teacher at Bologna—wrote what became the standard text of
682:
countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: early ("high") and late ("low"). English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the period into thirds:
14403:
5695:
could not prove God's existence. Under his influence, most scholars who researched subjects yielding verifiable conclusions (such as mathematics or physics) no longer analysed theological issues.
2936:
metal works, was introduced into Roman territory by the invading peoples. Artisans working for post-Roman elites developed a distinct, abstract design characterised by ribbons and highly-stylised
6519:—in effect, unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had been warriors or government officials, allowing their descendants to hold fiefs and become knights while technically remaining serfs.
3763:(pope 1198–1216). As rulers of much of central Italy and feudal overlords of some of the Catholic rulers, the popes became deeply involved in secular politics. Sicily and southern Italy had been
2878:
were built in the major Roman cities and post-Roman kingdoms from the 4th to the 6th centuries. Byzantine church architecture adopted an alternative model imitating the rectangular plan and the
5581:, survived as an officially-recognised denomination in Bohemia. In the hope of western support against the Ottomans, Byzantine church leaders submitted themselves to the papacy at the 1438–39
3297:
and their hereditary status was regulated by agreements with their lords. Restrictions on their activities varied, but their freedom of movement was customarily limited and they usually owed
5202:
In Germany, elected emperors were no more than supreme arbiters even if they had a significant power base in their hereditary lands. Imperial authority was even more limited in Italy, where
7008:
Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. Slowness is less of a disadvantage in a siege, since a crossbowman can hide behind fortifications while reloading.
5867:
long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun and the use of buttons to close garments enabled a better fit. Popular tailoring designs were quickly spread by pedlars, and trends in
4504:
1572:
of monasteries. Women's influence on politics was fragile, and early medieval authors tended to depict powerful women in a bad light. Women were more respected in Scandinavian societies; a
4754:, but they have a number of regional variants. Traditional Byzantine religious architecture remained dominant in the Balkans, although some Serbian churches have a Romanesque influence.
2074:
for powerful families and centres of political authority; they were the main (and sometimes only) outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many surviving manuscripts of the Latin
663:
began in different regions at different times. Scholarly consensus characterises the period by the economic predominance of agriculture, exploitation of the peasantry, the importance of
5886:
in growing numbers, wars began to be primarily fought by professional soldiers throughout nearly all of Europe in the mid-14th century. Mercenaries were initially hired for wars, but a
1644:
term for Slavs. Christian ethics brought about significant changes in the position of slaves during the 7th and 8th centuries, since their right to a more humane treatment was enacted.
15706:
4888:
2497:. The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings, who also
16038:
13581:
1160:(r. 474–91). The Eastern Roman Empire (known as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart) had little ability to control the lost western territories, but its
4939:. Large scale construction projects advanced building technology, and increased demand for raw materials like timber, stone, and bricks. Shipbuilding improved with the use of the
2442:
6950:
The widespread dissemination of artistic motifs by copying and recopying sketches is indicated by the similarity between wall-paintings depicting the life of the Virgin Mary in
1867:, with the cessation of Byzantine subsidy payments to the Lombards and Franks. The elites' new emphasis on Christian charity also increased the demand for coins of lower value.
13783:
15568:
13694:
7160:
Initially a tiny principality, Muscovy gained strength against its more-powerful neighbors with support from the Mongol khans. During the 1320s, Moscow became the seat of the
5478:(r. 1451–81). Talented military commanders could repel individual Ottoman attacks but the Ottomans conquered almost all of the Balkans; Bulgaria was occupied in 1396, Serbia
2196:
The Merovingian kings customarily distributed Francia among their sons and destroyed their own power base with extensive land grants. In the northeastern Frankish kingdom of
1588:. The disparity in numbers between marriageable women and men led to the detailed regulation of legal institutions protecting women's interests, including their right to the
3435:
facilitated transactions between local and foreign merchants. Loans could be negotiated with them, which gave rise to the development of credit institutions known as banks.
15360:
1128:
of the western part of the empire into smaller political units, ruled by the invading tribes. The 5th-century emperors were often controlled by military strongmen such as
5795:. Literacy improved as new schools and universities were established throughout Europe, often sponsored by urban authorities or wealthy individuals. The invention of the
1504:(r. 610–41) launched an unexpected counterattack against the heart of the Sassanian Empire two years later, recovering the territories previously lost to the Persians.
2309:. Literacy increased with development of the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, and liturgical and scriptural studies under the auspices of the Anglo-Saxon scholar
15163:
17046:
19199:
5140:
4503:
5076:
that spread throughout Europe and killed about one-third of the population. As plague continued to strike Europe until 1400, its total population fell by about
2140:—the sale of church offices—was a common practice. Simony aroused a general fear, since many believed that irregularly-appointed priests could not confer valid
877:, and the following two centuries saw the slow decline of Roman control of its outlying territories. Runaway inflation, external pressure on the frontiers, and
16275:
4770:
3753:
The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular influence, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the Christian world. The
16641:
1480:
decimated the empire. Justinian developed an extensive system of border forts to compensate for the lack of military personnel, but stopped maintaining the
1461:
for administrative tasks or as guardians or tutors of women and children, since they considered castrated men exceptionally intelligent and loyal servants.
19189:
14104:
5699:(d. 1342), however, was still inspired by Aristotle to argue in favor of a community's right to regulate its life and control the clergy. Scholars such as
280:. Major developments include the economic predominance of agriculture, exploitation of the peasantry, slow inter-regional communication, the importance of
15050:
4264:, but their security depended on external military assistance (which led to further crusades). Muslim resistance was raised by ambitious warlords such as
3545:
clerics on the papal throne. With popular support, they achieved the acknowledgement of their jurisdiction in church affairs in many parts of Europe. The
16777:
6173:(d. 1886). He emphasised primary sources and studied several aspects of history, but his students focused on political history. Historians of the French
5068:. Starving peasants slaughtered their draft animals, and survivors had to make extraordinary efforts to revive farming. This was followed in 1346 by the
16133:
4989:
In military affairs, the use of specialised infantry increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry
1530:, the principal means of religious instruction were music and art rather than books. Most intellectual efforts imitated classical scholarship, but some
19064:
14377:
7308:, estimations of literacy are uncertain because both terms are ambiguous; one estimate, in 1500, was ten per cent of males and one per cent of females.
4078:, but respected the liberties of the native aristocracy. They claimed (but only periodically achieved) suzerainty over other lands and peoples such as
2905:
Halls built of timber or stone were the centres of political and social life. Their design often adopted elements of later Roman architecture such as
2239:(r. 751–68) was crowned king with the consent of the Frankish leaders and the papacy. Pepin attacked the Lombards, enforcing their promise to respect
401:
faraway regions in return for economic and legal concessions. New towns developed from local commercial centers, and urban artisans united into local
15446:
14964:
13932:
13752:
6032:
Printing houses throughout Europe began the mass production of inexpensive playing cards and primitive religious images during the mid-15th century.
5463:
3254:
to the king or a higher-ranking aristocrat, but their landholding was free of feudal obligations. In the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan states, the
3040:
1783:
in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the
1484:. He resumed his expansionism in a decade, completing the conquest of the Ostrogothic kingdom and seizing much of southern Spain from the Visigoths.
549:
architects and artists revived several elements of classical culture in Italy. During the last medieval century, naval expeditions in search for new
14830:(2003). "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor". In Lindberg, David C.;
14484:
5963:—the city's most influential family—gathered a significant collection of classical sculptures and opened it to local artists. The Tuscan architect
5736:(d. 1400). French became standardised with theoretical discussions about chivalric literature. One of the sharpest critics of chivalric romances,
4220:
Clashes with secular powers led to the militarisation of the papacy. In response to a Byzantine appeal for military aid against the Seljuk Turks,
2924:
Gold pouring into the tribal leaders from the Roman Empire was regularly remoulded into new artifacts, such as massive necklaces and eagle-shaped
16868:
13552:
5450:
Facing financial crises and threats from the west, the restored Byzantine Empire was unable to prevent Turkish expansion in Anatolia. Revolts by
5188:. Legal procedures improved as discretionary justice, previously dispensed by kings and their retainers, was delegated to professional lawyers.
763:) are poorly documented, which limits a comprehensive study of the period. The systematic publication of medieval written sources began with the
6737:(d. 1263) who made four visits to Sarai to gain the Khans' favor. He overcame his rivals with Mongol assistance, crushed an anti-Mongol riot in
1596:("morning gift"). Early medieval laws acknowledged a man's right to have long-term sexual relationships with women other than his wife (such as
19204:
16290:
7051:
In Bohemia, a mid-14th-century Czech treatise accused the local German artisans of plotting to keep prices high. In 1392, the bakers' guild in
5408:
3466:, were the first to profit from the revival of commerce in the Mediterranean. In the north, German merchants established associations known as
13991:
3490:
moneylending, because they could ignore the Christian clerical condemnation of loan interest. Jewish moneylenders and pawn brokers reinforced
1791:. The Abbasids were concerned with the Middle East, losing control of portions of the Muslim lands in the west. Umayyad descendants took over
1476:
and attacked the Ostrogoths, but his campaign was interrupted by an unexpected Sasanian invasion from the east. Between 541 and 543, a deadly
19229:
3312:
With the development of heavy cavalry, the uniform class of free warriors split into two groups. Those who could equip themselves as mounted
3136:
of the free population declined. One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies known as the
2545:
2224:(d. 741), took advantage of the permanent Muslim threat to confiscate church property and raise troops by parcelling it out to the recruits.
1999:
13811:
18574:
16367:
15731:
5376:
4773:. Few wall paintings survive, although references to images abound in written sources. The employment of itinerant artists, and the use of
2603:
in Britain. By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had restored Anglo-Saxon control of the territory. In northern Britain,
1408:
1404:
1216:' culture had little impact on the Anglo-Saxon way of life, but the linguistic assimilation of the natives to the newcomers is evident. By
15674:
14235:
5298:
in 1415. Aragon and Castile were divided by conflicts between magnate factions or about the limits of royal government, but the Castilian
4824:(d. 1151). The new style quickly spread, dominating religious architecture in much of Catholic Europe until the end of the Middle Ages.
17485:
6687:
was known for his erudition and unconventional lifestyle; he had a harem and wore Arab-style garments, including a mantle decorated with
4240:
to march to the east. They lived by looting, and attacked Jewish communities. Few of them reached Anatolia, and those who succeeded were
4188:
3943:
3856:(r. 1273–91), the first German king to be elected after the interregnum, realised that he could not control the whole empire. He granted
14885:
5803:
simplified the mass publication of books, and competition between publishing houses contributed to the quick spread of news and ideas.
5246:(r. 1413–22) to seize much of France. The unconquered French regions put up a strong resistance, boosted by the visions of peasant girl
3443:. These associations typically made rules governing quality, training, and pricing, and only their members had access to local markets.
3281:, a manor was the basic unit of landholding; it consisted of smaller components, such as parcels held by peasant tenants and the lord's
1526:
largely disappeared. Although literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than an indication of status. By the late
386:
17078:
16066:
15999:
15960:
15917:
15849:
15759:
15635:
15596:
15113:
14666:
13527:
6129:. This is untrue; lecturers in medieval universities commonly argued that evidence indicated the Earth was a sphere. Science historian
5538:
in 1312. Although the papal seat was returned to Rome in 1377 due to popular pressure, disputes among the church leadership led to the
5487:
5084:
2807:
2793:
893:. The need for revenue led to increased taxes, more centralised and bureaucratic state administration, and a decline in numbers of the
19386:
5550:
with the resignation of one pope and the deposition of his two rivals, which paved the way for the election of an Italian cardinal as
3989:. After a number of divisions and reunifications of the Christian states, the Christian north had coalesced into the four kingdoms of
2321:, which facilitated reading with the clear separation of words and the extensive use of punctuation. Charlemagne sponsored changes in
19144:
17036:
14371:
5144:
4986:, who required less pasture than oxen. Legumes such as peas, beans, and lentils were grown more widely, in addition to cereal crops.
2231:, as Charles Martel's descendants are known, succeeded the Merovingians as the royal dynasty of Francia in 751. The Merovingian king
1489:
955:
accelerated by the conversion of Constantine, although Christianity emerged as the empire's dominant religion only at the end of the
4360:
by church authorities. The crusades fused monastic life with military service in the framework of a new type of monastic order, the
18418:
13845:
6399:
3345:
1761:
852:
15025:
14459:
5514:
and conflicts with the Roman aristocracy had undermined papal authority in Italy, the seat of the papacy was moved to the city of
2156:
in 909 initiated a more radical change, since Cluny was freed from lay control and placed under the protection of the papacy. The
18058:
17427:
16105:
14586:
5643:
5092:
4421:, from the pope or the Holy Roman Emperor. The new educational institutions encouraged scholarly discussion. Debates between the
984:
506:
13609:
5929:
The wealthiest Italian and French princes regularly hired foreign artists, which led to the convergence of courtly styles. This
1804:
eunuchs played a preeminent role in administration and social life, holding positions such as guardians of religious shrines or
1352:
and Germanic tribes in the lowlands along the lower and middle Danube by the end of the 6th century. Another steppe people (the
18506:
15505:
15307:
4075:
3546:
2549:
14860:
13637:
5462:
in 1354. Within a century, the Ottomans reduced the competing southeastern European kingdoms, principalities and lordships to
3396:
The expansion of population, greater agricultural productivity, and relative political stability laid the foundations for the
2587:
The Viking settlement in the British Isles led to the formation of new political entities, including the small (but militant)
1660:. Muslim rulers employed Jewish courtiers, but Christian legislation forbade the appointment of Jews to government positions.
19084:
16245:
16172:
16147:
16119:
16091:
16052:
16024:
15985:
15942:
15899:
15874:
15835:
15810:
15784:
15745:
15720:
15688:
15660:
15621:
15582:
15548:
15523:
15491:
15463:
15430:
15405:
15378:
15346:
15321:
15296:
15268:
15236:
15205:
15177:
15152:
15126:
15094:
15068:
15039:
14981:
14899:
14874:
14849:
14817:
14791:
14712:
14684:
14652:
14624:
14599:
14571:
14498:
14473:
14445:
14417:
14389:
14360:
14328:
14305:
14277:
14249:
14224:
14196:
14175:
14147:
14116:
14086:
14058:
14030:
14005:
13977:
13949:
13916:
13888:
13857:
13825:
13797:
13769:
13736:
13708:
13683:
13651:
13623:
13595:
13570:
13541:
13513:
6533:
3580:—the appointment of clerics by secular rulers—was condemned at a 1059 assembly of bishops in Rome. Henry's son and successor
2282:
His empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor and about 300 imperial officials (known as
1753:
1749:
1653:
823:
has significantly contributed to studying the history of poorly-documented regions, periods, and groups (such as peasantry);
624:
and 1500, but its start and end years are arbitrary. A common starting point, first used by Bruni, is 476: the year the last
7341:
6265:
5328:, a loose confederation of mainly-pagan Lithuanian chieftains and Orthodox Rus' principalities. The common enemy prompted a
4067:
3238:
regulated fundamental social relations in many parts of Europe. In this system, a lord granted property—typically land—to a
1041:. Although these movements of peoples have been described as "invasions", they were often not just military expeditions but
19514:
17151:
15477:
7214:
7190:
7174:
6705:
6460:
As illuminated books were flowing from the British Isles to Francia, the Insular style had a marked impact on Frankish art.
5659:
5210:, and Venice exploited the power vacuum to expand. The centuries-old rivalry between England and France escalated into the
4879:
4272:
in 1187. New crusades prolonged the crusader states' existence for another century, until the last strongholds fell to the
4260:, allowing the Byzantines to recover western Anatolia. The westerners consolidated their conquests in the Middle East into
2498:
2078:
were copied by monks. Monks were also the authors of new works on history, theology, and other subjects by authors such as
1870:
The flourishing Islamic economies' constant demand for fresh labour force and raw materials opened a new market for Europe
1018:(large halls which had been used for administrative and commercial purposes) were adapted for Christian worship. The first
1011:
952:
6395:
3439:
elements of external control. Townspeople engaged in the same trade or profession were united in confraternities known as
2148:. Monastic communities were the first to react to this fear with rigorous observance of their rules. The establishment of
19317:
18000:
17155:
16861:
16701:
16676:
16616:
5219:
4615:(d. 1287/88) also became popular. Previously present only in liturgy, polyphony appeared in secular songs in the form of
4548:, rather than Latin, and consisted of poems, stories, legends, and popular songs. Often the stories were written down in
2851:
2345:
in the west. Late-9th-century theoretical studies contain the earliest certain references to the arrangement of harmonic
2421:
Charlemagne continued the Frankish tradition of dividing his empire between his sons, but only one son –
17854:
17072:
17068:
16956:
16792:
16079:
16012:
15973:
15930:
15885:
15862:
15772:
15648:
15609:
7161:
6901:
5283:
4361:
3243:
2561:
1966:
looked to the papacy for leadership. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where
971:
survived through proselytising campaigns outside the empire or because of local ethnic-group support; examples include
3722:
The High Middle Ages saw the development of institutions that would dominate political life in Europe beyond the late
2895:
19249:
17349:
17041:
16971:
16952:
16835:
16797:
16327:
14764:
14738:
14638:
5868:
5278:(r. 1485–1509). The wars prevented the English from expanding in the British Isles, but royal power remained weak in
5239:
3764:
3690:(d. 1179/80) was a prolific and highly-respected scholar who proudly said that "no man can be made without a woman".
3608:
2141:
2015:
1240:
1105:
6247:(d. 589) was a vehement but unsuccessful opponent of her people's conversion to Catholicism, and the Frankish queen
3908:
The French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility. The kings faced a powerful rival in the
3502:. Church authorities' growing concerns about Jewish influence on Christian life inspired legal segregation and the
951:, with a widening gulf between rich and poor and a decline in the vitality of smaller towns. Another change was the
272:) lasted from approximately 500 to 1500 AD. It is the second of the three traditional divisions of Western history:
19079:
18440:
17985:
17580:
16990:
16979:
16975:
16948:
16164:
14078:
7143:
One of the most successful queens of the period, Margaret primarily ruled with her young male relatives—first with
6437:
5279:
4044:
3950:(r. 1180–1223). John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led to the 1215
3927:
3835:
3604:
2727:
2528:
in 955. In the Mediterranean, Arab pirates launched regular raids against Italy and southern France; the Aghlabids
1248:
847:
327:
135:
14186:
7270:(r. 1458–90) an excuse to conquer parts of the Czech lands. Poděbrady was succeeded by the Catholic Polish prince
3726:. The kings' right to rule without a foreign power's intercession became widely accepted, introducing the idea of
886:
30:
This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see
19494:
19489:
19484:
19479:
19474:
19469:
19179:
19114:
18159:
18010:
17613:
17478:
16928:
16924:
16877:
16295:
14923:
14348:
5828:
5333:
4692:
from Greek into Latin. Medicine was studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the
4389:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2022:
in the Balkans condemned sexual reproduction because they considered Satan the creator of the physical universe.
1201:
In the post-Roman world, the fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes is well documented.
741:
15191:
7274:(r. 1471–1516), but the Diet enacted the Czech right to freely choose between Hussitism and Catholicism in 1485.
6339:(fl. c. 840 – 850) is an early example of a western theoretical work on music. In the study, Aurelian discusses
6029:
to create a translucent surface and tiny bushes to achieve a more lifelike representation of the natural world.
3635:. Monastic reforms continued; the Cluniac monasteries' ceremonies were alien to those who preferred the simpler
3603:
The High Middle Ages was a time of great religious movements. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and
706:, however, use of that term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages. Historians who regard the Middle Ages as a
19464:
19459:
19454:
19449:
18370:
17797:
17630:
17568:
16999:
16920:
16854:
16661:
16601:
16573:
16332:
15313:
15000:
14730:
14616:
14291:
14269:
14044:
6091:
5749:
5029:
4040:
4014:
3981:
The Iberian Christian states began to push back against the Islamic powers in the south, a period known as the
3754:
2835:
2664:
1974:
to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Church attendance was low, and meetings with itinerant clergy and
1919:
1757:
1236:
857:
625:
4157:
in eastern Europe, facilitating the development of direct trade contacts between Europe and China through new
3954:, a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England. In France, Philip Augustus's son
3209:, Anatolia, and the Balkans. Their influx caused much destruction, and culminated in the establishment of the
2999:
tradition of realistic portrayal survived in the Mediterranean. Although the iconoclastic movement restricted
1156:(king) and took full control of Italy, although in theory he ruled as a representative of the eastern emperor
19369:
18523:
18005:
17914:
17007:
17003:
16747:
16578:
15511:
14672:
13839:
6169:
and the expansionism of empires. The professionalisation of historical study began with the German historian
6064:). Horror stories were widely read, including German booklets describing the cruel acts of Wallachian prince
5979:
for creating the illusion of depth was another innovation, demonstrated by reliefs on the bronze door of the
5527:
5495:
5483:
5341:
5065:
4883:
4834:
developed as a form of devotion for laypeople. Metalwork continued as the most prestigious form of art, with
4469:(a new method of intellectual discourse and pedagogy) required the study of authoritative texts, notably the
3830:
3810:
succeeded the Salians. Their recurring conflicts with the papacy allowed the northern Italian cities and the
3640:
3538:
2521:
1737:
1513:
1497:
778:
490:
338:. In the post-Roman world, taxation declined, the army was financed through land grants, and the blending of
19403:
3242:
in return for services (primarily military) rendered. In other parts of Europe such as Germany, Poland, and
2913:) were their most characteristic features, but castles often developed into multi-functional compounds with
2698:; the local inhabitants converted to Islam. Swedish traders and slave hunters ranged down the rivers of the
2690:
the Muslim expansion, and their leaders converted to Judaism. A new trade route developed at the end of the
2329:
in liturgical music for the churches. His commitment to liturgical uniformity stimulated the development of
628:
was deposed. There is no universally-agreed-upon end date; the most frequently-used dates include 1453 (the
19134:
19119:
19014:
17435:
17431:
17302:
15451:
14969:
13937:
13757:
5561:(d. 1384) criticised popular acts of devotion such as pilgrimages, and challenged Catholic doctrine on the
5295:
3926:
ascended the throne, since he had seized large areas of France through inheritance and marriage. The first
3620:
3581:
3491:
3072:
2557:
2553:
2266:(r. 768–71). When Carloman died, Charlemagne reunited Francia and embarked on a programme of expansion. He
284:
in power structures, and the weakness of state administration. The period is sometimes subdivided into the
180:
35:
6855:
6096:
5391:
completed Muscovy's dominance in the northeast. In southeastern Europe, the small Vlach principalities of
1771:
The conquerors bypassed the mountainous northwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula and a small kingdom,
18540:
18051:
17964:
17959:
17575:
16967:
16757:
15802:
15676:
Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century
14955:
14841:
14518:
14437:
13633:
7119:
5608:
emphasised lay piety, community experience and personal faith. In the Orthodox world, the Athonite monks
5329:
5191:
4377:
4006:
3530:
2675:
gained autonomy in the Carolingian border province. Asturias expanded slowly south, and continued as the
1437:
The Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival which lasted into the early
929:
882:
827:, however, is still uncertain. Legislation may influence archaeological research. New finds of coins and
766:
378:
quickly fell apart into competing kingdoms which later fragmented into autonomous duchies and lordships.
17:
13499:
6639:(d. 1679), but the concept developed during conflicts between the emperors and the papacy. A 1202 papal
5894:
from the Christian population began supplying the Ottoman army with professional foot soldiers known as
3615:
rose to prominence. Popular movements emerged to support the implementation of church reform, but their
1822:
470:
stimulated a new method of intellectual discussion, with an emphasis on rational argumentation known as
65:
19267:
18411:
18134:
18020:
18015:
17471:
17345:
17083:
17026:
16916:
16752:
16742:
16706:
16548:
16450:
16083:
16016:
15977:
15934:
15866:
15776:
15652:
15613:
15483:
15031:
14891:
14490:
14465:
14297:
14241:
14216:
14108:
14022:
13997:
13789:
13700:
13523:
7182:
6668:
6441:
6083:
5471:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5412:
4253:
4244:
by the Turks. The official crusade departed in 1096 under the command of prominent aristocrats such as
4095:
4048:
3739:
3431:
also appeared, enabling the easy transmission of money. Since many types of coins were in circulation,
3008:
2647:
2083:
1276:
1161:
808:
are indispensable sources of medieval history, although many are forged. Other written sources include
760:
699:
664:
652:
518:
394:
381:
During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as the
297:
281:
6469:
Under the Macedonian emperors, the old churches were redecorated and newly-built churches such as the
6424:
1939:
in 843, issues such as the rivalry for ecclesiastic jurisdiction over newly-converted peoples and the
1006:. The solemnity of later Roman artists' abstract style effectively visualised Christian messages, and
19499:
19059:
19019:
18460:
17990:
17744:
17705:
17401:
17231:
17088:
16934:
16475:
16238:
15845:
15827:
15441:
14959:
14835:
14563:
14068:
14050:
13927:
13747:
13728:
7178:
6933:
illustrates the blending of Byzantine and Romanesque traditions in Serbia. Its west portal, with its
6580:
6498:
6365:
6306:
5997:
5586:
4693:
4269:
4162:
4126:
4107:
2941:
2714:. Contacts with Francia paved the way for missionary efforts by Christian clergy in Scandinavia, and
2529:
1901:
1741:
1584:, or even command ships. Women usually died at a considerably younger age than men, primarily due to
1531:
1523:
1223:, new political centres emerged; some local leaders accumulated considerable wealth, and a number of
4409:. Schools reaching the highest level of mastery in the disciplines they taught received the rank of
4017:
from the Genoese. Southern Iberia remained under the control of Islamic states, initially under the
1947:
in the west widened to the extent that differences were greater than similarities. In the west, the
1600:), but women were expected to remain faithful. Clerics censured sexual unions outside marriage, and
19509:
19159:
18887:
18649:
18609:
18599:
18547:
16995:
16985:
16962:
16939:
16911:
16726:
15283:
15256:
14634:
14352:
14167:
13959:
13558:
7271:
7238:
7106:
5948:
5546:, three rival lines of popes were each supported by several states. The schism was resolved at the
5325:
5324:, during a period when the Teutonic Knights' expansion intensified. The Knights primarily targeted
5267:
4442:
4322:
4257:
3923:
3887:
3864:' future dominance in central Europe. After his death, three Alpine peasant communities formed the
2240:
1983:
1851:
and amber were delivered from the Baltic region to western Europe, triggering the establishment of
1765:
1657:
1272:
756:
437:, a new aristocracy stabilised their position through strict inheritance customs. In the system of
14074:
The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest
13871:
13665:
7325:
in 1444. He is often, but not universally, described as the prime mover of Portuguese exploration.
6154:
4352:
became a leading element of medieval life. A crusader oath could be fulfilled with a cash payment
580:
The Middle Ages is the second of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme of analysing
18937:
18845:
18144:
18139:
17995:
17653:
17367:
17333:
16430:
16400:
16139:
15737:
15534:
15455:
15397:
15370:
15260:
15228:
15169:
15136:
15118:
15060:
14973:
14783:
14591:
14527:
14409:
14139:
13941:
13908:
13761:
13718:
13587:
13562:
6934:
6218:
5976:
5871:
were dictated by the Burgundian ducal court in much of 15th-century Europe. In metalworking, the
5491:
4817:
4735:
4723:
4430:
4249:
4099:
4010:
3747:
3593:
3570:
3519:
2937:
2815:
2651:(r. 936–73) crossed the Alps into Italy, married the young widow and had himself crowned king in
2520:. The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual
2306:
2094:, establishing the basis for a flourishing Slavic religious literature; a new script was adopted
1120:(r. 434–53) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451 and Italy in 452, but his
1113:
948:
832:
is necessary; irony, satire, and anachronism were popular stylistic devices of medieval artists.
479:
426:
422:
17280:
15416:
5494:
resistance was broken by 1488. Ottoman rule was highly centralised, and sultans often appointed
4018:
3409:. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, allowing risk to be shared within the framework of
1383:. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but Slav migrations expanded the area of
1033:
Civil wars between rival emperors diverted soldiers from the empire's frontier forces, allowing
604:(d. 1707). The adjective "medieval" or "mediaeval", pertaining to the Middle Ages, derives from
19109:
19099:
18688:
18619:
18604:
18085:
18044:
17819:
17648:
17420:
17416:
17328:
17195:
16787:
16543:
16317:
15473:
15278:
14662:
14427:
13993:
The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East, 950–1072
6837:
6721:
6643:
said that "a king is an emperor in his kingdom", implying the equal status of secular monarchs.
6336:
6248:
6126:
5565:. His teachings influenced two major movements condemned as heretical by Catholic authorities:
5372:
5303:
5263:
5161:
4827:
4342:
4314:
3612:
3353:
2867:
2762:
2735:
2052:
2003:
1852:
1745:
1683:
1673:
1426:
1361:
1252:
1019:
968:
629:
538:
355:
175:
71:
31:
14263:
7263:
7102:
6473:
in Greece were embellished with mosaics and icons. Richly-decorated ivory panels, such as the
6165:
sought the origins of modern nations in the Middle Ages, stimulating oppressed ethnic groups'
5726:
had matured into a literary language on a par with Latin. English reached the same level with
4722:
continued, with stone fortresses built in regions where central authority was weak. Many were
885:. The army doubled in size and military expenses steadily increased, primarily in response to
533:
against their Muslim neighbours. The prominence of personal faith is well documented, but the
19219:
19194:
19124:
18807:
18535:
18308:
18266:
18236:
17899:
17764:
16606:
16498:
16455:
15540:
15366:
15288:
15104:
15086:
15056:
14909:
14320:
14126:
Fößel, Amalie (2016) . "The Political Traditions of Female Rulership in Medieval Europe". In
13969:
13817:
13661:
13505:
7202:
7077:
6996:
6951:
6887:(towers) made some Italian towns look like brick-and-stone forests. The small Tuscan town of
6750:
After the fall of Constantinople to the crusaders, three Byzantine successor states emerged:
6222:
6214:
5845:
5360:
5345:
5299:
5251:
5215:
5211:
4652:
4422:
4306:
3939:
3913:
3880:
3871:
3865:
3670:
might present a challenge to clerical monopolies, but most respected official doctrines. The
3428:
3397:
2731:
2318:
2044:
2026:
1422:
933:
711:
510:
390:
165:
16158:
14370:
Harris, Stephen J. (2008). "Introduction". In Harris, Stephen J.; Grigsby, Bryon L. (eds.).
14072:
3960:(r. 1223–26) distributed large portions of his father's conquests among his younger sons as
3631:. To suppress heresies, the popes appointed special commissioners of investigation known as
3486:, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with one another and with local merchants.
3146:
as a military weapon. A technological advance with implications beyond the military was the
2566:
2043:. Most European monasteries focused on community experience of the spiritual life, known as
19444:
19439:
19214:
18969:
18882:
18860:
18783:
18779:
18708:
18624:
18569:
18564:
18387:
18231:
18120:
17954:
17949:
17889:
17824:
17729:
17375:
17186:
16825:
16767:
16563:
16470:
16440:
16425:
16231:
16044:
15995:
15956:
15913:
15440:
Vale, Malcolm (2001) . "The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500". In
15197:
14808:. Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Vol. 36.
14557:
7131:
7123:
7098:
6713:
6660:
6162:
6122:
5930:
5778:
5770:
5728:
5708:
5704:
5547:
5388:
5271:
5203:
4585:
4357:
3956:
3935:
3815:
3632:
3562:
3550:
3357:
3229:
3028:
2974:
ornamenting and extensive segmentation. Paintings have mostly survived in richly-decorated
2899:
2847:
2687:
2056:
1975:
1936:
1927:(r. 717–41) prohibited the display of paintings of human figures in places of worship, the
1924:
1535:
1448:
1321:
1062:
913:
824:
784:
633:
542:
475:
382:
343:
331:
150:
90:
75:
14431:
6340:
6040:
containing illustrations and text—rapidly became popular, with best-sellers including the
3352:
had exclusive jurisdiction over marital affairs, and church authorities supported popular
2803:
675:—in power structures, slow inter-regional communication, and a fragile state bureaucracy.
8:
19420:
19239:
19104:
18974:
18764:
18693:
18450:
18423:
18406:
18394:
18216:
18172:
17919:
17849:
17792:
17709:
17535:
17271:
17266:
17255:
17235:
17205:
16711:
16691:
16671:
16636:
16568:
16480:
16347:
16040:
The Formation of a Persecuting Society: Authority and Deviance in Western Europe 950-1250
15631:
15144:
7349:
7318:
7090:
6984:
6955:
6930:
6759:
6751:
6717:
6628:
6541:
6474:
6391:
6070:
5980:
5856:
5633:
5585:; most Orthodox believers rejected papal supremacy, however, and those who supported the
5582:
5523:
5436:
5132:
5104:
4797:
4675:
4577:
4418:
4369:
4334:
4245:
4237:
4229:
4213:
4205:
4196:
4063:
4002:
3947:
3918:
3772:
3731:
3687:
3675:
3214:
3174:
3068:
2985:
2699:
2672:
2474:
2402:
2393:
2384:
2228:
2205:
2091:
2087:
1772:
1630:
settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements with as many as
1477:
1296:
1292:
1267:
1263:
1022:—hand-written books decorated with colourful miniatures—were produced with the spread of
995:
601:
585:
565:
541:
presented a significant challenge to traditional power structures in the Western Church.
483:
467:
363:
307:
273:
222:
17102:
4376:. The Teutonic Knights focused much of their activity in the Baltic, where they founded
2810:, the destruction of old power centres accompanied the formation of the state under the
2055:, which was widely used in western monasteries. In the east, monastic rules compiled by
19504:
19281:
18959:
18875:
18865:
18698:
18661:
18591:
18530:
18513:
18467:
18377:
18291:
18105:
18025:
17929:
17713:
17665:
17660:
17563:
17553:
17510:
17502:
17397:
17296:
17261:
17251:
17245:
17239:
17217:
17213:
17176:
17147:
17094:
16944:
16815:
16651:
16626:
16528:
16405:
16357:
16352:
16342:
16280:
15570:
Contesting the Middle Ages: Debates that are Changing our Narrative of Medieval History
15389:
14943:
14914:
14809:
14775:
13722:
13675:
13533:
7198:
7144:
6972:
6915:
6868:
system in England developed through the adoption of principles and procedures (such as
6709:
6656:
6598:
6563:
6378:
6273:
6007:
5972:
5938:, commissioning small portraits and a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery,
5737:
5696:
5692:
5380:
5353:
5243:
5227:
4893:
4762:
4558:
4433:" were especially heated. Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of
4349:
4290:
4182:
4055:
3998:
3990:
3975:
3965:
3853:
3845:
3822:
3780:
3597:
3503:
3455:
3447:
3285:. As churchmen prohibited the enslavement of coreligionists, a new form of dependency (
3015:
rediscovered the human figure and Western artists often depicted people in illuminated
2819:
2758:
2719:
2668:
2656:
2630:
2596:
2525:
2513:
2470:
2412:
2173:
2161:
2133:
2048:
1736:(d. 632) brought about more radical changes. After his death, Islamic forces conquered
1701:
1648:
southern Gaul and Italy. The Visigothic kings made concentrated efforts to convert the
1581:
1313:
1184:
1145:
1086:
991:
964:
960:
841:
410:
375:
339:
335:
303:
17209:
7230:
6762:
in northeastern Anatolia. Michael VIII had ruled Nicaea before seizing Constantinople.
5863:
In cloth production, the second main employer after agriculture, the increased use of
5399:
emerged; their rulers primarily accepted the suzerainty of Hungarian or Polish kings.
5223:
3027:. Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative
2676:
2290:. The central administration supervised the counts with imperial emissaries, known as
19089:
18991:
18979:
18964:
18944:
18855:
18802:
18774:
18756:
18559:
18435:
18428:
18241:
18189:
18167:
18095:
17904:
17879:
17859:
17839:
17829:
17719:
17701:
17670:
17603:
17520:
17494:
17447:
17412:
17408:
17386:
17363:
17359:
17292:
17288:
17227:
17191:
17181:
17171:
17166:
17143:
16811:
16553:
16523:
16513:
16503:
16420:
16410:
16395:
16262:
16168:
16143:
16129:
16115:
16087:
16048:
16020:
15981:
15938:
15895:
15870:
15831:
15806:
15780:
15741:
15716:
15684:
15656:
15617:
15578:
15544:
15519:
15487:
15459:
15426:
15401:
15374:
15342:
15317:
15292:
15264:
15232:
15216:
15201:
15173:
15148:
15122:
15108:
15090:
15064:
15035:
15012:
14977:
14935:
14895:
14870:
14845:
14827:
14813:
14787:
14708:
14698:
14680:
14648:
14620:
14595:
14567:
14541:
14494:
14469:
14441:
14413:
14385:
14356:
14342:
14324:
14301:
14273:
14245:
14220:
14192:
14171:
14143:
14127:
14112:
14082:
14054:
14026:
14001:
13973:
13963:
13945:
13912:
13884:
13853:
13821:
13793:
13765:
13732:
13704:
13679:
13647:
13619:
13591:
13566:
13537:
13509:
7267:
7242:
7148:
7094:
6988:
6909:
6786:
6672:
6664:
6597:
of bishoprics and abbeys without formally sanctioning the monarch's claim to control
6537:
6318:
6170:
6142:
6114:
5988:
5820:
5681:
5459:
5384:
5337:
5291:
5259:
4944:
4913:
4897:
4766:
4662:
4636:
4632:
4569:
4564:
4394:
4298:
4280:
4241:
4146:
4032:
4028:
3994:
3902:
3894:
3791:
3784:
3759:
3727:
3679:
3523:
3459:
3217:
began in Europe and its estimated population grew from 35 to 80 million between
3206:
2777:
2723:
2642:
2588:
2575:
2322:
2244:
2153:
2039:
1971:
1788:
1784:
1711:
1577:
1380:
1317:
1189:
1173:
1034:
1007:
878:
772:
731:
683:
679:
581:
546:
526:
459:
285:
253:
109:
19234:
14584:(2005) . Wehmeier, Sally; McIntosh, Colin; Turnbull, Joanna; Ashby, Michael (eds.).
13926:
Denley, Peter (2001) . "The Mediterranean in the Age of Renaissance, 1200–1500". In
13902:
13746:
Brown, Thomas (2001) . "The Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean, 400–900". In
6652:
5879:, in 1447 in Venice, granted a ten-year monopoly to inventors for their inventions.
4708:
4704:
3643:
life" of poverty and preaching. New monastic orders were established, including the
3384:
2761:. The imperial court was the centre of a rebirth of classical learning known as the
1935:
to declare new dogmas with imperial edicts. Although the Byzantine Church condemned
1206:
19335:
18850:
18840:
18666:
18614:
18518:
18382:
18271:
18221:
18199:
18194:
18125:
17894:
17809:
17754:
17724:
17675:
17635:
17618:
17608:
17543:
17515:
17382:
17371:
17341:
17320:
17201:
17106:
17057:
17051:
17031:
16906:
16772:
16721:
16716:
16656:
16621:
16533:
16490:
16460:
16382:
16300:
16270:
15220:
15004:
14927:
14801:
14760:
14734:
14531:
14259:
14131:
13987:
13880:
7246:
7127:
6812:
6755:
6734:
6511:
In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the
6470:
6416:
6166:
6087:
6065:
6017:
5984:
5733:
5680:
Prominent late-medieval philosophers departed from Aristotelian logic. Among them,
5655:
5609:
5467:
5175:
5124:
5018:
4774:
4612:
4556:(songs of great deeds), glorifying their male heroes' often-brutal acts, including
4551:
4489:
4412:
4402:
4373:
4273:
4192:
4142:
4083:
4071:
3909:
3857:
3799:
3691:
3652:
3589:
3542:
3469:
3463:
3159:
3129:
3077:
3020:
2776:
Missionary efforts by Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the
2766:
2626:
2604:
2592:
2533:
2494:
2486:
2450:
2446:
2426:
2346:
2330:
2293:
2213:
1519:
1384:
1202:
1194:
1042:
917:
909:
691:
687:
569:
554:
514:
482:
churches, while structural innovations led to the development of the more delicate
463:
319:
315:
293:
289:
232:
145:
119:
114:
16216:
15143:. Vol. 12 (Transcendental meditation - Zwingli, Huldrych) (Second ed.).
14610:
14161:
8635:
7059:, "No one of Irish blood or birth" could hold office or be hired as an apprentice.
6015:(d. 1510). Flemish painters quickly improved their technique. When completing his
5664:
2465:
in Francia (r. 888–98). In the eastern lands, the dynasty ended with the death of
2305:
Charlemagne's court was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes known as the
2075:
1847:, new commercial networks were developing in northern Europe. Goods such as furs,
1611:
445:
owed military service to their lords in return for the lands they had received in
19224:
19164:
19049:
18897:
18892:
18870:
18790:
18744:
18501:
18455:
18353:
18330:
18313:
18286:
18071:
17934:
17909:
17697:
17680:
17525:
17443:
17355:
17223:
16846:
16782:
16696:
16666:
16390:
16307:
16206:
16111:
15702:
15422:
15338:
14722:
14644:
13849:
7322:
6992:
6980:
6976:
6701:
6492:
6185:(d. 1944) broadened their perspective, examining culture, society, and identity.
6106:
6101:
6043:
5955:
Florence emerged as the center of intellectual and artistic life for most of the
5816:
5715:
5613:
5603:
5593:
5543:
5451:
5167:
5136:
4870:
objects such as gaming pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.
4805:
4581:
4530:
4406:
4365:
4261:
4158:
4150:
4118:
4059:
3876:
3811:
3743:
3660:
3616:
3566:
3554:
3534:
3483:
3451:
3251:
3224:
and 1347. The exact causes remain unclear, and improved agricultural techniques,
3201:
3121:
3012:
2996:
2925:
2754:
2750:
2619:
2615:
2466:
2457:
2422:
2326:
2271:
2236:
2184:
2157:
2110:
2106:
2007:
1780:
1669:
1357:
1341:
890:
418:
406:
206:
140:
7287:(d. 1472), aroused Italian scholarly interest in Greek studies during his exile.
4293:
by 1248. The German and Scandinavian rulers' expansion against the neighbouring
1678:
1279:. Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and Celtic Britons established stable polities.
19293:
19254:
19174:
19129:
19069:
19034:
18826:
18739:
18644:
18552:
18343:
18177:
18100:
17884:
17874:
17869:
17864:
17844:
17834:
17749:
17692:
17585:
17548:
17439:
17393:
17061:
16686:
16631:
16585:
16538:
16518:
16362:
16285:
16101:
16062:
15952:
15909:
15698:
15592:
15187:
14831:
14553:
14455:
14157:
14096:
14040:
13605:
7229:(d. 1468) resisted Ottoman conquest for more than two decades at the head of a
6843:
6545:
6190:
6176:
6158:
6150:
5968:
5796:
5754:
5723:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5519:
5511:
5479:
5455:
5364:
5255:
5207:
5155:
Although the growth of central governments continued, more than 500 autonomous
5061:
4983:
4952:
4929:
4855:
4835:
4719:
4682:
allowed more-advanced mathematics. Astronomy benefited from the translation of
4668:
4495:
4474:
4310:
3931:
3849:
3826:
3795:
3333:
3325:
3294:
2970:. Religious art quickly assimilated several elements of secular style, such as
2958:
refer to great royal treasures, but only a few of them survived; they included
2827:
2789:
2695:
2366:
2314:
2221:
2129:
2030:
1967:
1906:
1859:
1827:
1721:
1649:
1641:
1585:
1392:
1388:
1375:, the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by
1349:
1337:
1325:
1213:
1157:
1133:
1109:
1023:
941:
921:
715:
593:
534:
522:
450:
323:
277:
211:
19352:
7034:
Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions; one town,
5995:
and eroticism (including homoerotocism) in artworks such as the bronze statue
5577:(d. 1415), who was burned at the stake at Constance. Hussitism, the target of
4070:
into autonomous duchies, enabling the Czech kings to expand in the prosperous
3968:(r. 1226–70) improved local administration by appointing inspectors, known as
3798:
in 1024. They protected the lesser nobility to reduce ducal power, and seized
3142:. In military technology, one of the main changes was the reappearance of the
2856:
2826:
of Kievan Rus' emerged as the rulers of East Europe's vast forest zones after
2341:. The systematic study of Byzantine liturgy contributed to the development of
2258:
Pepin left his kingdom in the hands of his sons: Charles, more often known as
19433:
19305:
19209:
19094:
19009:
18954:
18814:
18734:
18629:
18479:
18472:
18365:
18318:
18211:
18067:
17980:
17779:
17098:
16445:
15891:
15794:
15755:
15680:
15670:
15515:
15501:
15356:
15193:
Femina: A New History of the Middle Ages, Through the Women Written Out of It
15078:
15016:
14939:
14756:
14704:
14676:
14545:
14509:
14399:
14338:
14287:
13898:
13835:
13807:
13779:
13643:
6888:
6816:
6636:
6615:
6594:
6529:
6514:
6478:
5887:
5872:
5824:
5597:
5558:
5551:
5135:
was established to test their faith. Jews who refused to convert were exiled
5128:
5108:
5002:
4967:
4940:
4867:
4831:
4813:
4628:
4596:
4466:
4458:
4454:
4225:
4221:
4201:
4154:
4114:
3964:—virtually independent provinces—to facilitate their administration. His son
3776:
3768:
3735:
3475:
3432:
3337:
3329:
3318:
3210:
3097:
3089:
3032:
3000:
2980:
2862:
2823:
2811:
2785:
2490:
2462:
2232:
2102:
1932:
1283:
was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king about whom much is known is
976:
963:
intensified, and those who persisted with theological views condemned at the
813:
801:
597:
471:
434:
18036:
6773:
5522:, Frenchmen assumed leadership of the Catholic Church. When the French king
4738:. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls decorated with sculpture in
4236:—the remission of sins—to all who took part. Tens of thousands of commoners
4232:. He declared the liberation of Jerusalem as its ultimate goal, and offered
3714:
3686:
by church authorities. Many popular mystics were women. Among them, the nun
3348:—the ban on priestly marriage—distinguished Catholic clergy from the laity.
3104:
in Europe, and it was adopted by Byzantine cavalrymen before the end of the
2928:, by local goldsmiths. Their unrealistic style, often influenced by Iranian
2822:
used extensive violence to crush opposition by rival Magyar chieftains. The
2694:, bypassing Khazar territory and connecting Central Asia with Europe across
1492:
with the Sasanian Empire, and the Persians seized Egypt, Syria, and much of
19276:
19244:
19044:
18949:
18795:
18769:
18678:
18360:
18348:
18296:
18256:
18251:
18115:
18110:
17939:
17769:
17640:
17558:
17161:
16611:
16508:
16312:
15821:
14694:
14581:
14536:
14513:
14206:
13867:
13671:
8890:
7234:
7069:
6822:
6797:
6576:
6130:
6055:
6022:
5964:
5956:
5800:
5761:
5578:
5573:
in Bohemia. The Bohemian movement began with teachings of Czech theologian
5431:
5349:
4979:
4743:
4604:
4541:
4330:
4318:
4138:
4134:
4122:
3807:
3683:
3558:
3349:
3266:
3262:
system—landholding with limited rights—benefited the military aristocracy.
3133:
3113:
3057:
3045:
2883:
2571:
2370:
2362:
2342:
2299:
2252:
1944:
1848:
1835:
1473:
1365:
1329:
1102:
870:
788:
707:
660:
656:
398:
351:
326:, continued into the Early Middle Ages. The movement of peoples led to the
15887:
The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages
15008:
14293:
Sacred Foundations: The Religious and Medieval Roots of the European State
13639:
The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350
12671:
7429:
5442:
4161:
in the Black Sea region. The new land and sea routes to the Far East were
3584:(r. 1056–1105) wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as
2933:
19184:
18932:
18927:
18919:
18904:
18729:
18634:
18445:
18281:
18246:
18226:
18206:
18149:
17924:
17802:
17787:
17759:
16762:
16465:
16372:
16034:
14748:
6285:
Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to
6194:
6146:
6118:
5621:
5502:, the sultans began murdering their brothers to avoid succession crises.
5466:. International coalitions, such as the crusades of Nicopolis (1396) and
5313:
5247:
5195:
5069:
4997:
and engineers. Crossbow use increased, partly because of the increase in
4990:
4838:
a popular and relatively-affordable option. In Italy, the innovations of
4747:
4450:
3984:
3951:
3738:
assumed power as female succession was recognised in most countries. The
3656:
3648:
3644:
3624:
3577:
3495:
3410:
3306:
3278:
3049:
3004:
2989:
2975:
2959:
2945:
2259:
2149:
2064:
2060:
2034:
2011:
1991:
1910:
1878:
1626:
1597:
1539:
1481:
1454:
1345:
1284:
1151:
1098:
820:
641:
550:
530:
509:
and local conflicts often escalated into full-scale warfare, such as the
494:
347:
227:
170:
160:
14887:
Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, AD 300–900
6276:" was a woman interred with an axe, sword, quiver of arrows, and spears.
6149:
inspired several influential intellectuals, including British historian
4619:; their popularity led to the fading of older liturgical forms, such as
4021:(which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as
3169:
2890:: the "arms" of a T-shaped building which are perpendicular to the long
1121:
18715:
18703:
18673:
18639:
18579:
18261:
17687:
17276:
16337:
16223:
15246:
14947:
8503:
7226:
7186:
6869:
6865:
6632:
6420:
6244:
6182:
6033:
5992:
5899:
5808:
5088:
4909:
4901:
4790:
4782:
4757:
Romanesque art (especially metalwork) was at its most sophisticated in
4729:
4573:
4572:
praised chaste love, and eroticism was primarily expressed in poems by
4545:
4544:
developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the
4524:
4462:
4446:
4426:
4353:
4326:
4233:
4166:
3671:
3667:
3369:
3117:
3085:
3036:
2967:
2929:
2914:
2638:
2478:
2374:
2267:
2263:
2201:
2071:
2019:
1952:
1856:
1855:
stations and conflicts over their control. In the post-Roman kingdoms,
1792:
1591:
1469:
1465:
1376:
1259:
947:
Roman society stabilised in a new form which differed from the earlier
898:
805:
648:
589:
15083:
Medieval Warfare Source Book, Volume I: Warfare In Western Christendom
14405:
The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians
12659:
6891:
is an example, although only a few of the family towers have survived.
5600:(d. 1546). The most characteristic late-medieval reform movement, the
4816:
windows. Gothic architecture emerged during the reconstruction of the
2682:
The Eastern European trade routes towards Asia were controlled by the
1748:. The Eastern Romans halted the Muslim expansion at Constantinople in
19149:
18986:
18721:
18683:
18276:
18090:
17734:
16646:
16415:
15712:
15574:
14866:
14381:
14265:
Prints and Printmaking: An Introduction to the History and Techniques
13615:
8551:
7284:
7259:
7205:(d. 1383) and his opponents. Kantakouzenos was crowned co-emperor as
7018:
6026:
6012:
6002:
5895:
5891:
5883:
5841:
5812:
5719:
5669:
5617:
5562:
5475:
5392:
5098:
5041:
4956:
4781:
facilitated the transmission of artistic motifs over long distances.
4758:
4751:
4712:
4656:
4434:
4338:
4130:
3861:
3388:
Impression of the earliest known seal of the northern German city of
3235:
3225:
3147:
3109:
2971:
2438:
2350:
2302:
were responsible for recording important royal grants and decisions.
2298:, who were roving inspectors and troubleshooters. The clerics of the
2275:
2204:
were the most prominent beneficiaries of royal favour. As hereditary
2197:
2114:
1831:
1796:
1725:
1501:
1442:
1224:
1082:
1003:
937:
925:
796:
727:
668:
611:
438:
17463:
15697:
14931:
13813:
Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400–1400
12743:
7035:
5946:
pottery. In France and Flanders, tapestry weaving of series such as
5898:. In Bohemia, religious enthusiasm, stern discipline and the use of
5348:(r. 1387–1412) consolidated Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in the 1397
5198:
in peasant dress, wearing her arms, in a late-15th-century miniature
5034:
3300:
928:) stabilised the imperial government for about two decades. After a
718:", the "Muslim Middle Ages", and similar subjects are not uncommon.
296:, and the early medieval period is alternatively referred to as the
19139:
18835:
18656:
18484:
18399:
18338:
18301:
17944:
17739:
16681:
16558:
16435:
14958:(2001) . "Northern Europe Invades the Mediterranean, 900–1200". In
10428:
10380:
9130:
7335:
7056:
6905:
6738:
6640:
6611:
6348:
5943:
5700:
5673:
5570:
5566:
5474:(r. 1449–53), died during the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan
5454:
and recurring civil wars further weakened the empire, allowing the
5396:
5112:
5073:
5064:. Climate anomalies caused agricultural crises, culminating in the
4978:
allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently. The spread of
4974:, with a consequent increase in production. The improvement of the
4925:
4847:
4786:
4688:
4537:
4294:
4209:
4178:
4079:
3961:
3703:
3474:
and controlled trade routes connecting the British islands and the
3416:
3406:
3360:
their sins to a priest at least once a year beginning in the early
3274:
3270:
3143:
3035:
and, by the end of the period, near-life-sized figures such as the
3024:
2906:
2887:
2875:
2770:
2517:
2248:
2217:
1940:
1890:
1817:
1800:
1733:
1691:
1601:
1561:
1550:
1493:
1333:
1306:
1288:
1129:
1094:
1015:
972:
894:
809:
745:
672:
637:
455:
405:
to protect their common interests. Western church leaders accepted
155:
94:
16210:
14991:
Murray, Alexander (2004). "Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished?".
14018:
An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000–1500
12491:
12371:
11127:
10767:
9352:
8659:
5902:
were key factors in Hussite victories. The earliest references to
5470:(1444), could not stop their advance. The last Byzantine emperor,
3177:
with the three classes of medieval society: those who prayed (the
2718:
was closely associated with the growth of centralised kingdoms in
2178:
1371:
The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in language.
1251:
was divided into even smaller political units, perhaps as many as
342:
civilisation and the invaders' traditions is well documented. The
19054:
18909:
18821:
17814:
17625:
17138:
16322:
14615:. Memoires of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 259.
12755:
8359:
7073:
6796:), the lyric correspondence between Abelard and his former lover
6403:
6361:
6314:
6186:
6037:
5939:
5911:
5786:
5574:
5515:
5402:
5235:
5183:
5006:
4960:
4839:
4812:
importance. The new solutions allowed the extensive use of large
4809:
4683:
4679:
4672:
4622:
4533:
to her former lover, reminding him her beauty and unselfish love.
4470:
4265:
4036:
3628:
3585:
3389:
3286:
3282:
3257:
3186:
3101:
3093:
2963:
2950:
2918:
2746:
2683:
2661:
2600:
2145:
2082:(d. 735), a native of northern England. The Byzantine missionary
1995:
1620:
1616:
1573:
1430:
1353:
1280:
1141:
1137:
1070:
1058:
980:
791:
in the United Kingdom. These large collections primarily contain
573:
13379:
10743:
10731:
10671:
8539:
6741:, and received a grant of tax exemption for the Orthodox Church.
6688:
4631:
which required the invention of a new notation system, known as
3514:
2449:(r. 843–76) controlled the eastern lands in modern-day Germany.
1951:(originally a voluntarily contribution) began to be levied as a
1144:(d. 493), who were partly (or fully) non-Roman. Odoacer deposed
1101:
ended up in Gaul; the Germanic groups now collectively known as
19074:
16201:
16195:
16190:
14099:(1986) . "From Europe to the World". In Fossier, Robert (ed.).
12983:
12222:
11466:
10584:
8347:
7383:
7381:
5960:
5903:
5876:
5864:
5231:
5156:
4994:
4975:
4948:
4859:
4851:
4843:
4739:
4153:
on the Byzantine border. The Mongol conquest was followed by a
4091:
4087:
3978:
began hearing litigants in regular sessions almost year-round.
3898:
3636:
3607:
received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as
3499:
3402:
3313:
3239:
3182:
3178:
2781:
2580:
2310:
2287:
2137:
1979:
1963:
1886:
1882:
1776:
1569:
1458:
1418:
1232:
1228:
1117:
1090:
1054:
936:(r. 306–37) restored internal peace and re-founded the city of
862:
792:
442:
430:
397:
nearly disappeared, and peasants could improve their status by
367:
310:, the collapse of centralised authority, the mass migration of
16213:– Comparative and interdisciplinary articles about the period.
13355:
12707:
12647:
12635:
12335:
11909:
11907:
11673:
11565:
11312:
11310:
11031:
10947:
10625:
10623:
9955:
9210:
9208:
9195:
9193:
7543:
6213:
Medieval writers had divided history into periods such as the
5254:(r. 1422–61) expelled the English from the country except for
4133:(r. 1241–56)—a grandson of Genghis Khan—set up his capital in
3250:
remained the dominant forms of landholding. Their owners owed
2216:(d. 714), also assumed power in the central Frankish realm of
1413:
19311:
19039:
19029:
19024:
18496:
18491:
17284:
15708:
Why the Middle Ages Matter Medieval Light on Modern Injustice
15507:
The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages, 400–1000
12767:
11531:
11529:
11295:
9844:
9721:
8695:
8683:
8671:
7765:
7507:
6959:
6549:
6344:
6269:
5375:
began annexing the Rus' principalities (often in competition
4998:
4854:(d. 1337) greatly increased the sophistication and status of
4821:
4801:
4778:
4616:
4608:
4516:
4481:
4302:
4252:(d. 1105). The crusaders defeated the Turks in major battles
4023:
3916:(r. 1035–87). The cross-channel empire further expanded when
3750:, allowing them to exert influence on state administration.
3697:
3537:
Roman aristocrats during the early 11th century, but Emperor
3440:
3341:
3247:
3075:
chasing Muslim horsemen in a miniature from the 12th-century
3053:
3016:
2739:
2652:
2502:
2434:
2430:
2334:
2283:
2121:
1948:
1805:
1729:
1372:
1244:
1081:
in 406, and into present-day Spain in 409; a year later, the
1074:
1066:
1046:
828:
414:
402:
311:
15733:
World Medievalism: The Middle Ages in Modern Textual Culture
15388:
Swanson, Robert (2021). "The Church and Religious Life". In
15103:
12911:
12875:
12839:
12563:
12138:
12126:
12051:
10572:
10452:
10027:
9552:
9550:
9489:
9487:
9244:
8599:
8443:
7497:
7495:
7435:
7378:
6390:
Examples include a 4th-century basilica uncovered under the
6068:(r. 1456–62). The first large illustrated printed book, the
5831:
that led to the European discovery of the Americas in 1492.
5383:(r. 1462–1505), the conquest of the great trading cities of
4900:(1352), the first known (albeit anachronistic) depiction of
2235:(r. 743–51) was deposed that year, and Charles Martel's son
1148:(r. 475–76), the last western emperor, assumed the title of
775:(d. 1750), which was followed by similar series such as the
755:
Certain aspects of medieval society (including the lives of
19169:
13283:
13199:
13151:
13127:
13031:
12995:
12947:
12923:
12887:
12827:
12779:
12599:
12539:
12443:
12407:
12186:
12114:
12027:
12015:
11904:
11865:
11637:
11601:
11589:
11490:
11454:
11442:
11406:
11307:
11259:
11115:
11043:
10995:
10983:
10923:
10863:
10827:
10791:
10755:
10659:
10620:
10440:
10332:
10320:
10296:
10195:
10099:
10015:
9991:
9979:
9895:
9733:
9699:
9697:
9682:
9646:
9622:
9610:
9586:
9499:
9388:
9376:
9328:
9316:
9304:
9268:
9232:
9220:
9205:
9190:
9166:
9142:
9118:
9046:
9022:
8986:
8962:
8950:
8926:
8854:
8830:
8758:
8722:
8623:
8611:
8587:
8563:
8335:
8239:
7890:
7888:
7334:
The portal sculptures of the Burgundian ducal mausoleum at
7052:
6310:
5649:
5439:, from the late-16th-century Ottoman illuminated chronicle
4917:
4830:
gradually moved from monasteries to lay workshops, and the
4715:, completed in three phases from the 13th to 15th centuries
4600:
3479:
3372:
priests, the only roles open to them in the church were as
3138:
2955:
2910:
2891:
2879:
2831:
2765:. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors
2706:
from the Khazars, and attempted to seize Constantinople in
2703:
2079:
2014:
and those engaged in non-reproductive sexual acts (such as
1928:
1775:, emerged as the centre of local resistance. The defeat of
1379:
languages (which evolved from Latin) collectively known as
1078:
1050:
702:; with the adoption of the three subdivisions in the early
446:
417:
influence, which accelerated the separation of the western
239:
27:
Period of European history from the 5th to the 15th century
15225:
The Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe
14912:(April 1942). "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'".
14136:
The Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe
13343:
13319:
13259:
13139:
13019:
12863:
12719:
12695:
12683:
12551:
12479:
12455:
12234:
12080:
12078:
12039:
11882:
11880:
11853:
11841:
11829:
11817:
11793:
11553:
11541:
11526:
11502:
11418:
11370:
11334:
11271:
11247:
11223:
11163:
11091:
11079:
11055:
11007:
10971:
10839:
10815:
10560:
10548:
10404:
10284:
10111:
9873:
9871:
9856:
9817:
9805:
9793:
9412:
9400:
9082:
8866:
8842:
8455:
8419:
8407:
8371:
8323:
8311:
8275:
8227:
8155:
8068:
8056:
8044:
8008:
7900:
7283:
One of the main Byzantine supporters of the church union,
5836:
5306:(r. 1479–1516) reinforced royal power. They completed the
5222:
the French throne in 1337. The English won the battles of
4058:
into independent principalities. Among them, the northern
3328:
cared for believers' spiritual needs and mainly served in
3265:
Most medieval Western thinkers divided society into three
2128:. Aristocrats regarded the churches and monasteries under
2124:
influence over church affairs reached its apex during the
2117:(d. 1000) wrote the first non-liturgical medieval dramas.
2070:
Monasteries had a deep effect on local society, acting as
2059:(d. 826) gained popularity after they were adopted in the
1275:. The Burgundians settled in Gaul, where they reorganised
600:
in 1442, and it became standard with the German historian
199:
16191:
De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History
15139:(2005). "Science and Religion". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.).
13439:
13367:
13307:
13295:
12971:
12935:
12815:
12611:
12575:
12467:
12431:
12419:
12395:
12311:
12258:
12102:
11805:
11781:
11757:
11709:
11697:
11685:
11661:
11211:
11187:
11175:
11151:
11139:
11103:
11067:
10875:
10683:
10635:
10368:
10344:
10248:
10183:
10147:
9834:
9832:
9757:
9745:
9574:
9562:
9547:
9523:
9511:
9484:
9472:
9460:
9436:
9424:
9364:
9010:
8998:
8902:
8818:
8806:
8794:
8770:
8527:
8191:
8020:
7825:
7719:
7717:
7704:
7702:
7651:
7492:
6937:, was completed by southern Italian builders in the late
5722:(d. 1375), both from Florence, indicate that the Italian
5616:(d. 1359) promoted a form of meditative prayers known as
5127:
led to the mass conversion of Spanish Jews in 1391. The "
4522:
4514:
4508:
3639:
monasticism of early Christianity, or wanted to live an "
3561:
in 1054. After a series of mutual excommunications, this
3373:
3200:
and 1060, severe droughts struck the Middle East and the
2208:, they were the power behind the throne beginning in the
513:. By the end of the period, the Byzantine Empire and the
15284:
Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians
14436:. Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching. Vol. 29.
14212:
Planets, Stars, and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200–1687
13427:
13403:
13331:
13187:
12959:
12791:
12527:
12347:
12277:
12275:
12273:
12210:
12162:
11931:
11733:
11649:
11382:
11358:
11346:
11235:
10512:
10500:
10488:
10308:
10272:
10238:
10236:
10234:
10207:
10051:
10003:
9694:
9670:
9658:
9634:
9598:
9058:
8878:
8782:
8395:
8287:
8251:
8203:
7984:
7924:
7885:
7873:
7849:
7789:
7777:
7741:
7675:
7591:
7321:(d. 1460) presided over an auction of African slaves at
6364:(d. 930) was one of the first music theorists to define
6234:
Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.
6145:
sparked intense nostalgia for the medieval period. This
6077:
4397:
were expected to operate a school beginning in the late
3742:
emerged as the central office of royal government and a
2325:, imposing the Roman form of worship on his domains and
19154:
15215:
Ringrose, Kathryn M. (2016) . "The Byzantine Body". In
13475:
13235:
13211:
13103:
13091:
13055:
13043:
12851:
12803:
12515:
12383:
12323:
12246:
12090:
12075:
12063:
12003:
11991:
11967:
11943:
11877:
11625:
11478:
11199:
11019:
10887:
10851:
10719:
10608:
10476:
10464:
10392:
10171:
10159:
9967:
9907:
9883:
9868:
9709:
9340:
9292:
9280:
9256:
9178:
9154:
8974:
8746:
8734:
8712:
8710:
8647:
8491:
7861:
7729:
7663:
7603:
7579:
6251:(d. 613) was torn to pieces by horses at the age of 70.
4651:
paved the way for the systematic study of Roman law at
3868:
to defend their judicial autonomy against his kinsmen.
3848:(r. 1266–85). During the civil war, the right of seven
3814:
to extort considerable concessions from them. In 1183,
3783:(r. 1105–54) united the Norman principalities into the
1986:
were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and
1615:
Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in
1243:
were still under the control of the native Britons and
385:
allowed crop yields to increase, and technological and
16107:
Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted
14806:
Secular Goldsmiths' Work in Medieval France: A History
14107:. Vol. III. Translated by Sarah Hanbury Tenison.
13415:
13391:
13271:
13175:
13163:
13115:
13067:
12623:
12503:
12359:
11955:
11892:
11769:
11745:
11577:
11514:
11430:
11394:
11283:
10959:
10935:
10779:
10647:
10596:
10536:
10524:
10416:
10219:
10135:
10123:
9829:
9781:
9448:
9106:
9094:
9070:
9034:
8914:
8479:
8431:
8383:
8299:
8179:
8167:
8133:
8131:
8104:
8092:
8080:
8032:
7960:
7936:
7912:
7714:
7699:
7687:
7639:
7627:
7615:
7531:
7296:
Although medieval documents often described people as
6221:, and considered their time to be the last before the
5971:
in Rome before completing the plan of the dome of the
5890:
was created in France in the late 1440s. Around 1438,
5875:
increased the quantity and quality of iron. The first
4313:
was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople and
2599:
in 879, acknowledging the existence of an independent
651:, "did not live to a single rhythm over this period".
370:
reunited many of the Western Roman lands by the early
19265:
13463:
13223:
13007:
12899:
12587:
12299:
12270:
11979:
11919:
11721:
11613:
10911:
10899:
10803:
10356:
10231:
10087:
10075:
10063:
10039:
9943:
9931:
9919:
9535:
8938:
8515:
8263:
8215:
7996:
7972:
7948:
7837:
7813:
7555:
7470:
7468:
7393:
6243:
Among the powerful women, the Arian Visigothic queen
4808:
to reinforce walls, and rib vaults to minimise their
4761:, in which distinct artistic personalities—including
4279:
The papacy also used the crusading ideology in other
4062:
emerged as the dominant power after Suzdalian troops
4005:
by 1230. Aragon emerged as a naval power, conquering
2738:
that hindered the accumulation of power by ambitious
2539:
1576:
woman could demand compensation from her husband for
1360:
a Byzantine imperial army in 681 and established the
14105:
The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages
14046:
Music in the Medieval West: Western Music in Context
13247:
13079:
12731:
12287:
12198:
12174:
12150:
11322:
10707:
10695:
10260:
9769:
8707:
8575:
8116:
7801:
7519:
7441:
7417:
5882:
As increased tax revenues allowed the employment of
5620:. A general fear of evil practices led to the first
5557:
Theological debates intensified. English theologian
4866:
resulted in greater production of secular art; many
3364:, which reinforced priestly control of their lives.
3232:, and the lack of invasions have been suggested.
3150:, which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain.
2356:
16135:
Europe After Rome: A New Cultural History, 500–1000
15951:
15908:
15312:. A History of East Central Europe. Vol. III.
13785:
The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom, 1000–1500
13451:
8467:
8143:
8128:
7753:
7567:
7453:
7122:, the Habsburgs were expanding in Austria, and the
5707:; many emphasised human dignity, and were known as
4963:allowed navigation at a great distance from shore.
4796:Structural innovations introduced the evolution of
4785:flourished; churches and castles were decorated by
3946:the northern French possessions to the French king
3289:) almost completely supplanted slavery by the late
2164:" could be achieved with submission to the papacy.
873:reached its greatest territorial extent during the
16876:
15823:Medieval Bodies: Life and Death in the Middle Ages
14774:Lee, Alexander (2021). "Culture and the Arts". In
14378:Routledge Studies in Medieval Religion and Culture
7480:
7465:
7405:
6381:, who was also a king of West Francia (r. 922–23).
4341:, provided an opportunity for the French monarchy
4301:, forcing the assimilation of a number of Slavic,
3930:in Ireland were established during his reign. The
3829:to elect their leaders; the princes' autonomy was
2270:the Saxons, conquered the Lombards, and created a
1305:—present-day Great Britain—settled in what is now
1045:into the empire. In 376, hundreds of thousands of
1002:, often by reinterpreting popular motifs of pagan
15447:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe
15309:East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500
14965:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe
14341:(2001). "Introduction". In Hankins, James (ed.).
13933:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe
13753:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe
7366:
7266:(r. 1457–71) king, which gave the Hungarian king
6377:Hugh Capet was a grandson of King Odo's brother,
4348:With its unique ceremonies and institutions, the
4309:peoples into the culture of Catholic Europe. The
3592:(pope 1073–85). Their quarrel developed into the
2921:or wells, halls, chapels, stables and workshops.
1990:. They were the first to use handbooks, known as
983:remained tolerated, although legislation limited
19431:
15883:
14612:Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes
14344:Leonardo Bruni: History of the Florentine People
7055:excluded those who married non-German women. In
5592:Mysticism and devotional literature flourished.
5332:sealed by the marriage of Lithuanian grand duke
5164:—at legislative assemblies known as parliament,
4145:disintegrated into small (but often aggressive)
3108:. Another development was the increasing use of
2773:(r. 976–1025) to expand the empire's frontiers.
2501:and settled there. In 911, the Viking chieftain
1057:(r. 364–78) to settle in Roman territory in the
908:) split the empire into separately-administered
560:
7164:the Orthodox Church in the Rus' principalities.
6853:
6343:and their association of specific varieties of
5258:. England fought a long civil war known as the
5053:The average annual temperature began declining
3974:, to oversee the royal officials' conduct. The
3666:Individuals who were thought to receive divine
3039:were common in important churches. In England,
2018:). In contrast with official Christianity, the
2010:and prescribed severe penances for adulterers,
1877:. The continent emerged as a major supplier of
1457:(r. 527–65). The Byzantines regularly employed
1364:, subjugating the local Slavic tribes near the
1235:) were formed. Smaller kingdoms in present-day
545:scholars began to emphasise human dignity, and
14286:
14049:. Western Music in Context: A Norton History.
13873:Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages (500–1300),
11571:
10773:
10749:
10737:
10677:
7201:(r. 1341–90), between the powerful aristocrat
5409:Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty
5403:Collapse of Byzantium and rise of the Ottomans
5046:revolt, from a 14th-century manuscript of the
4873:
916:in 286. This system, which eventually had two
18066:
18052:
17479:
16862:
16239:
14507:
14168:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
13816:. The Yale Intellectual History of the West.
7549:
7017:The Mongols were reportedly the first to use
6913:
6882:
6841:
6548:(d. 1219)—also an Anglo-Norman knight—seized
6415:Later Roman ornaments decorate Charlemagne's
5440:
5307:
5238:by 1360. Aristocratic feuds escalated into a
5181:
5173:
5160:groups—primarily the nobility, prelates, and
4955:, both of which increased sailing speed. The
4284:
4283:. The Iberian crusades became fused with the
3982:
3422:
3414:
3213:in the Middle East. In contrast, a period of
2546:Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty
2532:, and the Umayyads of Al-Andalus annexed the
2512:) received permission from the Frankish king
1340:. Coming from the Asian steppes, the nomadic
505:. Conflicts between ethnic and social groups
346:(or Byzantine Empire) survived, but lost the
16160:Women in Medieval History and Historiography
15729:
14514:"Introduction: Towards a Global Middle Ages"
7339:
6716:(r. 1137–1204) months after her marriage to
6174:
5784:
5776:
5768:
5758:
5505:
5096:
5039:
5001:warfare. This led to the use of closed-face
4727:
4699:
4645:The 11th-century discovery of a copy of the
4595:). Other literary genres included spiritual
4549:
3969:
3860:to his sons, establishing the basis for the
3806:. After an interval from 1125 and 1137, the
3757:reached its zenith under the pontificate of
3695:
3588:in his lands, but his appointments outraged
3467:
3298:
3255:
2637:, driving back the Magyars and fighting the
1589:
1409:Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty
1405:Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty
15994:
14486:An Environmental History of Medieval Europe
7303:
7297:
7151:. The Swedes left the Kalmar Union in 1448.
6820:
6512:
6332:Musica disciplina (The Discipline of Music)
6330:
6272:ship after her son died; the 10th-century "
6053:
6041:
5631:
5601:
5367:undermined the Golden Horde's power in the
5165:
4789:, and clerical vestments were adorned with
4660:
4646:
4620:
4487:
4479:
4410:
4189:Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty
3324:The clergy was divided into two types. The
2456:There was a brief reunion of the empire by
2291:
1635:
1604:also became the norm of secular law in the
1446:
1300:
1149:
776:
764:
740:A letter from Zhiznomir to Mikula, written
605:
18059:
18045:
17486:
17472:
16869:
16855:
16246:
16232:
15799:Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages
15252:The Middle Ages: A Very Short Introduction
15114:The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology
14562:. A Norton Introduction to Music History.
7436:Onions, Friedrichsen & Burchfield 1994
7181:(r. 1282–1328) disinherited his grandson,
6490:Examples include vivid caricatures in the
4090:. The Cumans supported the Bulgarians and
3541:(r. 1039–56) broke their power and placed
3063:
2333:, leading to the compilation of the first
2160:indicated that the reformist idea of the "
1982:were instrumental in religious education.
1652:to Christianity, but the Jewish community
1445:; the most comprehensive compilation, the
698:, the Middle Ages were often known as the
596:(d. 1444) was the first to use tripartite
15884:Kaufmann, J. E.; Kaufmann, H. W. (2004).
15479:The Making of Polities: Europe, 1300–1500
14883:
14800:
14721:
14535:
14426:
14258:
13986:
13879:. Brill's Companion to European History.
13611:The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320
13409:
13385:
13337:
9862:
9739:
9727:
9688:
9652:
9628:
9616:
9592:
8701:
8689:
8677:
8665:
8644:, pp. 15, 227–228, 236–237, 268–271.
8533:
8449:
7831:
5302:(r. 1474–1504) and her Aragonese husband
4765:(d. 1205)—became apparent, and an almost-
4635:, mainly developed by the music theorist
2445:, and his imperial title was recognised.
1197:after the end of the Western Roman Empire
16253:
16100:
15819:
15793:
15754:
15591:
15214:
15165:The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320
15023:
14826:
14727:Early Medieval Art in the British Museum
14482:
14314:
14184:
13965:The Pictorial Arts of the West: 800–1200
13846:Macmillan International Higher Education
13696:Women in Early Medieval Europe, 400–1100
13632:
13421:
12917:
12881:
12845:
12144:
12132:
12057:
11376:
10785:
10614:
10590:
10578:
10518:
10458:
10117:
10105:
10033:
8872:
8752:
8641:
8605:
8497:
8245:
7657:
6785:Examples include the spiritual works of
6496:and more naturalistic miniatures in the
6436:An early example of a stone fortress is
6193:, influenced historical research in the
6095:
5840:
5663:
5650:Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration
5498:to the highest offices. During the late
5430:
5190:
5033:
4887:
4703:
4500:
4200:
3870:
3718:Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190
3713:
3655:who earned their living by begging (the
3513:
3383:
3228:(bringing new lands into production), a
3168:
3067:
2855:
2565:
2524:until the invaders were defeated at the
2274:in northern Spain. Frankish troops also
2177:
1900:
1885:for Al-Andalus, northern Africa and the
1821:
1756:; in the west, Islamic troops conquered
1677:
1610:
1412:
1193:Post-Roman kingdoms and tribes, and the
1188:
851:
735:
617:It customarily spans the period between
564:
15630:
15532:
15500:
15414:
15387:
15355:
15330:
15186:
15077:
14908:
14862:The Routledge Companion to the Crusades
14398:
14337:
14095:
14039:
14014:
13958:
13834:
13724:The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150–750
13579:
13289:
13241:
13217:
13205:
13181:
13169:
13157:
13133:
13109:
13061:
13049:
13037:
13001:
12953:
12929:
12893:
12857:
12833:
12821:
12809:
12785:
12605:
12569:
12545:
12521:
12449:
12413:
12389:
12329:
12252:
12192:
12120:
12096:
12084:
12069:
12033:
12021:
12009:
11997:
11973:
11961:
11949:
11913:
11886:
11871:
11739:
11727:
11643:
11631:
11607:
11595:
11496:
11484:
11460:
11448:
11412:
11316:
11265:
11205:
11049:
11025:
11001:
10989:
10965:
10929:
10893:
10869:
10857:
10833:
10797:
10761:
10665:
10629:
10482:
10470:
10446:
10398:
10374:
10350:
10338:
10326:
10302:
10290:
10254:
10225:
10201:
10189:
10177:
10165:
10153:
10141:
10129:
10081:
10069:
10045:
10021:
9997:
9985:
9973:
9961:
9925:
9913:
9901:
9889:
9850:
9838:
9823:
9811:
9799:
9787:
9763:
9751:
9580:
9568:
9556:
9529:
9517:
9505:
9493:
9394:
9382:
9346:
9334:
9322:
9310:
9298:
9286:
9274:
9262:
9250:
9238:
9226:
9214:
9199:
9184:
9172:
9160:
9148:
9136:
9124:
9088:
9076:
9052:
9028:
8992:
8968:
8956:
8932:
8860:
8836:
8824:
8764:
8728:
8653:
8629:
8617:
8593:
8569:
8557:
8545:
8461:
8437:
8425:
8413:
8389:
8377:
8365:
8353:
8341:
8329:
8317:
8281:
8233:
8221:
8209:
8161:
8074:
8062:
8050:
8026:
8014:
8002:
7990:
7978:
7954:
7942:
7930:
7918:
7906:
7879:
7855:
7795:
7783:
7747:
7735:
7723:
7693:
7681:
7645:
7537:
7459:
7399:
7387:
7089:The most successful dynasties were the
6691:during his imperial coronation in Rome.
5924:
5837:Technological and military developments
4947:. Other improvements to ships included
4943:method rather than the Roman system of
4667:. Greek and Islamic influence replaced
4599:, chronicles, philosophical poems, and
4576:. Chivalric literature was inspired by
3356:in the west. Laypeople were obliged to
3336:lived under a religious rule as monks,
2841:
2641:. After an appeal by the widowed Queen
2245:donation of central Italian territories
433:and secular powers. With the spread of
14:
19432:
16156:
16061:
15669:
15566:
15305:
15277:
15168:. The Short Oxford History of Europe.
15135:
14990:
14954:
14700:The Pelican History of Medieval Europe
14661:
14608:
14580:
14552:
14464:. Elements in the Global Middle Ages.
14369:
13925:
13897:
13844:. History of Europe (Third ed.).
13806:
13778:
13660:
13604:
13550:
13532:. What is History? (Second ed.).
13522:
13481:
13433:
13397:
13349:
13325:
13277:
13265:
13193:
13145:
13121:
13073:
13025:
12989:
12869:
12773:
12749:
12725:
12701:
12689:
12653:
12629:
12509:
12461:
12365:
12240:
12228:
12045:
11985:
11937:
11925:
11898:
11859:
11847:
11835:
11823:
11799:
11775:
11751:
11679:
11655:
11619:
11583:
11559:
11547:
11535:
11520:
11508:
11472:
11436:
11424:
11400:
11340:
11289:
11277:
11253:
11229:
11169:
11121:
11097:
11085:
11061:
11013:
10977:
10953:
10941:
10845:
10821:
10653:
10602:
10566:
10554:
10542:
10530:
10506:
10494:
10434:
10422:
10410:
10386:
10362:
10314:
10278:
10242:
10213:
10093:
10057:
10009:
9949:
9877:
9703:
9676:
9664:
9640:
9454:
9418:
9406:
9112:
9100:
9064:
9040:
8944:
8920:
8884:
8788:
8521:
8509:
8197:
7807:
7669:
7609:
7597:
7585:
7573:
7513:
7501:
7423:
7411:
6971:Prominent examples include cathedrals
5023:
3912:, who conquered England in 1066 under
3802:before clashing with the papacy under
3709:
3048:. In Christian Spain, artists adopted
2806:consolidated authority in Bohemia. In
2788:, Magyars, and the inhabitants of the
2595:(r. 871–99) reached an agreement with
2578:, with Christ receiving a church from
2516:(r. 898–922) to settle in present-day
2469:(r. 899–911) and the selection of the
2025:The Early Middle Ages saw the rise of
1518:In Western Europe, values attached to
1262:moved to Italy from the Balkans under
1178:
18040:
17493:
17467:
16850:
16227:
16128:
16033:
15844:
15472:
15418:The Western Church in the Middle Ages
15245:
15161:
15027:Making Money in the Early Middle Ages
14747:
14633:
14233:
14205:
14156:
14125:
13866:
13745:
13717:
13692:
13497:
13469:
13457:
13445:
13373:
13361:
13313:
13301:
13229:
13013:
12977:
12941:
12905:
12680:, pp. 230–235, 250–252, 325–326.
12641:
12617:
12593:
12581:
12557:
12533:
12497:
12485:
12473:
12437:
12425:
12401:
12377:
12341:
12317:
12305:
12293:
12281:
12264:
12108:
11811:
11787:
11763:
11715:
11703:
11691:
11667:
11217:
11193:
11181:
11157:
11145:
11133:
11109:
11073:
11037:
10917:
10905:
10881:
10809:
10725:
10713:
10701:
10689:
10641:
10266:
9937:
9775:
9715:
9541:
9478:
9466:
9442:
9430:
9370:
9358:
9016:
9004:
8980:
8908:
8899:, pp. 183–189, 209–213, 219–220.
8896:
8848:
8812:
8800:
8776:
8740:
8716:
8581:
8485:
8473:
8401:
8305:
8293:
8269:
8257:
8185:
8173:
8149:
8137:
8122:
8110:
8098:
8086:
8038:
7966:
7894:
7771:
7759:
7708:
7633:
7621:
7525:
7486:
7474:
7447:
7372:
7042:of its population to the Black Death.
6956:Cathedral of Christ's Transfiguration
6627:The idea is mainly attributed to the
6400:Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe
6078:Modern perceptions and historiography
5530:against the wealthy Knights Templar,
4970:for crops increased land use by over
4627:. Composers seceded from traditional
4405:quickly marginalised the traditional
3794:, the Ottonians were replaced by the
3694:culminated in the compilation of the
3478:with Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.
3132:rather than true cavalry. The use of
2838:the Byzantines between 971 and 1018.
2167:
1905:An 11th-century illustration of Pope
1425:, bodyguards, clerics and courtiers (
1398:
835:
537:and dissident movements condemned as
478:prompted the construction of massive
19318:
15705:; Remensnyder, Amy G., eds. (2012).
15439:
15048:
14858:
14693:
14587:Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
14454:
14373:Misconceptions About the Middle Ages
14185:Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph (1973).
14067:
13253:
13085:
12965:
12797:
12761:
12737:
12713:
12677:
12665:
12353:
12216:
12204:
12180:
12168:
12156:
11388:
11364:
11352:
11328:
11301:
11241:
9604:
7867:
7843:
7819:
7561:
7353:) are International Gothic examples.
7209:(r. 1347–54), but his conflict with
5660:Spanish colonization of the Americas
5458:to establish a strategic bridgehead
5336:(r. 1377–1434) and the Polish queen
5143:in 1497. Most Spanish Jews left for
5131:" were suspected of heresy, and the
4880:List of medieval European scientists
4510:A chantar m'er de so qu'eu no volria
4383:
3938:(r. 1189–99), but Richard's brother
3526:, built mainly between 1130 and 1156
2441:(r. 817–55) to go with his lands in
1811:
1500:, but could not conquer it. Emperor
1474:seized North Africa from the Vandals
1167:
953:Christianisation of the Roman Empire
501:, began the Late Middle Ages in the
18001:History of the Mediterranean region
16831:
16276:Decline of the Western Roman Empire
16198:News and articles about the period.
14865:. Routledge Companions to History.
14773:
13097:
7101:in central and eastern Europe, the
5150:
5048:Chroniques de France ou de St Denis
5012:
4862:. Increasing prosperity during the
4325:(r. 1259–82), ruler of a Byzantine
3379:
3153:
3112:and the progressive replacement of
2966:and the rich Anglo-Saxon burial at
2898:became an extraordinary example of
2852:pre-Romanesque art and architecture
2830:raiders sacked the Khazar capital,
1994:, to determine appropriate acts of
1534:were also created. The writings of
24:
16368:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire
16157:Stuard, Susan Mosher, ed. (1987).
16080:The New Cambridge Medieval History
16013:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15974:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15931:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15863:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15773:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15649:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15610:The New Cambridge Medieval History
15559:
15396:. Short Oxford History of Europe.
14837:When Science and Christianity Meet
14782:. Short Oxford History of Europe.
13554:Fashion: A Very Short Introduction
7342:Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
7076:firms during the 1340s, when King
6836:Among the earliest law codes, the
5518:in 1309. During the period of the
5286:was ruled by feuding local lords.
5234:, and took control of an expanded
4329:, recaptured the city in 1261 but
3852:to elect the king was reaffirmed.
3833:during the reign of his grandson,
3771:war bands from the local Lombard,
3619:sometimes led to the rejection of
3504:expulsion of the Jews from England
2540:New kingdoms and Byzantine revival
2337:prayer books by the middle of the
1507:
1312:Other monarchies were established
1299:aristocracy. Britons fleeing from
640:), and 1517 (the beginning of the
497:, which reduced the population by
25:
19526:
19250:Western European and Others Group
16798:Historiography in the Middle Ages
16183:
14237:God and Reason in the Middle Ages
13727:. Library of World Civilization.
13498:Adams, Laurie Schneider (2011) .
12668:, pp. 250, 290–293, 325–327.
8512:, pp. 77–78, 90–93, 116–117.
6655:(r. 1109–26) reigned in León and
5534:(pope 1305–14) could not prevent
4966:The development of a three-field
4928:were first built after 1100, and
4356:, which gave rise to the sale of
4333:remained under western rule. The
3734:was strengthening, and the first
3509:
3084:The creation of heavily-armoured
2591:in Ireland. The Anglo-Saxon king
2357:Breakup of the Carolingian Empire
2286:), who administered the empire's
1799:controlled North Africa, and the
1732:in Arabia during the lifetime of
1464:Justinian nearly died during the
1053:received permission from Emperor
1037:to encroach beginning in the mid-
710:concept tend to avoid its use in
19412:
19395:
19378:
19361:
19344:
19327:
19299:
19287:
19275:
17986:Bibliography of European history
17581:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
16830:
16821:
16820:
16810:
16202:Medieval History Database (MHDB)
16165:University of Pennsylvania Press
15801:. Translated by Howlett, Janet.
15482:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
14489:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
14079:The University of Michigan Press
13788:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
13699:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
7328:
7311:
7290:
7277:
7252:
7237:(d. 1456) defeated the Ottomans
7220:
7193:was fought over the regency for
7167:
7154:
7137:
7112:
7083:
7062:
7045:
7028:
7011:
7002:
6965:
6944:
6929:The Church of the Virgin in the
6923:
6894:
6875:
6830:
6779:
6765:
6754:in northern Greece and Albania,
6744:
6727:
6694:
6678:
6646:
6621:
6604:
6586:
6569:
6555:
6522:
6505:
6484:
6463:
6454:
6430:
6409:
6384:
6371:
6354:
6324:
6299:
5952:became a major luxury industry.
5344:to Catholicism. In Scandinavia,
5083:The trauma of the plague led to
5038:Execution of ringleaders of the
4916:. In Europe, horizontal treadle
4289:, and reduced Al-Andalus to the
3482:were established and flourished
3019:. These were often protected by
2745:Byzantium revived under Emperor
2401:
2392:
2383:
1955:on agrarian products during the
1663:
1496:. The Avars, Slavs and Persians
1291:(r. 509–11), the founder of the
1108:, and the Vandals conquered the
848:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
238:
198:
136:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
64:
18011:History of Western civilization
17614:Christianity in the Middle Ages
16296:Christianity in the Middle Ages
16291:Decline of Hellenistic religion
16219:Resources for Medieval Studies.
15736:. Oxford Textual Perspectives.
14924:The University of Chicago Press
14640:Europe's Barbarians: AD 200–600
14349:The I Tatti Renaissance Library
13841:Early Medieval Europe, 300–1000
6279:
6254:
6237:
6228:
6181:school such as the medievalist
6157:(d. 1879), and German composer
5819:(d. 1500) sailed as far as the
4800:from Romanesque. They included
4390:Renaissance of the 12th century
4137:on the Volga, establishing the
4098:that led to the restoration of
3663:) were approved by the papacy.
3494:which manifested itself in the
2749:(r. 867–86) and his successors
2562:Christianisation of Kievan Rus'
975:among the Germanic peoples and
903:
647:Europe, according to historian
529:, Christian kingdoms won their
17855:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
17798:Christianity in the modern era
17569:Christianity in late antiquity
16878:European Middle Ages by region
16574:Crisis of the late Middle Ages
15337:. Daily Life through History.
15314:University of Washington Press
15001:West Virginia University Press
14755:. The Pelican History of Art.
14731:Trustees of the British Museum
14668:Europe in the High Middle Ages
14617:American Philosophical Society
14270:University of California Press
13580:Backman, Clifford R. (2022) .
7258:The Bohemian Diet elected the
7105:in the Mediterranean, and the
7080:repudiated their loans to him.
6864:) in Norway. In contrast, the
6309:(d. 823) held lands along the
6207:
6092:Middle Ages in popular culture
5750:The Book of the City of Ladies
5747:), wrote the feminist utopian
5703:(d. 1374) intensively studied
5266:(r. 1483–85) died fighting at
5087:and the self-mortification of
5030:Crisis of the late Middle Ages
4580:and the Celtic legends of the
4238:formed loosely-organised bands
4224:(pope 1088–99) proclaimed the
4074:. The kings of Hungary seized
3934:remained intact under his son
3623:by radical groups such as the
2550:Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)
2101:, now known for Constantine's
1920:separation of church and state
1896:
1498:attacked Constantinople in 626
1010:became a principal element of
858:Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs
655:, the conversion of Europe to
13:
1:
18006:History of the European Union
16748:Disability in the Middle Ages
16421:Rise of the Republic of Genoa
16353:Rise of the Venetian Republic
15512:The Penguin History of Europe
15334:Daily Life in Medieval Europe
14673:The Penguin History of Europe
14483:Hoffmann, Richard C. (2014).
14317:Religion in the Medieval West
14166:. Translated by Peter Lewis.
13583:The Worlds of Medieval Europe
13490:
12752:, pp. 248–249, 251, 254.
8560:, pp. 143–150, 160, 226.
6801:
6790:
6579:on their clothes and live in
6575:Jews were required to wear a
6445:
6286:
6100:Medieval illustration of the
5915:
5849:
5741:
5685:
5624:
5359:After Polish, Hungarian, and
5054:
4933:
4884:military of the Mongol Empire
4742:and are typically covered by
4639:
4589:
4529:(female troubadour) known as
4149:such as the one ruled by the
3565:led to the separation of the
3218:
3194:
3185:), and those who worked (the
3007:triumph paved the way for an
2796:
2608:
2506:
2411:Territorial divisions of the
2095:
1871:
1554:
1543:
1514:Early medieval European dress
1421:of Justinian with Archbishop
1217:
779:Monumenta Germaniae Historica
618:
614:term first recorded in 1604.
561:Terminology and periodisation
194:
79:
53:
17303:Hereditary Kingdom of Norway
15452:Oxford Illustrated Histories
15415:Thomson, John A. F. (1998).
15331:Singman, Jeffrey L. (1999).
14970:Oxford Illustrated Histories
14884:McCormick, Michael (2010) .
13938:Oxford Illustrated Histories
13758:Oxford Illustrated Histories
12764:, pp. 424–425, 561–604.
12500:, pp. 328–332, 346–349.
12380:, pp. 180–181, 317–322.
11136:, pp. 336–337, 367–388.
10437:, pp. 166–167, 213–214.
10389:, pp. 209–212, 219–222.
9361:, pp. 131–134, 141–142.
7360:
6840:was compiled in Sicily, the
6827:, a hymn to the Virgin Mary.
6153:(d. 1881), French architect
5676:(French, early 15th century)
5630:and a popular handbook, the
5060:, gradually introducing the
4129:. Their commander-in-chief,
3702:, a 13th-century summary of
3557:and was excommunicated by a
3547:head of the Byzantine Church
3307:spread of German settlements
2992:of Ireland and Northumbria.
2792:. After Moravia fell due to
2757:(r. 913–59), members of the
2686:. Their multi-ethnic empire
2667:led to the formation of the
2558:Christianisation of Bulgaria
2251:marked the beginning of the
1488:defences collapsed during a
1164:maintained a claim on them.
1124:fell apart after his death.
897:(landowning) class. Emperor
489:Calamities which included a
181:Exploration of North America
36:Middle Ages (disambiguation)
7:
19515:History of Europe by period
17965:Russian invasion of Ukraine
17576:Crisis of the Third Century
15803:University of Chicago Press
15362:Early Medieval Architecture
14842:University of Chicago Press
14438:University of Toronto Press
14315:Hamilton, Bernard (2003) .
14015:Epstein, Steven A. (2009).
9139:, pp. xxvi–xxvii, 396.
7241:, and the Moldavian prince
7120:lands of the Bohemian Crown
5906:were recorded in the early
5848:, an agricultural calendar
5718:(d. 1321) and the prose of
5642:), laid the groundwork for
4874:Technology and the military
4769:is seen in works such as a
4208:in Syria, built during the
4172:
4047:, and the Swedes conquered
3779:between 1016 and 1091, and
3293:. Unlike slaves, serfs had
2614:) united the Picts and the
1787:and its replacement by the
1710: Expansion during the
1700: Expansion during the
1586:complications at childbirth
883:Crisis of the Third Century
767:Rerum italicarum scriptores
659:, took place in waves, and
10:
19531:
18021:Military history of Europe
18016:Maritime history of Europe
16549:Rise of the Ottoman Empire
16084:Cambridge University Press
16017:Cambridge University Press
15978:Cambridge University Press
15935:Cambridge University Press
15867:Cambridge University Press
15828:W. W. Norton & Company
15777:Cambridge University Press
15653:Cambridge University Press
15614:Cambridge University Press
15484:Cambridge University Press
15107:; Friedrichsen, G. W. S.;
15032:Princeton University Press
14993:Essays in Medieval Studies
14892:Cambridge University Press
14564:W. W. Norton & Company
14491:Cambridge University Press
14466:Cambridge University Press
14298:Princeton University Press
14242:Cambridge University Press
14217:Cambridge University Press
14109:Cambridge University Press
14023:Cambridge University Press
13998:Cambridge University Press
13968:. Pelican History of Art.
13790:Cambridge University Press
13729:W. W. Norton & Company
13701:Cambridge University Press
8368:, pp. 97–98, 117–118.
7338:and the miniatures in the
6540:in southern Scotland from
6499:Gospel Book of Charlemagne
6477:, indicate the renewal of
6442:Theobald I, Count of Blois
6396:Cathedral of Saint Étienne
6347:, and also the singing of
6104:in a 14th-century copy of
6084:Dark Ages (historiography)
6081:
5653:
5416:
5413:Rise of the Ottoman Empire
5406:
5027:
5016:
4877:
4820:, near Paris, under Abbot
4804:to reduce lateral thrust,
4387:
4297:tribes developed into the
4186:
4176:
4143:Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate
3164:
3157:
3023:made of gold, pearls, and
2845:
2655:in 951. His coronation as
2543:
2360:
2171:
1970:(pope 590–604) had sent a
1913:, dictating to a secretary
1815:
1667:
1511:
1402:
1182:
1171:
940:as the eastern capital of
845:
839:
725:
721:
588:, the Middle Ages and the
458:, led to the expansion of
29:
19020:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
19000:
18918:
18755:
18590:
18461:Standard Average European
18329:
18158:
18078:
17991:Genetic history of Europe
17973:
17778:
17594:
17534:
17501:
17402:Principality of Chernigov
17311:
17232:Principality of Catalonia
17129:
17120:
17017:
16897:
16884:
16806:
16735:
16594:
16489:
16476:Mongol invasion of Europe
16381:
16261:
15976:. Vol. IV (Part 2).
15933:. Vol. IV (Part 1).
15730:D'Arcens, Louise (2021).
12716:, pp. 407, 412, 472.
7550:Holmes & Standen 2018
6758:in western Anatolia, and
6733:A good example is Prince
6421:royal palace at Ingelheim
6366:consonance and dissonance
6268:assumed the command of a
6074:, was published in 1493.
5829:his voyage of exploration
5753:. The standardisation of
5506:Controversy in the church
5066:Great Famine of 1315–1317
5005:, heavy body armour, and
4912:, and the manufacture of
4700:Architecture and the arts
4443:Ancient Greek philosopher
4343:to expand into the region
4337:, against the Cathars of
4054:In the east, Kievan Rus'
3748:representative assemblies
3571:Eastern Orthodox Churches
3181:), those who fought (the
2962:from Childeric's tomb at
2645:(d. 999) for protection,
2313:(d. 804). He developed a
2279:"emperor of the Romans".
2035:hagiographical literature
2029:. Monastic ideals spread
1453:, was made under Emperor
1008:Christ's enthroned figure
680:Romance language-speaking
218:
197:
189:
128:
102:
63:
52:
47:
19160:Lancaster House Treaties
18650:Christian existentialism
18610:Ancient Roman philosophy
18600:Ancient Greek philosophy
17381:Bosnia and Herzegovina (
15306:Sedlar, Jean W. (1994).
15257:Very Short Introductions
15141:Encyclopedia of Religion
14609:Ilardi, Vincent (2007).
14353:Harvard University Press
14051:W. W. Norton and Company
13559:Very Short Introductions
13551:Arnold, Rebecca (2009).
13529:What is Medieval History
13501:A History of Western Art
13364:, pp. 241–253, 264.
12992:, pp. 302–315, 322.
12644:, pp. 177–178, 359.
12344:, pp. 165, 194–196.
12231:, pp. 153, 198–208.
11475:, pp. 266, 295–301.
11304:, pp. 107, 209–224.
11040:, pp. 185–188, 299.
8668:, pp. 753–754, 763.
8548:, pp. 136, 141–142.
8356:, pp. 116, 195–197.
7774:, pp. 65–68, 82–94.
7231:league of Albanian lords
7118:The Luxemburgs held the
6902:Basilica of Saint-Sernin
6815:(d. 1158), the poems of
6200:
5949:The Lady and the Unicorn
5914:quickly began to spread
5644:early modern witch hunts
5274:, consolidated power as
5085:pogroms against the Jews
4676:positional number system
4659:in Catholic Europe: the
4323:Michael VIII Palaiologos
4035:(two dynasties from the
3888:Robert, Count of Mortain
3096:composite bow. The Avar
2917:, fortified courtyards,
2554:Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
2499:raided the British Isles
2429:. A kingdom between the
2120:In Western Christendom,
1658:Muslim conquest of Spain
1324:in northwestern Iberia,
1287:(d. 481). Under his son
1266:(r. 493–526). He set up
521:a new Muslim power: the
387:agricultural innovations
18938:Equality before the law
18145:Romano-Germanic culture
17996:History of Christianity
17312:Central, Eastern Europe
17018:Central, Eastern Europe
16431:Investiture Controversy
16401:Second Bulgarian Empire
16140:Oxford University Press
15820:Hartnell, Jack (2019).
15738:Oxford University Press
15533:Wickham, Chris (2016).
15456:Oxford University Press
15398:Oxford University Press
15371:Oxford University Press
15261:Oxford University Press
15229:Oxford University Press
15170:Oxford University Press
15119:Oxford University Press
15061:Oxford University Press
15049:Nees, Lawrence (2002).
15024:Naismith, Rory (2023).
14974:Oxford University Press
14784:Oxford University Press
14663:Jordan, William Chester
14592:Oxford University Press
14528:Oxford University Press
14410:Oxford University Press
14188:Life in a Medieval City
14140:Oxford University Press
13942:Oxford University Press
13909:Oxford University Press
13762:Oxford University Press
13693:Bitel, Lisa M. (2002).
13588:Oxford University Press
13563:Oxford University Press
12656:, pp. 24, 394–395.
11682:, pp. 82, 93, 109.
10956:, pp. 60, 149–152.
7516:, pp. 21, 132–134.
7348:Very Rich Hours of the
7177:broke out when Emperor
7068:This happened with the
6908:is one of the earliest
6536:(d. 1141) received the
6425:kings' palace at Oviedo
6305:Among the Slav rulers,
6189:, with its emphasis on
6141:, the brutality of the
5910:, and the use of cheap
5855:, from a manuscript of
5526:(r. 1285–1314) brought
5330:Polish–Lithuanian union
5230:, captured the city of
4920:were introduced in the
4828:Manuscript illumination
4678:, and the invention of
4603:. Theatre developed in
4401:, and the more-lenient
4250:Raymond of Saint-Gilles
3886:and his half-brothers,
3651:. In the 13th century,
3594:Investiture Controversy
3092:in place of the weaker
3064:Military and technology
2896:Great Mosque of Córdoba
2834:, in 965. Bulgaria was
2437:rivers was created for
2307:Carolingian Renaissance
2134:their personal property
2051:(d. 547) developed the
1998:—typically prayers and
1941:unilateral modification
1795:(or Muslim Spain), the
1087:sacked the city of Rome
1020:illuminated manuscripts
881:combined to create the
714:, although studies of "
665:interpersonal relations
636:'s first voyage to the
427:Investiture Controversy
19495:15th century in Europe
19490:14th century in Europe
19485:13th century in Europe
19480:12th century in Europe
19475:11th century in Europe
19470:10th century in Europe
19100:Eastern European Group
18689:Continental philosophy
18620:Judeo-Christian ethics
18605:Hellenistic philosophy
18086:Cradle of civilization
17820:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
17196:Burgundian Netherlands
17037:Bosnia and Herzegovina
16788:Post-classical history
16544:Fall of Constantinople
16451:Capet–Plantagenet feud
16318:First Bulgarian Empire
15279:Russel, Jeffrey Burton
15162:Power, Daniel (2006).
14643:. The Medieval World.
14461:The Global Middle Ages
14234:Grant, Edward (2001).
13667:Art of the Middle Ages
13662:Benton, Janetta Rebold
13388:, pp. 17–18, 137.
12776:, pp. 26, 32, 96.
10593:, pp. 45–48, 116.
9964:, pp. 6, 11, 171.
7390:, pp. xvii–xviii.
7340:
7317:The Portuguese prince
7304:
7298:
6914:
6883:
6854:
6852:) in Castile, and the
6842:
6838:Constitutions of Melfi
6821:
6513:
6331:
6249:Brunhilda of Austrasia
6175:
6110:
6054:
6042:
5967:(d. 1446) studied the
5860:
5785:
5777:
5769:
5759:
5677:
5632:
5602:
5447:
5441:
5427:Hungarian–Ottoman Wars
5423:Bulgarian–Ottoman wars
5419:Byzantine–Ottoman wars
5379:). Under Grand Prince
5354:Danish–Norwegian union
5340:(r. 1384–99), and the
5308:
5199:
5182:
5174:
5166:
5097:
5050:
5040:
4904:
4728:
4716:
4661:
4647:
4621:
4550:
4534:
4523:
4515:
4509:
4488:
4480:
4445:, and his emphasis on
4429:about the concept of "
4411:
4317:in 1204, setting up a
4285:
4217:
3983:
3970:
3928:Anglo-Norman lordships
3905:
3719:
3696:
3527:
3468:
3423:
3415:
3393:
3344:. The introduction of
3299:
3256:
3190:
3100:introduced the use of
3081:
2871:
2870:from the British Isles
2868:illuminated manuscript
2763:Macedonian Renaissance
2665:fight for independence
2629:established itself in
2584:
2292:
2193:
1914:
1839:
1762:the Visigothic Kingdom
1716:
1690: Expansion under
1684:early Muslim conquests
1674:Early Muslim conquests
1636:
1623:
1590:
1447:
1434:
1427:Basilica of San Vitale
1362:First Bulgarian Empire
1301:
1198:
1150:
866:
777:
765:
752:
642:Protestant Reformation
630:fall of Constantinople
606:
577:
282:personal relationships
176:Fall of Constantinople
34:. For other uses, see
32:Post-classical history
19465:9th century in Europe
19460:8th century in Europe
19455:7th century in Europe
19450:6th century in Europe
19220:Three Seas Initiative
19195:Pacific Islands Forum
19060:British–Irish Council
18808:Greek Orthodox Church
18267:Industrial Revolution
18237:Scientific Revolution
17900:Industrial Revolution
17073:Late Medieval Kingdom
17069:High Medieval Kingdom
15996:McKitterick, Rosamond
15957:Riley-Smith, Jonathan
15914:Riley-Smith, Jonathan
15567:Aberth, John (2019).
15541:Yale University Press
15394:The Later Middle Ages
15367:Oxford History of Art
15289:Bloomsbury Publishing
15087:Arms and Armour Press
15057:Oxford History of Art
15009:10.1353/ems.2005.0010
14780:The Later Middle Ages
14355:. pp. ix–xviii.
13970:Yale University Press
13818:Yale University Press
9853:, pp. 41, 88–91.
7078:Edward III of England
7021:in Europe during the
6997:Saint Vitus Cathedral
6920:(Way of Saint James).
6881:Reportedly, the tall
6689:verses from the Quran
6538:Lordship of Annandale
6155:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc
6099:
5977:one-point perspective
5846:Labours of the Months
5844:
5667:
5640:Hammer of the Witches
5434:
5346:Margaret I of Denmark
5342:Lithuanian conversion
5252:Charles VII of France
5194:
5037:
4892:Portrait of Cardinal
4891:
4878:Further information:
4707:
4507:
4461:(d. 1164) introduced
4204:
4127:between 1236 and 1242
4113:With the rise of the
4110:gained independence.
4096:anti-Byzantine revolt
4066:in 1169. Poland also
3914:William the Conqueror
3881:William the Conqueror
3874:
3717:
3682:(d. 1226), was often
3517:
3398:commercial revolution
3387:
3172:
3071:
3021:sumptuous book covers
2988:—two examples of the
2894:. In Al-Andalus, the
2859:
2818:, the princes of the
2802:, dukes of the Czech
2569:
2481:(r. 987–96) as king.
2319:Carolingian minuscule
2317:, presently known as
2181:
2162:Liberty of the Church
2027:Christian monasticism
1904:
1825:
1681:
1614:
1423:Maximianus of Ravenna
1416:
1192:
1014:. Under Constantine,
934:Constantine the Great
855:
739:
626:Western Roman Emperor
568:
391:commercial revolution
322:, which had begun in
19215:Special Relationship
18625:Christian philosophy
18570:Western Christianity
18232:Age of Enlightenment
18106:Hellenistic Kingdoms
17955:European debt crisis
17950:European integration
17890:Age of Enlightenment
17730:Republic of Florence
17281:Caliphate of Córdoba
17187:Republic of Florence
16768:Medieval reenactment
16564:Renaissance Humanism
16471:Medieval Warm Period
16441:Republic of Florence
16255:European Middle Ages
16045:Blackwell Publishing
15701:; Doubleday, Simon;
15632:Allmand, Christopher
15458:. pp. 297–351.
15231:. pp. 362–378.
14976:. pp. 175–234.
14910:Mommsen, Theodore E.
14859:Lock, Peter (2006).
14802:Lightbown, Ronald W.
14786:. pp. 109–134.
14590:(Seventh ed.).
14537:10.1093/pastj/gty030
14288:Grzymała-Busse, Anna
14111:. pp. 454–493.
13944:. pp. 235–296.
12572:, pp. 192, 231.
12560:, pp. 178, 198.
12488:, pp. 186, 328.
11124:, pp. 300, 333.
9253:, pp. 350, 365.
8851:, pp. 322, 495.
8498:Gies & Gies 1973
8344:, pp. 116, 197.
6958:in the Rus' city of
6712:by marrying heiress
6552:in Ireland by force.
6438:the residential keep
6163:Romantic nationalism
5931:International Gothic
5925:Art and architecture
5859:'s manual on farming
5729:The Canterbury Tales
5705:classical literature
5579:anti-heresy crusades
5548:Council of Constance
5361:Lithuanian invasions
5262:, which ended after
5250:(d. 1431). By 1453,
5107:in England, and the
4648:Corpus Juris Civilis
4586:Geoffrey of Monmouth
4546:vernacular languages
4214:Knights Hospitallers
4106:. West of Bulgaria,
4019:Caliphate of Córdoba
3976:royal court at Paris
3922:(r. 1154–89) of the
3551:Michael I Cerularius
3230:more clement climate
3215:population expansion
3173:13th-century French
3029:monumental sculpture
2900:Moorish architecture
2848:Migration Period art
2842:Architecture and art
2780:, Danubian Bulgars,
2415:in 843, 855, and 870
2206:Mayors of the Palace
2057:Theodore the Studite
1764:in 711, and invaded
1536:Sidonius Apollinaris
1449:Corpus Juris Civilis
1122:Hunnic confederation
1063:Battle of Adrianople
979:in Egypt and Syria.
825:chronological dating
634:Christopher Columbus
383:Medieval Warm Period
344:Eastern Roman Empire
332:Western Roman Empire
91:Parable of the Sower
76:Canterbury Cathedral
19240:West Nordic Council
19105:Eastern Partnership
18694:Analytic philosophy
18395:Classical tradition
18217:Early modern period
18173:Classical antiquity
18168:European Bronze Age
17920:Revolutions of 1848
17850:Early modern France
17631:Anglo-Saxon England
17536:Classical antiquity
17272:Lordship of Ireland
17267:Kingdom of Scotland
17256:Kingdom of Portugal
17236:Kingdom of Valencia
17206:Kingdom of Asturias
16481:Kingdom of Portugal
16348:Old Church Slavonic
16333:Anglo-Saxon England
15400:. pp. 79–107.
15390:Lazzarini, Isabella
15145:Macmillan Reference
14810:Thames & Hudson
14776:Lazzarini, Isabella
14753:Ars Sacra, 800–1200
14729:(Second ed.).
14508:Holmes, Catherine;
14319:(Second ed.).
14191:. Apollo Editions.
13676:Thames & Hudson
13614:(Second ed.).
13586:(Fourth ed.).
13448:, pp. 626–630.
13376:, pp. 265–267.
13352:, pp. 257–262.
13316:, pp. 237–238.
13304:, pp. 237–240.
13292:, pp. 294–298.
13268:, pp. 241–242.
13208:, pp. 203–204.
13160:, pp. 492–493.
13148:, pp. 284–285.
13136:, pp. 483–490.
13100:, pp. 131–134.
13040:, pp. 213–214.
13028:, pp. 213–222.
13004:, pp. 568–569.
12980:, pp. 460–462.
12968:, pp. 437–439.
12956:, pp. 211–213.
12944:, pp. 359–361.
12932:, pp. 199–200.
12920:, pp. 146–147.
12896:, pp. 213–217.
12884:, pp. 136–137.
12872:, pp. 389–390.
12848:, pp. 135–136.
12836:, pp. 193–194.
12800:, pp. 331–333.
12788:, pp. 164–170.
12728:, pp. 266–267.
12704:, pp. 385–387.
12692:, pp. 256–257.
12620:, pp. 177–178.
12608:, pp. 183–184.
12584:, pp. 200–201.
12548:, pp. 229–230.
12476:, pp. 184–186.
12464:, pp. 268–270.
12452:, pp. 220–221.
12440:, pp. 324–327.
12428:, pp. 344–345.
12416:, pp. 549–550.
12404:, pp. 320–322.
12356:, pp. 319–322.
12320:, pp. 171–172.
12267:, pp. 420–425.
12243:, pp. 105–114.
12219:, pp. 237–239.
12195:, pp. 246–247.
12171:, pp. 234–237.
12147:, pp. 236–242.
12135:, pp. 236–239.
12123:, pp. 531–542.
12111:, pp. 420–423.
12060:, pp. 323–325.
12048:, pp. 210–219.
12036:, pp. 294–296.
12024:, pp. 134–138.
11916:, pp. 193–194.
11874:, pp. 191–192.
11862:, pp. 248–250.
11850:, pp. 264–278.
11838:, pp. 245–247.
11826:, pp. 250–258.
11814:, pp. 199–219.
11802:, pp. 201–240.
11790:, pp. 205–219.
11766:, pp. 198–199.
11718:, pp. 240–250.
11706:, pp. 638–644.
11694:, pp. 639–640.
11670:, pp. 186–191.
11646:, pp. 138–147.
11610:, pp. 343–344.
11598:, pp. 333–337.
11572:Grzymała-Busse 2023
11562:, pp. 325–334.
11550:, pp. 209–211.
11538:, pp. 178–182.
11511:, pp. 413–414.
11499:, pp. 352–359.
11463:, pp. 433–434.
11451:, pp. 324–333.
11427:, pp. 409–410.
11415:, pp. 345–348.
11391:, pp. 353–355.
11367:, pp. 333–342.
11355:, pp. 313–317.
11343:, pp. 173–174.
11319:, pp. 423–424.
11280:, pp. 118–126.
11268:, pp. 313–314.
11256:, pp. 115–118.
11244:, pp. 139–140.
11232:, pp. 112–115.
11220:, pp. 716–717.
11196:, pp. 703–715.
11184:, pp. 711–712.
11172:, pp. 458–460.
11160:, pp. 660–666.
11148:, pp. 674–694.
11112:, pp. 300–305.
11100:, pp. 344–352.
11088:, pp. 307–315.
11076:, pp. 304–307.
11064:, pp. 322–325.
11052:, pp. 279–281.
11016:, pp. 266–268.
11004:, pp. 404–406.
10992:, pp. 400–401.
10980:, pp. 156–160.
10932:, pp. 261–264.
10884:, pp. 160–170.
10872:, pp. 409–413.
10848:, pp. 182–203.
10836:, pp. 259–260.
10824:, pp. 206–210.
10800:, pp. 371–379.
10776:, pp. 155–160.
10774:Grzymała-Busse 2023
10764:, pp. 395–399.
10750:Grzymała-Busse 2023
10738:Grzymała-Busse 2023
10692:, pp. 272–273.
10678:Grzymała-Busse 2023
10668:, pp. 395–396.
10644:, pp. 287–288.
10632:, pp. 188–191.
10581:, pp. 133–134.
10569:, pp. 199–203.
10557:, pp. 162–172.
10461:, pp. 140–143.
10449:, pp. 298–300.
10413:, pp. 217–218.
10341:, pp. 461–464.
10329:, pp. 110–118.
10305:, pp. 100–103.
10204:, pp. 177–178.
10036:, pp. 111–123.
10024:, pp. 221–222.
10000:, pp. 231–232.
9988:, pp. 220–221.
9904:, pp. 247–249.
9730:, pp. 233–238.
9607:, pp. 104–105.
9508:, pp. 232–233.
9481:, pp. 239–248.
9469:, pp. 289–300.
9445:, pp. 343–347.
9433:, pp. 391–400.
9421:, pp. 321–326.
9409:, pp. 318–320.
9397:, pp. 476–477.
9385:, pp. 366–370.
9373:, pp. 143–151.
9337:, pp. 376–386.
9325:, pp. 255–257.
9313:, pp. 394–411.
9277:, pp. 362–363.
9241:, pp. 394–395.
9229:, pp. 191–199.
9217:, pp. 488–489.
9202:, pp. 341–342.
9175:, pp. 401–403.
9151:, pp. 186–189.
9127:, pp. 318–331.
9055:, pp. 162–165.
9031:, pp. 159–162.
9019:, pp. 103–110.
9007:, pp. 105–110.
8995:, pp. 280–288.
8971:, pp. 276–279.
8959:, pp. 150–154.
8935:, pp. 214–216.
8911:, pp. 285–286.
8863:, pp. 185–187.
8839:, pp. 239–240.
8815:, pp. 527–530.
8803:, pp. 127–130.
8779:, pp. 130–133.
8767:, pp. 170–172.
8731:, pp. 220–233.
8704:, pp. 670–677.
8692:, pp. 791–792.
8680:, pp. 708–733.
8632:, pp. 347–349.
8620:, pp. 218–219.
8608:, pp. 372–373.
8596:, pp. 373–375.
8572:, pp. 376–377.
8464:, pp. 119–120.
8452:, pp. 733–744.
8428:, pp. 211–212.
8416:, pp. 205–210.
8404:, pp. 180–182.
8380:, pp. 113–118.
8332:, pp. 195–199.
8320:, pp. 189–193.
8296:, pp. 174–181.
8284:, pp. 138–141.
8260:, pp. 150–156.
8248:, pp. 374–375.
8236:, pp. 130–131.
8200:, pp. 235–238.
8164:, pp. 203–209.
8077:, pp. 164–165.
8065:, pp. 156–159.
8053:, pp. 102–103.
8017:, pp. 116–134.
7909:, pp. 145–180.
7897:, pp. 122–124.
7870:, pp. 156–157.
7504:, pp. 291–293.
7319:Henry the Navigator
7264:George of Poděbrady
6985:Salisbury Cathedral
6931:Studenica Monastery
6910:pilgrimage churches
6776:or excommunication.
6718:Louis VII of France
6581:their own districts
6475:Harbaville Triptych
6423:, and the Asturian
6392:Barcelona Cathedral
6266:Unn the Deep-Minded
6071:Nuremberg Chronicle
5981:Florence Baptistery
5857:Pietro de Crescenzi
5634:Malleus Maleficarum
5583:Council of Florence
5482:, Byzantine Greece
5452:Catalan mercenaries
5437:Battle of Nicopolis
5133:Spanish Inquisition
5095:which included the
5024:Society and economy
4798:Gothic architecture
4578:classical mythology
4565:The Poem of the Cid
4453:. Scholars such as
4358:plenary indulgences
4335:Albigensian Crusade
4246:Godfrey of Bouillon
4230:Council of Clermont
4206:Krak des Chevaliers
4197:Rhineland massacres
3732:hereditary monarchy
3710:Rise of state power
3688:Hildegard of Bingen
3553:(d. 1059), refused
3267:fundamental classes
3175:historiated initial
3134:militia-type levies
2986:Lindisfarne Gospels
2700:East European Plain
2673:counts of Barcelona
2092:liturgical language
2088:Old Church Slavonic
2086:(d. 869) developed
2047:. The Italian monk
1978:to popular saints'
1728:. The emergence of
1293:Merovingian dynasty
1264:Theoderic the Great
1253:150 tribal kingdoms
1179:Post-Roman kingdoms
1012:early Christian art
996:their own symbolism
967:faced persecution.
965:ecumenical councils
930:period of civil war
879:outbreaks of plague
602:Christoph Cellarius
484:Gothic architecture
364:Carolingian dynasty
308:counterurbanisation
223:Early modern period
18699:Post-structuralism
18662:Christian humanism
18292:Universal suffrage
18026:Crusading movement
17930:Russian Revolution
17765:Hundred Years' War
17661:Maritime republics
17564:Early Christianity
17554:Hellenistic period
17511:Paleolithic Europe
17432:Grand Principality
17350:Kingdom of Croatia
17297:Emirate of Granada
17262:Kingdom of England
17246:Kingdom of Navarre
17240:Kingdom of Majorca
17218:Kingdom of Galicia
17214:Kingdom of Castile
17177:Republic of Venice
17148:Kingdom of Bohemia
16662:In popular culture
16627:Crusading movement
16499:Hundred Years' War
16358:Civitas Schinesghe
16343:Carolingian Empire
16328:Kingdom of Croatia
16281:Barbarian kingdoms
15217:Bennett, Judith M.
15052:Early Medieval Art
14832:Numbers, Ronald L.
14828:Lindberg, David C.
14554:Hoppin, Richard H.
14519:Past & Present
14142:. pp. 68–83.
14128:Bennett, Judith M.
13504:(Fifth ed.).
13328:, p. 253–256.
12536:, pp. 64, 86.
10293:, pp. 83, 89.
10108:, pp. 32, 79.
9826:, pp. 59, 67.
9814:, pp. 58, 76.
9802:, pp. 34, 39.
9091:, pp. 45, 49.
8029:, pp. 98–101.
7600:, pp. 37, 40.
7285:Basilios Bessarion
7203:John Kantakouzenos
7185:(r. 1328–41), for
7107:Valois of Burgundy
6954:in Venice and the
6952:St Mark's Basilica
6916:Camino de Santiago
6872:) in royal courts.
6819:(d. 1202/03), and
6564:War of Saint Sabas
6544:(r. 1124–53), but
6481:during the period.
6419:, the Carolingian
6394:, the five-aisled
6292:by the end of the
6167:national awakening
6111:
6008:The Birth of Venus
5973:Florence Cathedral
5861:
5738:Christine de Pizan
5697:Marsilius of Padua
5693:natural philosophy
5678:
5448:
5316:Granada in 1492.
5270:and his opponent,
5244:Henry V of England
5218:(r. 1327–77) laid
5212:Hundred Years' War
5200:
5145:the Ottoman Empire
5051:
4982:led to the use of
4905:
4894:Hugh of Saint-Cher
4763:Nicholas of Verdun
4717:
4657:ecclesiastical law
4559:The Song of Roland
4535:
4463:Aristotelian logic
4395:Cathedral chapters
4350:crusading movement
4291:Emirate of Granada
4270:captured Jerusalem
4218:
4183:Crusading movement
4086:, and the nomadic
3948:Philip II Augustus
3906:
3854:Rudolf of Habsburg
3846:Charles I of Anjou
3720:
3598:Concordat of Worms
3528:
3484:in northern France
3448:maritime republics
3394:
3269:: the clergy, the
3191:
3082:
3050:Islamic decorative
3025:polished gemstones
2872:
2759:Macedonian dynasty
2732:settled in Iceland
2730:. Norse colonists
2669:Kingdom of Navarre
2657:Holy Roman Emperor
2585:
2526:Battle of Lechfeld
2514:Charles the Simple
2413:Carolingian Empire
2262:(r. 768–814), and
2194:
2174:Carolingian Empire
2168:Carolingian Europe
2049:Benedict of Nursia
2006:. They emphasised
1984:Irish missionaries
1915:
1909:, inspired by the
1840:
1768:beginning in 713.
1717:
1702:Rashidun Caliphate
1624:
1478:outbreak of plague
1435:
1399:Byzantine survival
1203:Popular assemblies
1199:
1185:Barbarian kingdoms
1146:Romulus Augustulus
1116:. The Hunnic king
1106:settled in Britain
961:Christian theology
922:junior co-emperors
867:
842:Later Roman Empire
836:Later Roman Empire
753:
610:("middle age"), a
578:
511:Hundred Years' War
425:and triggered the
376:Carolingian Empire
304:Population decline
166:Hundred Years' War
19263:
19262:
19090:Council of Europe
18992:International law
18945:Constitutionalism
18803:Eastern Orthodoxy
18309:Post–Cold War era
18242:Age of Revolution
18096:Greco-Roman world
18034:
18033:
17960:COVID-19 pandemic
17905:French Revolution
17880:Habsburg monarchy
17860:Cossack Hetmanate
17840:Portuguese Empire
17830:Absolute monarchy
17825:Thirty Years' War
17720:Holy Roman Empire
17645:Bulgarian Empire
17604:Early Middle Ages
17521:Bronze Age Europe
17495:History of Europe
17461:
17460:
17457:
17456:
17413:Novgorod Republic
17387:Kingdom of Bosnia
17325:Bulgarian Empire
17228:Kingdom of Aragon
17192:Duchy of Burgundy
17182:Republic of Genoa
17172:Kingdom of Naples
17167:Kingdom of Sicily
17156:Swiss Confederacy
17144:Holy Roman Empire
17116:
17115:
16844:
16843:
16753:Basic topics list
16554:Swiss mercenaries
16504:Wars of the Roses
16411:Kingdom of Poland
16396:Holy Roman Empire
16263:Early Middle Ages
16174:978-0-8122-1290-7
16149:978-0-19-924427-0
16121:978-0-19-820648-4
16093:978-1-139-05572-7
16082:. Vol. III.
16054:978-1-405-12964-0
16026:978-1-139-05571-0
15987:978-1-139-05403-4
15944:978-1-139-05402-7
15901:978-0-2747-9776-9
15876:978-1-139-05574-1
15837:978-1-324-00216-1
15812:978-0-226-31083-1
15786:978-1-139-05393-8
15747:978-0-19-882595-1
15722:978-0-415-78065-0
15690:978-0-688-12302-4
15671:Cantor, Norman F.
15662:978-1-139-05575-8
15651:. Vol. VII.
15623:978-1-139-05573-4
15584:978-0-415-72930-7
15550:978-0-3002-0834-4
15525:978-0-713-99429-2
15493:978-0-521-79664-4
15465:978-0-19-285220-5
15432:978-0-340-60118-1
15407:978-0-19-873163-4
15380:978-0-19-284223-7
15348:978-0-313-36076-3
15323:978-0-295-97290-9
15298:978-0-275-95904-3
15270:978-0-19-969729-8
15238:978-0-19-877938-4
15221:Karras, Ruth Mazo
15207:978-0-7535-5957-4
15179:978-0-19-925312-8
15154:978-0-02-865980-0
15128:978-0-19-861112-7
15109:Burchfield, R. W.
15096:978-1-854-09236-6
15070:978-0-19-284243-5
15041:978-0-691-17740-3
14983:978-0-19-285220-5
14901:978-0-521-66102-7
14876:978-0-415-39312-6
14851:978-0-226-48214-9
14844:. pp. 7–32.
14819:978-0-500-99027-8
14793:978-0-19-873163-4
14714:978-0-14-021085-9
14686:978-0-140-16664-4
14675:. Vol. III.
14654:978-0-582-77296-0
14626:978-0-87169-259-7
14601:978-0-19-431606-4
14573:978-0-393-09090-1
14512:(November 2018).
14500:978-0-521-70037-5
14475:978-1-009-16116-9
14447:978-0-8020-6984-9
14428:Henderson, George
14419:978-0-19-532541-6
14391:978-0-415-87113-6
14384:. pp. 1–27.
14362:978-0-674-00506-8
14330:978-0-340-80839-9
14307:978-0-6912-4508-9
14279:978-0-520-20714-1
14260:Griffiths, Antony
14251:978-0-521-80279-6
14226:978-0-521-43344-0
14198:978-0-8152-0345-2
14177:978-0-674-05562-9
14149:978-0-19-877938-4
14132:Karras, Ruth Mazo
14118:978-0-521-26646-8
14088:978-0-472-08260-5
14060:978-0-393-92915-7
14032:978-0-521-70653-7
14007:978-1-107-02335-2
13988:Ellenblum, Ronnie
13979:978-0-300-06493-3
13951:978-0-19-285220-5
13918:978-0-19-520912-9
13904:Europe: A History
13890:978-90-04-41534-8
13859:978-0-333-69381-0
13827:978-0-300-07852-7
13808:Colish, Marcia L.
13799:978-0-521-84666-0
13771:978-0-19-285220-5
13764:. pp. 1–62.
13738:978-0-393-95803-4
13710:978-0-521-59773-9
13685:978-0-500-20350-7
13653:978-0-140-15409-2
13625:978-0-415-17415-2
13597:978-0-1975-7153-8
13572:978-0-19-954790-6
13543:978-1-5095-3256-8
13515:978-0-07-337922-7
13436:, pp. 49–58.
13196:, pp. 6, 51.
12824:, pp. 83–86.
11940:, pp. 69–70.
11658:, pp. 61–62.
11379:, pp. 46–47.
10752:, pp. 92–98.
10740:, pp. 86–90.
10728:, pp. 75–79.
10680:, pp. 68–70.
10509:, pp. 87–94.
10497:, pp. 93–94.
10377:, pp. 78–83.
10353:, pp. 78–81.
10317:, pp. 48–49.
10281:, pp. 70–71.
10257:, pp. 74–85.
10216:, pp. 41–42.
10192:, pp. 14–15.
10156:, pp. 11–12.
10120:, pp. 24–39.
10060:, pp. 36–37.
10012:, pp. 10–12.
9766:, pp. 30–31.
9754:, pp. 28–29.
9742:, pp. 60–77.
9718:, pp. 16–18.
9706:, pp. 47–49.
9691:, pp. 40–41.
9679:, pp. 32–38.
9667:, pp. 36–37.
9655:, pp. 22–28.
9643:, pp. 41–42.
9631:, pp. 63–64.
9619:, pp. 47–57.
9595:, pp. 35–40.
9583:, pp. 83–90.
9571:, pp. 88–89.
9559:, pp. 96–97.
9532:, pp. 43–44.
9520:, pp. 21–44.
9496:, pp. 28–29.
9067:, pp. 66–70.
8983:, pp. 97–99.
8887:, pp. 63–65.
8875:, pp. 43–44.
8827:, pp. 75–77.
8791:, pp. 62–63.
8743:, pp. 45–46.
8488:, pp. 24–26.
8308:, pp. 45–49.
8212:, pp. 81–82.
8188:, pp. 71–77.
8176:, pp. 51–59.
8113:, pp. 79–81.
8101:, pp. 77–78.
8089:, pp. 82–94.
8041:, pp. 11–13.
7993:, pp. 96–97.
7969:, pp. 67–69.
7933:, pp. 59–60.
7882:, pp. 31–33.
7858:, pp. 21–23.
7846:, pp. 52–56.
7822:, pp. 32–36.
7798:, pp. 60–75.
7786:, pp. 43–45.
7750:, pp. 23–24.
7711:, pp. 24–25.
7684:, pp. 10–14.
7672:, pp. 47–50.
7660:, pp. 17–19.
7636:, pp. 28–29.
7624:, pp. 17–23.
7612:, pp. 44–45.
7588:, pp. 26–27.
7564:, pp. 18–24.
7552:, pp. 15–16.
7268:Matthias Corvinus
7262:Czech aristocrat
7243:Stephen the Great
7038:in Germany, lost
6989:Cologne Cathedral
6862:Code of the Realm
6787:Guibert of Nogent
6720:(r. 1137–80) was
6577:distinctive badge
6398:in Paris and the
6337:Aurelian of Réôme
6319:March of Pannonia
6171:Leopold von Ranke
6143:French Revolution
5991:artists restored
5989:Early Renaissance
5821:Cape of Good Hope
5691:) concluded that
5682:William of Ockham
5668:Clerics studying
5536:their suppression
5371:, the princes of
5365:succession crises
5260:Wars of the Roses
5093:popular uprisings
4953:stern-post rudder
4945:mortise and tenon
4914:distilled spirits
4898:Tommaso da Modena
4818:Saint-Denis Abbey
4806:flying buttresses
4694:school at Salerno
4663:Decretum Gratiani
4637:Franco of Cologne
4633:mensural notation
4611:such as those by
4570:Chivalric romance
4552:chansons de geste
4540:and the ethos of
4505:
4403:cathedral schools
4384:Intellectual life
4354:beginning in 1213
4315:captured the city
4299:Northern Crusades
4043:, Denmark seized
3910:Dukes of Normandy
3903:Duchy of Normandy
3866:Swiss Confederacy
3825:the right of the
3792:Holy Roman Empire
3785:Kingdom of Sicily
3730:. The concept of
3728:state sovereignty
3680:Francis of Assisi
3524:Maria Laach Abbey
3429:Bills of exchange
3346:clerical celibacy
3073:Byzantine cavalry
3041:book illuminators
2804:Přemyslid dynasty
2753:(r. 886–912) and
2643:Adelaide of Italy
2639:disobedient dukes
2589:Kingdom of Dublin
2576:Magdeburg Ivories
2243:. His subsequent
2241:papal possessions
2067:during the 960s.
2037:, especially the
1968:Gregory the Great
1907:Gregory the Great
1812:Trade and economy
1789:Abbasid Caliphate
1785:Umayyad Caliphate
1724:on the Christian
1712:Umayyad Caliphate
1578:domestic violence
1520:Latin scholarship
1381:Romance languages
1318:Iberian Peninsula
1174:Early Middle Ages
1168:Early Middle Ages
1085:(a Gothic group)
1049:fleeing from the
819:Since the 1950s,
773:Ludovico Muratori
748:during the early
732:historical source
547:Early Renaissance
531:centuries-old war
527:Iberian Peninsula
519:were conquered by
464:cathedral schools
460:Latin Christendom
423:Orthodox Churches
356:Muslim conquerors
254:history of Europe
250:
249:
246:
245:
110:Early Middle Ages
16:(Redirected from
19522:
19500:Christianization
19425:
19417:
19416:
19415:
19408:
19407:from Wikiversity
19400:
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19290:
19280:
19279:
19271:
19135:EU Customs Union
18667:Secular humanism
18615:Christian ethics
18565:East–West Schism
18548:Physical culture
18272:Great Divergence
18222:Age of Discovery
18061:
18054:
18047:
18038:
18037:
17895:Great Divergence
17810:Age of Discovery
17755:Late Middle Ages
17725:High Middle Ages
17636:Byzantine Empire
17619:Christianization
17609:Migration Period
17544:Classical Greece
17516:Neolithic Europe
17488:
17481:
17474:
17465:
17464:
17383:Banate of Bosnia
17321:Byzantine Empire
17202:Crown of Castile
17152:Kingdom of Italy
17127:
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16857:
16848:
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16834:
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16824:
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16814:
16773:Medieval studies
16617:Church and State
16491:Late Middle Ages
16383:High Middle Ages
16301:Christianization
16271:Migration Period
16248:
16241:
16234:
16225:
16224:
16211:Official website
16196:Medievalists.net
16178:
16153:
16125:
16097:
16058:
16043:(2nd ed.).
16035:Moore, Robert I.
16030:
16015:. Vol. II.
15991:
15948:
15905:
15880:
15865:. Vol. VI.
15841:
15816:
15790:
15751:
15726:
15703:Lifshitz, Felice
15694:
15666:
15627:
15588:
15554:
15529:
15514:. Vol. II.
15497:
15469:
15436:
15411:
15384:
15352:
15327:
15302:
15274:
15242:
15211:
15183:
15158:
15147:. p. 8182.
15132:
15111:, eds. (1994) .
15100:
15074:
15045:
15020:
14987:
14956:Morris, Rosemary
14951:
14905:
14880:
14855:
14823:
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14770:
14744:
14723:Kitzinger, Ernst
14718:
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14069:Fine, John V. A.
14064:
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13983:
13955:
13922:
13894:
13863:
13831:
13803:
13775:
13742:
13714:
13689:
13657:
13634:Bartlett, Robert
13629:
13601:
13576:
13547:
13519:
13485:
13484:, pp. 8–15.
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11773:
11767:
11761:
11755:
11749:
11743:
11742:, pp. 7–44.
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9917:
9911:
9905:
9899:
9893:
9887:
9881:
9880:, pp. 5–10.
9875:
9866:
9865:, pp. 3–11.
9860:
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8645:
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8483:
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8441:
8435:
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8417:
8411:
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8399:
8393:
8387:
8381:
8375:
8369:
8363:
8357:
8351:
8345:
8339:
8333:
8327:
8321:
8315:
8309:
8303:
8297:
8291:
8285:
8279:
8273:
8272:, pp. 8–10.
8267:
8261:
8255:
8249:
8243:
8237:
8231:
8225:
8219:
8213:
8207:
8201:
8195:
8189:
8183:
8177:
8171:
8165:
8159:
8153:
8147:
8141:
8135:
8126:
8120:
8114:
8108:
8102:
8096:
8090:
8084:
8078:
8072:
8066:
8060:
8054:
8048:
8042:
8036:
8030:
8024:
8018:
8012:
8006:
8000:
7994:
7988:
7982:
7976:
7970:
7964:
7958:
7952:
7946:
7940:
7934:
7928:
7922:
7916:
7910:
7904:
7898:
7892:
7883:
7877:
7871:
7865:
7859:
7853:
7847:
7841:
7835:
7834:, pp. 1–15.
7829:
7823:
7817:
7811:
7805:
7799:
7793:
7787:
7781:
7775:
7769:
7763:
7757:
7751:
7745:
7739:
7738:, pp. 8–11.
7733:
7727:
7721:
7712:
7706:
7697:
7691:
7685:
7679:
7673:
7667:
7661:
7655:
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7643:
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7613:
7607:
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7583:
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7565:
7559:
7553:
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7541:
7535:
7529:
7523:
7517:
7511:
7505:
7499:
7490:
7484:
7478:
7472:
7463:
7457:
7451:
7445:
7439:
7433:
7427:
7421:
7415:
7409:
7403:
7397:
7391:
7385:
7376:
7370:
7354:
7345:
7332:
7326:
7315:
7309:
7307:
7301:
7294:
7288:
7281:
7275:
7260:moderate Hussite
7256:
7250:
7224:
7218:
7212:
7208:
7196:
7195:Andronikos III's
7191:second civil war
7171:
7165:
7158:
7152:
7147:, then with her
7145:her underage son
7141:
7135:
7116:
7110:
7087:
7081:
7066:
7060:
7049:
7043:
7041:
7032:
7026:
7024:
7023:mid-13th century
7015:
7009:
7006:
7000:
6969:
6963:
6948:
6942:
6940:
6927:
6921:
6919:
6898:
6892:
6886:
6879:
6873:
6859:
6847:
6834:
6828:
6826:
6813:Otto of Freising
6806:
6803:
6795:
6792:
6783:
6777:
6769:
6763:
6748:
6742:
6735:Alexander Nevsky
6731:
6725:
6700:Henry inherited
6698:
6692:
6686:
6682:
6676:
6671:(r. 1194–98) in
6663:(r. 1137–62) in
6650:
6644:
6625:
6619:
6608:
6602:
6590:
6584:
6573:
6567:
6559:
6553:
6526:
6520:
6518:
6509:
6503:
6488:
6482:
6471:Daphni Monastery
6467:
6461:
6458:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6434:
6428:
6417:palace at Aachen
6413:
6407:
6388:
6382:
6375:
6369:
6358:
6352:
6334:
6328:
6322:
6317:(d. 861) in the
6303:
6297:
6295:
6291:
6288:
6283:
6277:
6263:
6258:
6252:
6241:
6235:
6232:
6226:
6223:end of the world
6211:
6180:
6140:
6107:L'Image du monde
6088:Medieval studies
6066:Vlad the Impaler
6059:
6047:
6018:Ghent Altarpiece
5985:Lorenzo Ghiberti
5937:
5920:
5917:
5909:
5854:
5851:
5794:
5790:
5782:
5774:
5766:
5746:
5743:
5734:Geoffrey Chaucer
5690:
5687:
5656:Age of Discovery
5637:
5629:
5626:
5610:Gregory of Sinai
5607:
5510:Since prolonged
5501:
5464:tributary states
5446:
5370:
5323:
5311:
5277:
5187:
5179:
5171:
5151:State resurgence
5105:Peasants' Revolt
5102:
5079:
5059:
5056:
5045:
5019:Late Middle Ages
5013:Late Middle Ages
4973:
4938:
4935:
4923:
4865:
4733:
4726:structures, but
4724:motte-and-bailey
4713:Rayonnant Gothic
4711:, an example of
4666:
4650:
4641:
4626:
4613:Adam de la Halle
4594:
4591:
4555:
4528:
4520:
4512:
4506:
4493:
4490:Summa Theologica
4486:, including the
4485:
4440:
4416:
4413:studium generale
4407:monastic schools
4400:
4374:Teutonic Knights
4364:, including the
4288:
4274:Mamluks of Egypt
4193:List of Crusades
4159:Genoese colonies
4147:Turkic lordships
4105:
4072:Duchy of Silesia
4045:parts of Estonia
4027:). Although the
4011:Italian Angevins
3988:
3973:
3959:
3921:
3842:
3838:
3818:
3805:
3762:
3744:court of appeals
3725:
3701:
3692:Jewish mysticism
3653:mendicant orders
3590:Pope Gregory VII
3563:East–West Schism
3473:
3426:
3420:
3380:Economic revival
3363:
3304:
3292:
3261:
3223:
3220:
3199:
3196:
3160:High Middle Ages
3154:High Middle Ages
3130:mounted infantry
3107:
3078:Madrid Skylitzes
3046:Ottonian artists
3009:artistic renewal
2978:, including the
2860:A page from the
2801:
2798:
2794:Magyar invasions
2769:(r. 969–76) and
2736:political system
2716:Christianisation
2693:
2650:
2636:
2627:Ottonian dynasty
2613:
2610:
2605:Kenneth MacAlpin
2593:Alfred the Great
2583:
2574:plaque from the
2534:Balearic Islands
2530:conquered Sicily
2511:
2508:
2451:Charles the Bald
2447:Louis the German
2427:Treaty of Verdun
2405:
2396:
2387:
2340:
2331:musical notation
2297:
2214:Pepin of Herstal
2211:
2182:A page from the
2127:
2100:
2097:
2053:Benedictine Rule
1989:
1958:
1876:
1873:
1866:
1846:
1709:
1699:
1689:
1639:
1633:
1607:
1595:
1559:
1556:
1548:
1545:
1529:
1452:
1440:
1385:Slavic languages
1314:by the Visigoths
1304:
1222:
1219:
1212:In Britain, the
1207:taxation systems
1195:Byzantine Empire
1155:
1040:
1029:
1001:
992:early Christians
959:. Debates about
958:
949:classical period
907:
905:
876:
782:
770:
751:
705:
697:
678:Historians from
661:(re)urbanisation
653:Christianisation
623:
620:
609:
582:European history
570:Palais des Papes
555:Age of Discovery
504:
500:
462:. The spread of
449:. Stone castles
373:
361:
334:and the rise of
320:Christianisation
316:Germanic peoples
294:Late Middle Ages
276:, medieval, and
242:
233:Age of Discovery
202:
195:
151:East–West Schism
146:Treaty of Verdun
120:Late Middle Ages
115:High Middle Ages
89:, depicting the
88:
84:
81:
68:
59: – 1500
58:
55:
45:
44:
21:
19530:
19529:
19525:
19524:
19523:
19521:
19520:
19519:
19510:Historical eras
19430:
19429:
19428:
19424:from Wikivoyage
19418:
19413:
19411:
19401:
19396:
19394:
19384:
19379:
19377:
19373:from Wikisource
19367:
19362:
19360:
19350:
19345:
19343:
19333:
19328:
19326:
19323:
19319:sister projects
19316:at Knowledge's
19310:
19300:
19298:
19288:
19286:
19274:
19266:
19264:
19259:
19225:UKUSA Agreement
19165:Lublin Triangle
19050:Baltic Assembly
19002:
18996:
18914:
18751:
18586:
18456:Eurolinguistics
18325:
18314:Information age
18287:Interwar period
18154:
18074:
18065:
18035:
18030:
17969:
17935:Interwar period
17910:Napoleonic Wars
17774:
17745:Mongol invasion
17698:Crown of Aragon
17590:
17530:
17526:Iron Age Europe
17497:
17492:
17462:
17453:
17398:Kingdom of Rus'
17356:Crusader states
17313:
17307:
17224:Crown of Aragon
17210:Kingdom of León
17139:Frankish Empire
17132:Northern Europe
17131:
17122:
17112:
17019:
17013:
16900:Northern Europe
16899:
16891:political units
16890:
16888:
16886:
16880:
16875:
16845:
16840:
16802:
16783:Neo-medievalism
16731:
16667:Itinerant court
16590:
16485:
16406:Georgian Empire
16391:Norman Conquest
16377:
16323:Frankish Empire
16257:
16252:
16222:
16207:Medieval Worlds
16186:
16181:
16175:
16150:
16122:
16112:Clarendon Press
16102:Reynolds, Susan
16094:
16063:Reuter, Timothy
16055:
16027:
15988:
15959:, eds. (2004).
15953:Luscombe, David
15945:
15916:, eds. (2004).
15910:Luscombe, David
15902:
15877:
15838:
15813:
15787:
15775:. Vol. I.
15748:
15723:
15699:Chazelle, Celia
15691:
15663:
15624:
15612:. Vol. V.
15593:Abulafia, David
15585:
15562:
15560:Further reading
15557:
15551:
15536:Medieval Europe
15526:
15494:
15466:
15433:
15408:
15381:
15349:
15339:Greenwood Press
15324:
15299:
15271:
15239:
15208:
15188:Ramirez, Janina
15180:
15155:
15129:
15097:
15071:
15042:
14984:
14932:10.2307/2856364
14902:
14877:
14852:
14820:
14794:
14767:
14741:
14715:
14687:
14655:
14645:Pearson Longman
14627:
14602:
14574:
14501:
14476:
14456:Heng, Geraldine
14448:
14420:
14392:
14380:. Vol. 7.
14363:
14331:
14308:
14280:
14252:
14227:
14199:
14178:
14163:The Middle Ages
14158:Fried, Johannes
14150:
14119:
14097:Fossier, Robert
14089:
14061:
14041:Fassler, Margot
14033:
14008:
13980:
13952:
13919:
13891:
13860:
13850:Red Globe Press
13828:
13800:
13772:
13739:
13711:
13686:
13654:
13626:
13606:Barber, Malcolm
13598:
13573:
13544:
13524:Arnold, John H.
13516:
13493:
13488:
13480:
13476:
13472:, pp. 6–9.
13468:
13464:
13456:
13452:
13444:
13440:
13432:
13428:
13420:
13416:
13408:
13404:
13396:
13392:
13384:
13380:
13372:
13368:
13360:
13356:
13348:
13344:
13336:
13332:
13324:
13320:
13312:
13308:
13300:
13296:
13288:
13284:
13276:
13272:
13264:
13260:
13252:
13248:
13240:
13236:
13228:
13224:
13216:
13212:
13204:
13200:
13192:
13188:
13180:
13176:
13168:
13164:
13156:
13152:
13144:
13140:
13132:
13128:
13120:
13116:
13108:
13104:
13096:
13092:
13084:
13080:
13072:
13068:
13060:
13056:
13048:
13044:
13036:
13032:
13024:
13020:
13012:
13008:
13000:
12996:
12988:
12984:
12976:
12972:
12964:
12960:
12952:
12948:
12940:
12936:
12928:
12924:
12916:
12912:
12904:
12900:
12892:
12888:
12880:
12876:
12868:
12864:
12856:
12852:
12844:
12840:
12832:
12828:
12820:
12816:
12808:
12804:
12796:
12792:
12784:
12780:
12772:
12768:
12760:
12756:
12748:
12744:
12736:
12732:
12724:
12720:
12712:
12708:
12700:
12696:
12688:
12684:
12676:
12672:
12664:
12660:
12652:
12648:
12640:
12636:
12628:
12624:
12616:
12612:
12604:
12600:
12592:
12588:
12580:
12576:
12568:
12564:
12556:
12552:
12544:
12540:
12532:
12528:
12520:
12516:
12508:
12504:
12496:
12492:
12484:
12480:
12472:
12468:
12460:
12456:
12448:
12444:
12436:
12432:
12424:
12420:
12412:
12408:
12400:
12396:
12388:
12384:
12376:
12372:
12364:
12360:
12352:
12348:
12340:
12336:
12328:
12324:
12316:
12312:
12304:
12300:
12292:
12288:
12280:
12271:
12263:
12259:
12251:
12247:
12239:
12235:
12227:
12223:
12215:
12211:
12203:
12199:
12191:
12187:
12179:
12175:
12167:
12163:
12155:
12151:
12143:
12139:
12131:
12127:
12119:
12115:
12107:
12103:
12095:
12091:
12083:
12076:
12068:
12064:
12056:
12052:
12044:
12040:
12032:
12028:
12020:
12016:
12008:
12004:
11996:
11992:
11984:
11980:
11972:
11968:
11960:
11956:
11948:
11944:
11936:
11932:
11924:
11920:
11912:
11905:
11901:, pp. 4–5.
11897:
11893:
11885:
11878:
11870:
11866:
11858:
11854:
11846:
11842:
11834:
11830:
11822:
11818:
11810:
11806:
11798:
11794:
11786:
11782:
11774:
11770:
11762:
11758:
11750:
11746:
11738:
11734:
11726:
11722:
11714:
11710:
11702:
11698:
11690:
11686:
11678:
11674:
11666:
11662:
11654:
11650:
11642:
11638:
11630:
11626:
11618:
11614:
11606:
11602:
11594:
11590:
11582:
11578:
11570:
11566:
11558:
11554:
11546:
11542:
11534:
11527:
11519:
11515:
11507:
11503:
11495:
11491:
11483:
11479:
11471:
11467:
11459:
11455:
11447:
11443:
11435:
11431:
11423:
11419:
11411:
11407:
11399:
11395:
11387:
11383:
11375:
11371:
11363:
11359:
11351:
11347:
11339:
11335:
11327:
11323:
11315:
11308:
11300:
11296:
11288:
11284:
11276:
11272:
11264:
11260:
11252:
11248:
11240:
11236:
11228:
11224:
11216:
11212:
11204:
11200:
11192:
11188:
11180:
11176:
11168:
11164:
11156:
11152:
11144:
11140:
11132:
11128:
11120:
11116:
11108:
11104:
11096:
11092:
11084:
11080:
11072:
11068:
11060:
11056:
11048:
11044:
11036:
11032:
11024:
11020:
11012:
11008:
11000:
10996:
10988:
10984:
10976:
10972:
10964:
10960:
10952:
10948:
10940:
10936:
10928:
10924:
10916:
10912:
10904:
10900:
10892:
10888:
10880:
10876:
10868:
10864:
10856:
10852:
10844:
10840:
10832:
10828:
10820:
10816:
10808:
10804:
10796:
10792:
10784:
10780:
10772:
10768:
10760:
10756:
10748:
10744:
10736:
10732:
10724:
10720:
10712:
10708:
10700:
10696:
10688:
10684:
10676:
10672:
10664:
10660:
10652:
10648:
10640:
10636:
10628:
10621:
10613:
10609:
10601:
10597:
10589:
10585:
10577:
10573:
10565:
10561:
10553:
10549:
10541:
10537:
10529:
10525:
10521:, pp. 7–8.
10517:
10513:
10505:
10501:
10493:
10489:
10481:
10477:
10469:
10465:
10457:
10453:
10445:
10441:
10433:
10429:
10421:
10417:
10409:
10405:
10397:
10393:
10385:
10381:
10373:
10369:
10361:
10357:
10349:
10345:
10337:
10333:
10325:
10321:
10313:
10309:
10301:
10297:
10289:
10285:
10277:
10273:
10265:
10261:
10253:
10249:
10241:
10232:
10224:
10220:
10212:
10208:
10200:
10196:
10188:
10184:
10176:
10172:
10164:
10160:
10152:
10148:
10140:
10136:
10128:
10124:
10116:
10112:
10104:
10100:
10092:
10088:
10080:
10076:
10068:
10064:
10056:
10052:
10044:
10040:
10032:
10028:
10020:
10016:
10008:
10004:
9996:
9992:
9984:
9980:
9972:
9968:
9960:
9956:
9948:
9944:
9936:
9932:
9924:
9920:
9916:, pp. 4–6.
9912:
9908:
9900:
9896:
9888:
9884:
9876:
9869:
9861:
9857:
9849:
9845:
9837:
9830:
9822:
9818:
9810:
9806:
9798:
9794:
9786:
9782:
9774:
9770:
9762:
9758:
9750:
9746:
9738:
9734:
9726:
9722:
9714:
9710:
9702:
9695:
9687:
9683:
9675:
9671:
9663:
9659:
9651:
9647:
9639:
9635:
9627:
9623:
9615:
9611:
9603:
9599:
9591:
9587:
9579:
9575:
9567:
9563:
9555:
9548:
9540:
9536:
9528:
9524:
9516:
9512:
9504:
9500:
9492:
9485:
9477:
9473:
9465:
9461:
9453:
9449:
9441:
9437:
9429:
9425:
9417:
9413:
9405:
9401:
9393:
9389:
9381:
9377:
9369:
9365:
9357:
9353:
9345:
9341:
9333:
9329:
9321:
9317:
9309:
9305:
9297:
9293:
9285:
9281:
9273:
9269:
9261:
9257:
9249:
9245:
9237:
9233:
9225:
9221:
9213:
9206:
9198:
9191:
9183:
9179:
9171:
9167:
9159:
9155:
9147:
9143:
9135:
9131:
9123:
9119:
9111:
9107:
9099:
9095:
9087:
9083:
9075:
9071:
9063:
9059:
9051:
9047:
9039:
9035:
9027:
9023:
9015:
9011:
9003:
8999:
8991:
8987:
8979:
8975:
8967:
8963:
8955:
8951:
8943:
8939:
8931:
8927:
8919:
8915:
8907:
8903:
8895:
8891:
8883:
8879:
8871:
8867:
8859:
8855:
8847:
8843:
8835:
8831:
8823:
8819:
8811:
8807:
8799:
8795:
8787:
8783:
8775:
8771:
8763:
8759:
8751:
8747:
8739:
8735:
8727:
8723:
8715:
8708:
8700:
8696:
8688:
8684:
8676:
8672:
8664:
8660:
8652:
8648:
8640:
8636:
8628:
8624:
8616:
8612:
8604:
8600:
8592:
8588:
8580:
8576:
8568:
8564:
8556:
8552:
8544:
8540:
8532:
8528:
8520:
8516:
8508:
8504:
8500:, pp. 3–4.
8496:
8492:
8484:
8480:
8472:
8468:
8460:
8456:
8448:
8444:
8436:
8432:
8424:
8420:
8412:
8408:
8400:
8396:
8388:
8384:
8376:
8372:
8364:
8360:
8352:
8348:
8340:
8336:
8328:
8324:
8316:
8312:
8304:
8300:
8292:
8288:
8280:
8276:
8268:
8264:
8256:
8252:
8244:
8240:
8232:
8228:
8220:
8216:
8208:
8204:
8196:
8192:
8184:
8180:
8172:
8168:
8160:
8156:
8148:
8144:
8136:
8129:
8121:
8117:
8109:
8105:
8097:
8093:
8085:
8081:
8073:
8069:
8061:
8057:
8049:
8045:
8037:
8033:
8025:
8021:
8013:
8009:
8001:
7997:
7989:
7985:
7977:
7973:
7965:
7961:
7953:
7949:
7941:
7937:
7929:
7925:
7917:
7913:
7905:
7901:
7893:
7886:
7878:
7874:
7866:
7862:
7854:
7850:
7842:
7838:
7830:
7826:
7818:
7814:
7806:
7802:
7794:
7790:
7782:
7778:
7770:
7766:
7758:
7754:
7746:
7742:
7734:
7730:
7722:
7715:
7707:
7700:
7696:, pp. 3–6.
7692:
7688:
7680:
7676:
7668:
7664:
7656:
7652:
7644:
7640:
7632:
7628:
7620:
7616:
7608:
7604:
7596:
7592:
7584:
7580:
7572:
7568:
7560:
7556:
7548:
7544:
7536:
7532:
7524:
7520:
7512:
7508:
7500:
7493:
7485:
7481:
7473:
7466:
7458:
7454:
7450:, p. viii.
7446:
7442:
7434:
7430:
7422:
7418:
7410:
7406:
7398:
7394:
7386:
7379:
7371:
7367:
7363:
7358:
7357:
7333:
7329:
7316:
7312:
7295:
7291:
7282:
7278:
7257:
7253:
7245:(r. 1457–1504)
7225:
7221:
7215:third civil war
7210:
7206:
7194:
7175:first civil war
7172:
7168:
7159:
7155:
7142:
7138:
7117:
7113:
7088:
7084:
7067:
7063:
7050:
7046:
7039:
7033:
7029:
7022:
7016:
7012:
7007:
7003:
6993:Milan Cathedral
6981:Sainte-Chapelle
6970:
6966:
6949:
6945:
6938:
6928:
6924:
6899:
6895:
6880:
6876:
6835:
6831:
6804:
6793:
6784:
6780:
6770:
6766:
6749:
6745:
6732:
6728:
6699:
6695:
6684:
6683:
6679:
6651:
6647:
6626:
6622:
6609:
6605:
6591:
6587:
6574:
6570:
6560:
6556:
6527:
6523:
6510:
6506:
6493:Utrecht Psalter
6489:
6485:
6468:
6464:
6459:
6455:
6448:
6435:
6431:
6414:
6410:
6389:
6385:
6376:
6372:
6359:
6355:
6329:
6325:
6304:
6300:
6293:
6289:
6284:
6280:
6261:
6259:
6255:
6242:
6238:
6233:
6229:
6212:
6208:
6203:
6138:
6102:spherical Earth
6094:
6080:
6044:Biblia pauperum
6025:(d. 1441) used
6011:by the painter
5935:
5927:
5918:
5907:
5852:
5839:
5817:Bartolomeu Dias
5792:
5755:song structures
5744:
5688:
5662:
5654:Main articles:
5652:
5627:
5614:Gregory Palamas
5604:Devotio Moderna
5594:Meister Eckhart
5589:died in exile.
5569:in England and
5512:papal elections
5508:
5499:
5492:Albanian lords'
5429:
5415:
5407:Main articles:
5405:
5368:
5352:, but only the
5350:Union of Kalmar
5321:
5275:
5153:
5125:Massive pogroms
5103:in France, the
5077:
5057:
5032:
5026:
5021:
5015:
4971:
4968:rotation system
4936:
4930:spinning wheels
4921:
4886:
4876:
4863:
4767:classical style
4702:
4597:autobiographies
4592:
4582:Arthurian cycle
4531:Comtessa de Dia
4501:
4465:into theology.
4438:
4398:
4392:
4386:
4378:their own state
4366:Knights Templar
4331:parts of Greece
4281:theaters of war
4268:(d. 1193), who
4262:crusader states
4199:
4185:
4177:Main articles:
4175:
4155:peaceful period
4119:Eurasian Steppe
4103:
4060:Vladimir-Suzdal
3955:
3942:(r. 1199–1216)
3924:Angevin dynasty
3917:
3877:Bayeux Tapestry
3850:prince-electors
3840:
3834:
3816:
3803:
3758:
3723:
3712:
3617:anticlericalism
3555:papal supremacy
3531:Papal elections
3512:
3382:
3361:
3354:peace movements
3330:parish churches
3290:
3221:
3202:Eurasian Steppe
3197:
3167:
3162:
3156:
3122:lamellar armour
3105:
3066:
3052:motifs such as
3013:Carolingian art
2954:and the Nordic
2882:of Justinian's
2854:
2844:
2824:Rurikid princes
2799:
2755:Constantine VII
2691:
2677:Kingdom of León
2646:
2634:
2620:Kingdom of Alba
2611:
2597:Danish invaders
2579:
2564:
2542:
2509:
2467:Louis the Child
2458:Charles the Fat
2423:Louis the Pious
2419:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2408:
2407:
2406:
2398:
2397:
2389:
2388:
2377:
2361:Main articles:
2359:
2338:
2327:Gregorian chant
2272:border province
2237:Pepin the Short
2210:mid-7th century
2209:
2185:Utrecht Psalter
2176:
2170:
2158:Cluniac Reforms
2130:their patronage
2125:
2098:
2040:Life of Anthony
2008:sexual morality
1987:
1956:
1899:
1893:in Al-Andalus.
1874:
1864:
1844:
1820:
1814:
1781:Battle of Tours
1715:
1707:
1705:
1697:
1695:
1687:
1676:
1670:Spread of Islam
1668:Main articles:
1666:
1654:quickly revived
1632:700 inhabitants
1631:
1605:
1557:
1546:
1527:
1516:
1510:
1508:Western society
1438:
1411:
1403:Main articles:
1401:
1344:conquered most
1273:reconquer Italy
1220:
1187:
1181:
1176:
1170:
1043:mass migrations
1038:
1027:
999:
969:Heretical views
956:
902:
891:Sasanian Empire
874:
850:
844:
838:
816:, and letters.
749:
744:in the city of
734:
724:
703:
695:
671:, kinship, and
621:
563:
553:introduced the
502:
498:
407:papal supremacy
371:
362:. Although the
359:
262:medieval period
237:
216:
193:
185:
141:Spread of Islam
124:
98:
86:
82:
56:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
19528:
19518:
19517:
19512:
19507:
19502:
19497:
19492:
19487:
19482:
19477:
19472:
19467:
19462:
19457:
19452:
19447:
19442:
19427:
19426:
19409:
19392:
19390:from Wikibooks
19375:
19358:
19356:from Wikiquote
19341:
19312:
19309:
19308:
19296:
19284:
19261:
19260:
19258:
19257:
19255:Westernization
19252:
19247:
19242:
19237:
19235:Visegrád Group
19232:
19227:
19222:
19217:
19212:
19207:
19202:
19197:
19192:
19187:
19182:
19177:
19175:Nordic Council
19172:
19167:
19162:
19157:
19152:
19147:
19142:
19137:
19132:
19127:
19122:
19117:
19112:
19107:
19102:
19097:
19092:
19087:
19082:
19077:
19072:
19070:Bucharest Nine
19067:
19062:
19057:
19052:
19047:
19042:
19037:
19035:Arctic Council
19032:
19027:
19022:
19017:
19012:
19006:
19004:
18998:
18997:
18995:
18994:
18989:
18984:
18983:
18982:
18977:
18972:
18967:
18962:
18957:
18947:
18942:
18941:
18940:
18930:
18924:
18922:
18916:
18915:
18913:
18912:
18907:
18902:
18901:
18900:
18895:
18890:
18885:
18880:
18879:
18878:
18873:
18868:
18863:
18853:
18848:
18843:
18833:
18832:
18831:
18830:
18829:
18819:
18818:
18817:
18812:
18811:
18810:
18800:
18799:
18798:
18788:
18787:
18786:
18761:
18759:
18753:
18752:
18750:
18749:
18748:
18747:
18737:
18732:
18727:
18726:
18725:
18713:
18712:
18711:
18701:
18696:
18691:
18686:
18681:
18676:
18671:
18670:
18669:
18664:
18654:
18653:
18652:
18645:Existentialism
18642:
18637:
18632:
18627:
18622:
18617:
18612:
18607:
18602:
18596:
18594:
18588:
18587:
18585:
18584:
18583:
18582:
18577:
18572:
18567:
18557:
18556:
18555:
18545:
18544:
18543:
18538:
18528:
18527:
18526:
18516:
18511:
18510:
18509:
18504:
18499:
18489:
18488:
18487:
18477:
18476:
18475:
18465:
18464:
18463:
18458:
18448:
18443:
18438:
18433:
18432:
18431:
18421:
18416:
18415:
18414:
18404:
18403:
18402:
18392:
18391:
18390:
18380:
18375:
18374:
18373:
18363:
18358:
18357:
18356:
18351:
18346:
18335:
18333:
18327:
18326:
18324:
18323:
18322:
18321:
18316:
18306:
18305:
18304:
18299:
18294:
18289:
18284:
18279:
18274:
18269:
18264:
18259:
18254:
18249:
18244:
18239:
18234:
18229:
18224:
18219:
18209:
18204:
18203:
18202:
18197:
18192:
18182:
18181:
18180:
18178:Late antiquity
18170:
18164:
18162:
18156:
18155:
18153:
18152:
18147:
18142:
18137:
18132:
18131:
18130:
18129:
18128:
18123:
18113:
18108:
18103:
18093:
18088:
18082:
18080:
18076:
18075:
18064:
18063:
18056:
18049:
18041:
18032:
18031:
18029:
18028:
18023:
18018:
18013:
18008:
18003:
17998:
17993:
17988:
17983:
17977:
17975:
17971:
17970:
17968:
17967:
17962:
17957:
17952:
17947:
17942:
17937:
17932:
17927:
17922:
17917:
17912:
17907:
17902:
17897:
17892:
17887:
17885:Russian Empire
17882:
17877:
17875:British Empire
17872:
17870:Dutch Republic
17867:
17865:Swedish Empire
17862:
17857:
17852:
17847:
17845:Spanish Empire
17842:
17837:
17835:Ottoman Empire
17832:
17827:
17822:
17817:
17812:
17807:
17806:
17805:
17795:
17790:
17784:
17782:
17776:
17775:
17773:
17772:
17767:
17762:
17757:
17752:
17750:Serbian Empire
17747:
17742:
17737:
17732:
17727:
17722:
17717:
17695:
17690:
17685:
17684:
17683:
17678:
17673:
17668:
17658:
17657:
17656:
17651:
17643:
17638:
17633:
17628:
17623:
17622:
17621:
17611:
17606:
17600:
17598:
17592:
17591:
17589:
17588:
17586:Late antiquity
17583:
17578:
17573:
17572:
17571:
17561:
17556:
17551:
17549:Roman Republic
17546:
17540:
17538:
17532:
17531:
17529:
17528:
17523:
17518:
17513:
17507:
17505:
17499:
17498:
17491:
17490:
17483:
17476:
17468:
17459:
17458:
17455:
17454:
17452:
17451:
17424:
17409:Rus' Khaganate
17405:
17390:
17379:
17353:
17338:
17337:
17336:
17331:
17323:
17317:
17315:
17309:
17308:
17306:
17305:
17300:
17274:
17269:
17264:
17259:
17248:
17243:
17221:
17199:
17189:
17184:
17179:
17174:
17169:
17164:
17159:
17141:
17135:
17133:
17124:
17118:
17117:
17114:
17113:
17111:
17110:
17091:
17086:
17081:
17076:
17065:
17054:
17049:
17044:
17039:
17034:
17029:
17023:
17021:
17015:
17014:
17012:
17011:
16993:
16988:
16983:
16965:
16960:
16942:
16937:
16932:
16914:
16909:
16903:
16901:
16892:
16882:
16881:
16874:
16873:
16866:
16859:
16851:
16842:
16841:
16839:
16838:
16828:
16818:
16807:
16804:
16803:
16801:
16800:
16795:
16790:
16785:
16780:
16778:Misconceptions
16775:
16770:
16765:
16760:
16755:
16750:
16745:
16739:
16737:
16733:
16732:
16730:
16729:
16724:
16719:
16714:
16709:
16704:
16699:
16694:
16689:
16684:
16679:
16674:
16669:
16664:
16659:
16654:
16649:
16644:
16639:
16634:
16629:
16624:
16619:
16614:
16609:
16604:
16598:
16596:
16592:
16591:
16589:
16588:
16586:Little Ice Age
16583:
16582:
16581:
16571:
16566:
16561:
16556:
16551:
16546:
16541:
16539:Western Schism
16536:
16531:
16526:
16521:
16516:
16511:
16506:
16501:
16495:
16493:
16487:
16486:
16484:
16483:
16478:
16473:
16468:
16463:
16458:
16453:
16448:
16443:
16438:
16433:
16428:
16423:
16418:
16413:
16408:
16403:
16398:
16393:
16387:
16385:
16379:
16378:
16376:
16375:
16370:
16365:
16360:
16355:
16350:
16345:
16340:
16335:
16330:
16325:
16320:
16315:
16310:
16305:
16304:
16303:
16293:
16288:
16286:Late antiquity
16283:
16278:
16273:
16267:
16265:
16259:
16258:
16251:
16250:
16243:
16236:
16228:
16221:
16220:
16214:
16204:
16199:
16193:
16187:
16185:
16184:External links
16182:
16180:
16179:
16173:
16154:
16148:
16126:
16120:
16098:
16092:
16065:, ed. (2000).
16059:
16053:
16031:
16025:
15998:, ed. (1995).
15992:
15986:
15949:
15943:
15906:
15900:
15881:
15875:
15848:, ed. (2000).
15846:Jones, Michael
15842:
15836:
15817:
15811:
15795:Gurevich, Aron
15791:
15785:
15758:, ed. (2005).
15756:Fouracre, Paul
15752:
15746:
15727:
15721:
15695:
15689:
15667:
15661:
15634:, ed. (1998).
15628:
15622:
15595:, ed. (1999).
15589:
15583:
15563:
15561:
15558:
15556:
15555:
15549:
15530:
15524:
15502:Wickham, Chris
15498:
15492:
15470:
15464:
15442:Holmes, George
15437:
15431:
15412:
15406:
15385:
15379:
15357:Stalley, Roger
15353:
15347:
15328:
15322:
15303:
15297:
15275:
15269:
15243:
15237:
15212:
15206:
15184:
15178:
15159:
15153:
15133:
15127:
15101:
15095:
15079:Nicolle, David
15075:
15069:
15046:
15040:
15021:
14988:
14982:
14960:Holmes, George
14952:
14906:
14900:
14881:
14875:
14856:
14850:
14824:
14818:
14798:
14792:
14771:
14765:
14745:
14739:
14719:
14713:
14691:
14685:
14659:
14653:
14631:
14625:
14606:
14600:
14578:
14572:
14559:Medieval Music
14550:
14510:Standen, Naomi
14505:
14499:
14480:
14474:
14452:
14446:
14433:Early Medieval
14424:
14418:
14400:Heather, Peter
14396:
14390:
14367:
14361:
14339:Hankins, James
14335:
14329:
14312:
14306:
14284:
14278:
14256:
14250:
14231:
14225:
14203:
14197:
14182:
14176:
14154:
14148:
14123:
14117:
14093:
14087:
14065:
14059:
14037:
14031:
14012:
14006:
13984:
13978:
13960:Dodwell, C. R.
13956:
13950:
13928:Holmes, George
13923:
13917:
13899:Davies, Norman
13895:
13889:
13864:
13858:
13836:Collins, Roger
13832:
13826:
13804:
13798:
13780:Chazan, Robert
13776:
13770:
13748:Holmes, George
13743:
13737:
13715:
13709:
13690:
13684:
13658:
13652:
13630:
13624:
13602:
13596:
13577:
13571:
13548:
13542:
13520:
13514:
13494:
13492:
13489:
13487:
13486:
13474:
13462:
13450:
13438:
13426:
13414:
13410:Griffiths 1996
13402:
13400:, p. 451.
13390:
13386:Griffiths 1996
13378:
13366:
13354:
13342:
13338:Lightbown 1978
13330:
13318:
13306:
13294:
13282:
13280:, p. 233.
13270:
13258:
13256:, p. 323.
13246:
13244:, p. 212.
13234:
13232:, p. 221.
13222:
13220:, p. 213.
13210:
13198:
13186:
13174:
13162:
13150:
13138:
13126:
13124:, p. 284.
13114:
13112:, p. 490.
13102:
13090:
13088:, p. 346.
13078:
13076:, p. 287.
13066:
13064:, p. 224.
13054:
13052:, p. 484.
13042:
13030:
13018:
13016:, p. 241.
13006:
12994:
12982:
12970:
12958:
12946:
12934:
12922:
12910:
12908:, p. 370.
12898:
12886:
12874:
12862:
12860:, p. 218.
12850:
12838:
12826:
12814:
12812:, p. 213.
12802:
12790:
12778:
12766:
12754:
12742:
12740:, p. 563.
12730:
12718:
12706:
12694:
12682:
12670:
12658:
12646:
12634:
12632:, p. 380.
12622:
12610:
12598:
12596:, p. 201.
12586:
12574:
12562:
12550:
12538:
12526:
12524:, p. 231.
12514:
12512:, p. 281.
12502:
12490:
12478:
12466:
12454:
12442:
12430:
12418:
12406:
12394:
12392:, p. 211.
12382:
12370:
12368:, p. 308.
12358:
12346:
12334:
12332:, p. 225.
12322:
12310:
12308:, p. 171.
12298:
12286:
12284:, p. 414.
12269:
12257:
12255:, p. 103.
12245:
12233:
12221:
12209:
12207:, p. 238.
12197:
12185:
12183:, p. 237.
12173:
12161:
12159:, p. 318.
12149:
12137:
12125:
12113:
12101:
12099:, p. 189.
12089:
12087:, p. 210.
12074:
12072:, p. 531.
12062:
12050:
12038:
12026:
12014:
12012:, p. 124.
12002:
12000:, p. 125.
11990:
11978:
11976:, p. 225.
11966:
11954:
11952:, p. 241.
11942:
11930:
11918:
11903:
11891:
11889:, p. 344.
11876:
11864:
11852:
11840:
11828:
11816:
11804:
11792:
11780:
11778:, p. 152.
11768:
11756:
11754:, p. 150.
11744:
11732:
11720:
11708:
11696:
11684:
11672:
11660:
11648:
11636:
11634:, p. 142.
11624:
11612:
11600:
11588:
11586:, p. 153.
11576:
11574:, p. 131.
11564:
11552:
11540:
11525:
11523:, p. 182.
11513:
11501:
11489:
11487:, p. 129.
11477:
11465:
11453:
11441:
11439:, p. 265.
11429:
11417:
11405:
11403:, p. 332.
11393:
11381:
11369:
11357:
11345:
11333:
11331:, p. 112.
11321:
11306:
11294:
11292:, p. 118.
11282:
11270:
11258:
11246:
11234:
11222:
11210:
11208:, p. 181.
11198:
11186:
11174:
11162:
11150:
11138:
11126:
11114:
11102:
11090:
11078:
11066:
11054:
11042:
11030:
11028:, p. 145.
11018:
11006:
10994:
10982:
10970:
10958:
10946:
10944:, p. 257.
10934:
10922:
10920:, p. 104.
10910:
10908:, p. 319.
10898:
10896:, p. 413.
10886:
10874:
10862:
10860:, p. 411.
10850:
10838:
10826:
10814:
10812:, p. 271.
10802:
10790:
10778:
10766:
10754:
10742:
10730:
10718:
10706:
10694:
10682:
10670:
10658:
10656:, p. 105.
10646:
10634:
10619:
10607:
10605:, p. 324.
10595:
10583:
10571:
10559:
10547:
10545:, p. 199.
10535:
10533:, p. 137.
10523:
10511:
10499:
10487:
10485:, p. 301.
10475:
10473:, p. 309.
10463:
10451:
10439:
10427:
10425:, p. 213.
10415:
10403:
10401:, p. 107.
10391:
10379:
10367:
10355:
10343:
10331:
10319:
10307:
10295:
10283:
10271:
10259:
10247:
10230:
10218:
10206:
10194:
10182:
10180:, p. 209.
10170:
10168:, p. 252.
10158:
10146:
10134:
10122:
10110:
10098:
10086:
10074:
10062:
10050:
10038:
10026:
10014:
10002:
9990:
9978:
9976:, p. 220.
9966:
9954:
9942:
9940:, p. 467.
9930:
9918:
9906:
9894:
9892:, p. 221.
9882:
9867:
9863:Ellenblum 2012
9855:
9843:
9828:
9816:
9804:
9792:
9780:
9768:
9756:
9744:
9740:Kitzinger 1969
9732:
9728:Henderson 1993
9720:
9708:
9693:
9689:Kitzinger 1969
9681:
9669:
9657:
9653:Kitzinger 1969
9645:
9633:
9629:Henderson 1993
9621:
9617:Henderson 1993
9609:
9597:
9593:Henderson 1993
9585:
9573:
9561:
9546:
9544:, p. 172.
9534:
9522:
9510:
9498:
9483:
9471:
9459:
9457:, p. 334.
9447:
9435:
9423:
9411:
9399:
9387:
9375:
9363:
9351:
9349:, p. 500.
9339:
9327:
9315:
9303:
9301:, p. 169.
9291:
9289:, p. 368.
9279:
9267:
9265:, p. 196.
9255:
9243:
9231:
9219:
9204:
9189:
9187:, p. 254.
9177:
9165:
9163:, p. 337.
9153:
9141:
9129:
9117:
9115:, p. 187.
9105:
9103:, p. 189.
9093:
9081:
9069:
9057:
9045:
9043:, p. 302.
9033:
9021:
9009:
8997:
8985:
8973:
8961:
8949:
8937:
8925:
8923:, p. 163.
8913:
8901:
8889:
8877:
8865:
8853:
8841:
8829:
8817:
8805:
8793:
8781:
8769:
8757:
8745:
8733:
8721:
8706:
8702:McCormick 2010
8694:
8690:McCormick 2010
8682:
8678:McCormick 2010
8670:
8666:McCormick 2010
8658:
8656:, p. 354.
8646:
8634:
8622:
8610:
8598:
8586:
8574:
8562:
8550:
8538:
8536:, p. 649.
8534:McCormick 2010
8526:
8514:
8502:
8490:
8478:
8466:
8454:
8450:McCormick 2010
8442:
8440:, p. 215.
8430:
8418:
8406:
8394:
8392:, p. 120.
8382:
8370:
8358:
8346:
8334:
8322:
8310:
8298:
8286:
8274:
8262:
8250:
8238:
8226:
8214:
8202:
8190:
8178:
8166:
8154:
8142:
8127:
8125:, p. 124.
8115:
8103:
8091:
8079:
8067:
8055:
8043:
8031:
8019:
8007:
7995:
7983:
7971:
7959:
7947:
7945:, p. 417.
7935:
7923:
7921:, p. 219.
7911:
7899:
7884:
7872:
7860:
7848:
7836:
7832:Kitzinger 1969
7824:
7812:
7800:
7788:
7776:
7764:
7752:
7740:
7728:
7726:, p. 111.
7713:
7698:
7686:
7674:
7662:
7650:
7648:, p. 204.
7638:
7626:
7614:
7602:
7590:
7578:
7566:
7554:
7542:
7540:, p. 226.
7530:
7528:, p. 304.
7518:
7506:
7491:
7479:
7464:
7452:
7440:
7438:, p. 566.
7428:
7426:, p. 955.
7416:
7404:
7402:, p. 238.
7392:
7377:
7364:
7362:
7359:
7356:
7355:
7327:
7310:
7289:
7276:
7251:
7219:
7197:underage son,
7183:Andronikos III
7166:
7153:
7136:
7111:
7082:
7061:
7044:
7027:
7010:
7001:
6995:in Italy, and
6964:
6943:
6922:
6893:
6874:
6844:Siete Partidas
6829:
6809:The Two Cities
6778:
6764:
6743:
6726:
6693:
6677:
6645:
6635:(d. 1596) and
6620:
6603:
6599:their election
6585:
6568:
6566:in the Levant.
6554:
6546:John de Courcy
6521:
6504:
6483:
6462:
6453:
6429:
6408:
6383:
6370:
6353:
6323:
6298:
6278:
6253:
6236:
6227:
6205:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6191:class conflict
6159:Richard Wagner
6151:Thomas Carlyle
6127:Earth was flat
6115:David Lindberg
6079:
6076:
6050:Paupers' Bible
6005:(d. 1466) and
5926:
5923:
5838:
5835:
5797:printing press
5791:—in the early
5767:(fixed forms)—
5724:Tuscan dialect
5714:The poetry of
5651:
5648:
5612:(d. 1346) and
5540:Western Schism
5532:Pope Clement V
5520:Avignon Papacy
5507:
5504:
5472:Constantine XI
5404:
5401:
5377:with Lithuania
5152:
5149:
5129:new Christians
5062:Little Ice Age
5028:Main article:
5025:
5022:
5017:Main article:
5014:
5011:
4984:draught horses
4951:sails and the
4875:
4872:
4856:panel painting
4836:Limoges enamel
4802:pointed arches
4720:Encastellation
4709:León Cathedral
4701:
4698:
4669:Roman numerals
4629:rhythmic modes
4496:Thomas Aquinas
4457:(d. 1142) and
4388:Main article:
4385:
4382:
4362:military order
4311:Fourth Crusade
4248:(d. 1100) and
4174:
4171:
3932:Angevin Empire
3875:Detail of the
3841:Frederick II's
3839:(r. 1220–50).
3827:Lombard cities
3812:German princes
3755:Papal Monarchy
3736:queens regnant
3711:
3708:
3621:Catholic dogma
3567:Roman Catholic
3511:
3510:Church reforms
3508:
3433:money changers
3381:
3378:
3334:regular clergy
3326:secular clergy
3295:legal capacity
3246:, inalienable
3166:
3163:
3158:Main article:
3155:
3152:
3065:
3062:
3058:Moorish arches
2942:Literary works
2843:
2840:
2734:and created a
2696:Volga Bulgaria
2541:
2538:
2522:Magyar assault
2410:
2409:
2400:
2399:
2391:
2390:
2382:
2381:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2367:Middle Francia
2358:
2355:
2323:church liturgy
2294:missi dominici
2222:Charles Martel
2172:Main article:
2169:
2166:
1898:
1895:
1883:slave soldiers
1838:(r. 533–47/48)
1813:
1810:
1779:forces at the
1760:, annihilated
1722:Zoroastrianism
1706:
1696:
1686:
1665:
1662:
1642:Medieval Latin
1532:original works
1509:
1506:
1400:
1397:
1393:eastern Europe
1338:northern Italy
1225:small kingdoms
1214:Celtic Britons
1183:Main article:
1180:
1177:
1172:Main article:
1169:
1166:
1024:silent reading
942:Constantinople
924:(known as the
914:western halves
906: 284–305
875:2nd century AD
840:Main article:
837:
834:
802:royal charters
723:
720:
716:Medieval India
712:global history
594:Leonardo Bruni
592:. The Italian
562:
559:
535:Western Schism
523:Ottoman Empire
389:introduced a "
328:disintegration
324:late antiquity
248:
247:
244:
243:
236:
235:
230:
225:
219:
217:
215:
214:
212:Late antiquity
209:
203:
187:
186:
184:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
143:
138:
132:
130:
126:
125:
123:
122:
117:
112:
106:
104:
100:
99:
69:
61:
60:
50:
49:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
19527:
19516:
19513:
19511:
19508:
19506:
19503:
19501:
19498:
19496:
19493:
19491:
19488:
19486:
19483:
19481:
19478:
19476:
19473:
19471:
19468:
19466:
19463:
19461:
19458:
19456:
19453:
19451:
19448:
19446:
19443:
19441:
19438:
19437:
19435:
19423:
19422:
19421:Travel guides
19410:
19406:
19405:
19393:
19389:
19388:
19376:
19372:
19371:
19359:
19355:
19354:
19342:
19338:
19337:
19325:
19324:
19321:
19315:
19307:
19297:
19295:
19285:
19283:
19278:
19273:
19272:
19269:
19256:
19253:
19251:
19248:
19246:
19243:
19241:
19238:
19236:
19233:
19231:
19228:
19226:
19223:
19221:
19218:
19216:
19213:
19211:
19208:
19206:
19203:
19201:
19200:PROSUR/PROSUL
19198:
19196:
19193:
19191:
19188:
19186:
19183:
19181:
19178:
19176:
19173:
19171:
19168:
19166:
19163:
19161:
19158:
19156:
19153:
19151:
19148:
19146:
19143:
19141:
19138:
19136:
19133:
19131:
19128:
19126:
19123:
19121:
19118:
19116:
19113:
19111:
19108:
19106:
19103:
19101:
19098:
19096:
19095:Craiova Group
19093:
19091:
19088:
19086:
19083:
19081:
19078:
19076:
19073:
19071:
19068:
19066:
19063:
19061:
19058:
19056:
19053:
19051:
19048:
19046:
19043:
19041:
19038:
19036:
19033:
19031:
19028:
19026:
19023:
19021:
19018:
19016:
19013:
19011:
19010:ABCANZ Armies
19008:
19007:
19005:
18999:
18993:
18990:
18988:
18985:
18981:
18978:
18976:
18973:
18971:
18968:
18966:
18963:
18961:
18958:
18956:
18953:
18952:
18951:
18948:
18946:
18943:
18939:
18936:
18935:
18934:
18931:
18929:
18926:
18925:
18923:
18921:
18917:
18911:
18908:
18906:
18903:
18899:
18896:
18894:
18891:
18889:
18886:
18884:
18881:
18877:
18874:
18872:
18869:
18867:
18864:
18862:
18859:
18858:
18857:
18854:
18852:
18849:
18847:
18844:
18842:
18839:
18838:
18837:
18834:
18828:
18825:
18824:
18823:
18820:
18816:
18815:Protestantism
18813:
18809:
18806:
18805:
18804:
18801:
18797:
18794:
18793:
18792:
18789:
18785:
18781:
18778:
18777:
18776:
18773:
18772:
18771:
18768:
18767:
18766:
18763:
18762:
18760:
18758:
18754:
18746:
18743:
18742:
18741:
18738:
18736:
18735:Sovereigntism
18733:
18731:
18728:
18724:
18723:
18719:
18718:
18717:
18714:
18710:
18707:
18706:
18705:
18702:
18700:
18697:
18695:
18692:
18690:
18687:
18685:
18682:
18680:
18677:
18675:
18672:
18668:
18665:
18663:
18660:
18659:
18658:
18655:
18651:
18648:
18647:
18646:
18643:
18641:
18638:
18636:
18633:
18631:
18630:Scholasticism
18628:
18626:
18623:
18621:
18618:
18616:
18613:
18611:
18608:
18606:
18603:
18601:
18598:
18597:
18595:
18593:
18589:
18581:
18578:
18576:
18573:
18571:
18568:
18566:
18563:
18562:
18561:
18558:
18554:
18551:
18550:
18549:
18546:
18542:
18539:
18537:
18534:
18533:
18532:
18529:
18525:
18522:
18521:
18520:
18517:
18515:
18512:
18508:
18505:
18503:
18500:
18498:
18495:
18494:
18493:
18490:
18486:
18483:
18482:
18481:
18478:
18474:
18471:
18470:
18469:
18466:
18462:
18459:
18457:
18454:
18453:
18452:
18449:
18447:
18444:
18442:
18439:
18437:
18434:
18430:
18427:
18426:
18425:
18422:
18420:
18417:
18413:
18410:
18409:
18408:
18405:
18401:
18398:
18397:
18396:
18393:
18389:
18386:
18385:
18384:
18381:
18379:
18376:
18372:
18369:
18368:
18367:
18364:
18362:
18359:
18355:
18352:
18350:
18347:
18345:
18342:
18341:
18340:
18337:
18336:
18334:
18332:
18328:
18320:
18319:War on terror
18317:
18315:
18312:
18311:
18310:
18307:
18303:
18300:
18298:
18295:
18293:
18290:
18288:
18285:
18283:
18280:
18278:
18275:
18273:
18270:
18268:
18265:
18263:
18260:
18258:
18255:
18253:
18250:
18248:
18245:
18243:
18240:
18238:
18235:
18233:
18230:
18228:
18225:
18223:
18220:
18218:
18215:
18214:
18213:
18212:Modern period
18210:
18208:
18205:
18201:
18198:
18196:
18193:
18191:
18188:
18187:
18186:
18183:
18179:
18176:
18175:
18174:
18171:
18169:
18166:
18165:
18163:
18161:
18157:
18151:
18148:
18146:
18143:
18141:
18138:
18136:
18133:
18127:
18124:
18122:
18119:
18118:
18117:
18114:
18112:
18109:
18107:
18104:
18102:
18099:
18098:
18097:
18094:
18092:
18089:
18087:
18084:
18083:
18081:
18077:
18073:
18069:
18068:Western world
18062:
18057:
18055:
18050:
18048:
18043:
18042:
18039:
18027:
18024:
18022:
18019:
18017:
18014:
18012:
18009:
18007:
18004:
18002:
17999:
17997:
17994:
17992:
17989:
17987:
17984:
17982:
17981:Art of Europe
17979:
17978:
17976:
17972:
17966:
17963:
17961:
17958:
17956:
17953:
17951:
17948:
17946:
17943:
17941:
17938:
17936:
17933:
17931:
17928:
17926:
17923:
17921:
17918:
17916:
17913:
17911:
17908:
17906:
17903:
17901:
17898:
17896:
17893:
17891:
17888:
17886:
17883:
17881:
17878:
17876:
17873:
17871:
17868:
17866:
17863:
17861:
17858:
17856:
17853:
17851:
17848:
17846:
17843:
17841:
17838:
17836:
17833:
17831:
17828:
17826:
17823:
17821:
17818:
17816:
17813:
17811:
17808:
17804:
17801:
17800:
17799:
17796:
17794:
17791:
17789:
17786:
17785:
17783:
17781:
17780:Modern period
17777:
17771:
17768:
17766:
17763:
17761:
17758:
17756:
17753:
17751:
17748:
17746:
17743:
17741:
17738:
17736:
17733:
17731:
17728:
17726:
17723:
17721:
17718:
17715:
17711:
17707:
17703:
17699:
17696:
17694:
17691:
17689:
17686:
17682:
17679:
17677:
17674:
17672:
17669:
17667:
17664:
17663:
17662:
17659:
17655:
17652:
17650:
17647:
17646:
17644:
17642:
17639:
17637:
17634:
17632:
17629:
17627:
17624:
17620:
17617:
17616:
17615:
17612:
17610:
17607:
17605:
17602:
17601:
17599:
17597:
17593:
17587:
17584:
17582:
17579:
17577:
17574:
17570:
17567:
17566:
17565:
17562:
17560:
17557:
17555:
17552:
17550:
17547:
17545:
17542:
17541:
17539:
17537:
17533:
17527:
17524:
17522:
17519:
17517:
17514:
17512:
17509:
17508:
17506:
17504:
17500:
17496:
17489:
17484:
17482:
17477:
17475:
17470:
17469:
17466:
17449:
17445:
17441:
17437:
17433:
17429:
17425:
17422:
17418:
17414:
17410:
17406:
17403:
17399:
17395:
17391:
17388:
17384:
17380:
17377:
17373:
17369:
17365:
17361:
17357:
17354:
17351:
17347:
17343:
17339:
17335:
17332:
17330:
17327:
17326:
17324:
17322:
17319:
17318:
17316:
17314:and Near East
17310:
17304:
17301:
17298:
17294:
17290:
17286:
17282:
17278:
17275:
17273:
17270:
17268:
17265:
17263:
17260:
17257:
17253:
17249:
17247:
17244:
17241:
17237:
17233:
17229:
17225:
17222:
17219:
17215:
17211:
17207:
17203:
17200:
17197:
17193:
17190:
17188:
17185:
17183:
17180:
17178:
17175:
17173:
17170:
17168:
17165:
17163:
17160:
17157:
17153:
17149:
17145:
17142:
17140:
17137:
17136:
17134:
17128:
17125:
17119:
17108:
17104:
17100:
17096:
17092:
17090:
17087:
17085:
17082:
17080:
17077:
17074:
17070:
17066:
17063:
17059:
17055:
17053:
17050:
17048:
17045:
17043:
17040:
17038:
17035:
17033:
17030:
17028:
17025:
17024:
17022:
17020:and Near East
17016:
17009:
17005:
17001:
16997:
16994:
16992:
16989:
16987:
16984:
16981:
16977:
16973:
16969:
16966:
16964:
16961:
16958:
16954:
16950:
16946:
16943:
16941:
16938:
16936:
16933:
16930:
16926:
16922:
16918:
16915:
16913:
16910:
16908:
16905:
16904:
16902:
16896:
16893:
16883:
16879:
16872:
16867:
16865:
16860:
16858:
16853:
16852:
16849:
16837:
16829:
16827:
16819:
16817:
16813:
16809:
16808:
16805:
16799:
16796:
16794:
16791:
16789:
16786:
16784:
16781:
16779:
16776:
16774:
16771:
16769:
16766:
16764:
16761:
16759:
16756:
16754:
16751:
16749:
16746:
16744:
16741:
16740:
16738:
16734:
16728:
16725:
16723:
16720:
16718:
16715:
16713:
16710:
16708:
16705:
16703:
16700:
16698:
16695:
16693:
16690:
16688:
16685:
16683:
16680:
16678:
16675:
16673:
16670:
16668:
16665:
16663:
16660:
16658:
16655:
16653:
16650:
16648:
16645:
16643:
16640:
16638:
16635:
16633:
16630:
16628:
16625:
16623:
16620:
16618:
16615:
16613:
16610:
16608:
16605:
16603:
16600:
16599:
16597:
16593:
16587:
16584:
16580:
16577:
16576:
16575:
16572:
16570:
16567:
16565:
16562:
16560:
16557:
16555:
16552:
16550:
16547:
16545:
16542:
16540:
16537:
16535:
16532:
16530:
16527:
16525:
16522:
16520:
16517:
16515:
16512:
16510:
16507:
16505:
16502:
16500:
16497:
16496:
16494:
16492:
16488:
16482:
16479:
16477:
16474:
16472:
16469:
16467:
16464:
16462:
16459:
16457:
16454:
16452:
16449:
16447:
16446:Scholasticism
16444:
16442:
16439:
16437:
16434:
16432:
16429:
16427:
16424:
16422:
16419:
16417:
16414:
16412:
16409:
16407:
16404:
16402:
16399:
16397:
16394:
16392:
16389:
16388:
16386:
16384:
16380:
16374:
16371:
16369:
16366:
16364:
16361:
16359:
16356:
16354:
16351:
16349:
16346:
16344:
16341:
16339:
16336:
16334:
16331:
16329:
16326:
16324:
16321:
16319:
16316:
16314:
16311:
16309:
16308:Rise of Islam
16306:
16302:
16299:
16298:
16297:
16294:
16292:
16289:
16287:
16284:
16282:
16279:
16277:
16274:
16272:
16269:
16268:
16266:
16264:
16260:
16256:
16249:
16244:
16242:
16237:
16235:
16230:
16229:
16226:
16218:
16217:The Labyrinth
16215:
16212:
16208:
16205:
16203:
16200:
16197:
16194:
16192:
16189:
16188:
16176:
16170:
16166:
16162:
16161:
16155:
16151:
16145:
16141:
16137:
16136:
16131:
16127:
16123:
16117:
16113:
16109:
16108:
16103:
16099:
16095:
16089:
16085:
16081:
16077:
16076:
16072:
16068:
16064:
16060:
16056:
16050:
16046:
16042:
16041:
16036:
16032:
16028:
16022:
16018:
16014:
16010:
16009:
16005:
16001:
15997:
15993:
15989:
15983:
15979:
15975:
15971:
15970:
15966:
15962:
15958:
15954:
15950:
15946:
15940:
15936:
15932:
15928:
15927:
15923:
15919:
15915:
15911:
15907:
15903:
15897:
15893:
15892:Da Capo Press
15889:
15888:
15882:
15878:
15872:
15868:
15864:
15860:
15859:
15855:
15851:
15847:
15843:
15839:
15833:
15829:
15825:
15824:
15818:
15814:
15808:
15804:
15800:
15796:
15792:
15788:
15782:
15778:
15774:
15770:
15769:
15765:
15761:
15757:
15753:
15749:
15743:
15739:
15735:
15734:
15728:
15724:
15718:
15714:
15710:
15709:
15704:
15700:
15696:
15692:
15686:
15682:
15681:HarperCollins
15678:
15677:
15672:
15668:
15664:
15658:
15654:
15650:
15646:
15645:
15641:
15637:
15633:
15629:
15625:
15619:
15615:
15611:
15607:
15606:
15602:
15598:
15594:
15590:
15586:
15580:
15576:
15572:
15571:
15565:
15564:
15552:
15546:
15542:
15538:
15537:
15531:
15527:
15521:
15517:
15516:Penguin Books
15513:
15509:
15508:
15503:
15499:
15495:
15489:
15485:
15481:
15480:
15475:
15471:
15467:
15461:
15457:
15453:
15449:
15448:
15443:
15438:
15434:
15428:
15424:
15420:
15419:
15413:
15409:
15403:
15399:
15395:
15391:
15386:
15382:
15376:
15372:
15368:
15364:
15363:
15358:
15354:
15350:
15344:
15340:
15336:
15335:
15329:
15325:
15319:
15315:
15311:
15310:
15304:
15300:
15294:
15290:
15286:
15285:
15280:
15276:
15272:
15266:
15262:
15258:
15254:
15253:
15248:
15244:
15240:
15234:
15230:
15226:
15222:
15218:
15213:
15209:
15203:
15199:
15195:
15194:
15189:
15185:
15181:
15175:
15171:
15167:
15166:
15160:
15156:
15150:
15146:
15142:
15138:
15134:
15130:
15124:
15120:
15116:
15115:
15110:
15106:
15105:Onions, C. T.
15102:
15098:
15092:
15088:
15084:
15080:
15076:
15072:
15066:
15062:
15058:
15054:
15053:
15047:
15043:
15037:
15033:
15029:
15028:
15022:
15018:
15014:
15010:
15006:
15002:
14998:
14994:
14989:
14985:
14979:
14975:
14971:
14967:
14966:
14961:
14957:
14953:
14949:
14945:
14941:
14937:
14933:
14929:
14925:
14921:
14917:
14916:
14911:
14907:
14903:
14897:
14893:
14889:
14888:
14882:
14878:
14872:
14868:
14864:
14863:
14857:
14853:
14847:
14843:
14839:
14838:
14833:
14829:
14825:
14821:
14815:
14811:
14807:
14803:
14799:
14795:
14789:
14785:
14781:
14777:
14772:
14768:
14762:
14758:
14757:Penguin Books
14754:
14750:
14746:
14742:
14736:
14732:
14728:
14724:
14720:
14716:
14710:
14706:
14705:Penguin Books
14702:
14701:
14696:
14695:Keen, Maurice
14692:
14688:
14682:
14678:
14677:Penguin Books
14674:
14670:
14669:
14664:
14660:
14656:
14650:
14646:
14642:
14641:
14636:
14635:James, Edward
14632:
14628:
14622:
14618:
14614:
14613:
14607:
14603:
14597:
14593:
14589:
14588:
14583:
14582:Hornby, A. S.
14579:
14575:
14569:
14565:
14561:
14560:
14555:
14551:
14547:
14543:
14538:
14533:
14529:
14525:
14521:
14520:
14515:
14511:
14506:
14502:
14496:
14492:
14488:
14487:
14481:
14477:
14471:
14467:
14463:
14462:
14457:
14453:
14449:
14443:
14439:
14435:
14434:
14429:
14425:
14421:
14415:
14411:
14407:
14406:
14401:
14397:
14393:
14387:
14383:
14379:
14375:
14374:
14368:
14364:
14358:
14354:
14350:
14346:
14345:
14340:
14336:
14332:
14326:
14322:
14318:
14313:
14309:
14303:
14299:
14295:
14294:
14289:
14285:
14281:
14275:
14271:
14267:
14266:
14261:
14257:
14253:
14247:
14243:
14239:
14238:
14232:
14228:
14222:
14218:
14214:
14213:
14208:
14207:Grant, Edward
14204:
14200:
14194:
14190:
14189:
14183:
14179:
14173:
14169:
14165:
14164:
14159:
14155:
14151:
14145:
14141:
14137:
14133:
14129:
14124:
14120:
14114:
14110:
14106:
14102:
14098:
14094:
14090:
14084:
14080:
14076:
14075:
14070:
14066:
14062:
14056:
14052:
14048:
14047:
14042:
14038:
14034:
14028:
14024:
14020:
14019:
14013:
14009:
14003:
13999:
13995:
13994:
13989:
13985:
13981:
13975:
13971:
13967:
13966:
13961:
13957:
13953:
13947:
13943:
13939:
13935:
13934:
13929:
13924:
13920:
13914:
13910:
13906:
13905:
13900:
13896:
13892:
13886:
13882:
13878:
13877:
13874:
13869:
13868:Curta, Florin
13865:
13861:
13855:
13851:
13847:
13843:
13842:
13837:
13833:
13829:
13823:
13819:
13815:
13814:
13809:
13805:
13801:
13795:
13791:
13787:
13786:
13781:
13777:
13773:
13767:
13763:
13759:
13755:
13754:
13749:
13744:
13740:
13734:
13730:
13726:
13725:
13720:
13716:
13712:
13706:
13702:
13698:
13697:
13691:
13687:
13681:
13677:
13673:
13669:
13668:
13663:
13659:
13655:
13649:
13645:
13644:Penguin Books
13641:
13640:
13635:
13631:
13627:
13621:
13617:
13613:
13612:
13607:
13603:
13599:
13593:
13589:
13585:
13584:
13578:
13574:
13568:
13564:
13560:
13556:
13555:
13549:
13545:
13539:
13535:
13531:
13530:
13525:
13521:
13517:
13511:
13507:
13503:
13502:
13496:
13495:
13483:
13478:
13471:
13466:
13459:
13454:
13447:
13442:
13435:
13430:
13423:
13422:Lindberg 2003
13418:
13412:, p. 18.
13411:
13406:
13399:
13394:
13387:
13382:
13375:
13370:
13363:
13358:
13351:
13346:
13340:, p. 78.
13339:
13334:
13327:
13322:
13315:
13310:
13303:
13298:
13291:
13286:
13279:
13274:
13267:
13262:
13255:
13250:
13243:
13238:
13231:
13226:
13219:
13214:
13207:
13202:
13195:
13190:
13184:, p. 38.
13183:
13178:
13172:, p. 36.
13171:
13166:
13159:
13154:
13147:
13142:
13135:
13130:
13123:
13118:
13111:
13106:
13099:
13094:
13087:
13082:
13075:
13070:
13063:
13058:
13051:
13046:
13039:
13034:
13027:
13022:
13015:
13010:
13003:
12998:
12991:
12986:
12979:
12974:
12967:
12962:
12955:
12950:
12943:
12938:
12931:
12926:
12919:
12918:Hamilton 2003
12914:
12907:
12902:
12895:
12890:
12883:
12882:Hamilton 2003
12878:
12871:
12866:
12859:
12854:
12847:
12846:Hamilton 2003
12842:
12835:
12830:
12823:
12818:
12811:
12806:
12799:
12794:
12787:
12782:
12775:
12770:
12763:
12758:
12751:
12746:
12739:
12734:
12727:
12722:
12715:
12710:
12703:
12698:
12691:
12686:
12679:
12674:
12667:
12662:
12655:
12650:
12643:
12638:
12631:
12626:
12619:
12614:
12607:
12602:
12595:
12590:
12583:
12578:
12571:
12566:
12559:
12554:
12547:
12542:
12535:
12530:
12523:
12518:
12511:
12506:
12499:
12494:
12487:
12482:
12475:
12470:
12463:
12458:
12451:
12446:
12439:
12434:
12427:
12422:
12415:
12410:
12403:
12398:
12391:
12386:
12379:
12374:
12367:
12362:
12355:
12350:
12343:
12338:
12331:
12326:
12319:
12314:
12307:
12302:
12296:, p. 98.
12295:
12290:
12283:
12278:
12276:
12274:
12266:
12261:
12254:
12249:
12242:
12237:
12230:
12225:
12218:
12213:
12206:
12201:
12194:
12189:
12182:
12177:
12170:
12165:
12158:
12153:
12146:
12145:Bartlett 1994
12141:
12134:
12133:Bartlett 1994
12129:
12122:
12117:
12110:
12105:
12098:
12093:
12086:
12081:
12079:
12071:
12066:
12059:
12058:Hoffmann 2014
12054:
12047:
12042:
12035:
12030:
12023:
12018:
12011:
12006:
11999:
11994:
11988:, p. 76.
11987:
11982:
11975:
11970:
11964:, p. 45.
11963:
11958:
11951:
11946:
11939:
11934:
11928:, p. 64.
11927:
11922:
11915:
11910:
11908:
11900:
11895:
11888:
11883:
11881:
11873:
11868:
11861:
11856:
11849:
11844:
11837:
11832:
11825:
11820:
11813:
11808:
11801:
11796:
11789:
11784:
11777:
11772:
11765:
11760:
11753:
11748:
11741:
11736:
11729:
11724:
11717:
11712:
11705:
11700:
11693:
11688:
11681:
11676:
11669:
11664:
11657:
11652:
11645:
11640:
11633:
11628:
11622:, p. 13.
11621:
11616:
11609:
11604:
11597:
11592:
11585:
11580:
11573:
11568:
11561:
11556:
11549:
11544:
11537:
11532:
11530:
11522:
11517:
11510:
11505:
11498:
11493:
11486:
11481:
11474:
11469:
11462:
11457:
11450:
11445:
11438:
11433:
11426:
11421:
11414:
11409:
11402:
11397:
11390:
11385:
11378:
11377:Hamilton 2003
11373:
11366:
11361:
11354:
11349:
11342:
11337:
11330:
11325:
11318:
11313:
11311:
11303:
11298:
11291:
11286:
11279:
11274:
11267:
11262:
11255:
11250:
11243:
11238:
11231:
11226:
11219:
11214:
11207:
11202:
11195:
11190:
11183:
11178:
11171:
11166:
11159:
11154:
11147:
11142:
11135:
11130:
11123:
11118:
11111:
11106:
11099:
11094:
11087:
11082:
11075:
11070:
11063:
11058:
11051:
11046:
11039:
11034:
11027:
11022:
11015:
11010:
11003:
10998:
10991:
10986:
10979:
10974:
10968:, p. 85.
10967:
10962:
10955:
10950:
10943:
10938:
10931:
10926:
10919:
10914:
10907:
10902:
10895:
10890:
10883:
10878:
10871:
10866:
10859:
10854:
10847:
10842:
10835:
10830:
10823:
10818:
10811:
10806:
10799:
10794:
10787:
10786:Hamilton 2003
10782:
10775:
10770:
10763:
10758:
10751:
10746:
10739:
10734:
10727:
10722:
10716:, p. 75.
10715:
10710:
10704:, p. 64.
10703:
10698:
10691:
10686:
10679:
10674:
10667:
10662:
10655:
10650:
10643:
10638:
10631:
10626:
10624:
10617:, p. 32.
10616:
10615:Hamilton 2003
10611:
10604:
10599:
10592:
10591:Hamilton 2003
10587:
10580:
10579:Hamilton 2003
10575:
10568:
10563:
10556:
10551:
10544:
10539:
10532:
10527:
10520:
10519:Hamilton 2003
10515:
10508:
10503:
10496:
10491:
10484:
10479:
10472:
10467:
10460:
10459:Hamilton 2003
10455:
10448:
10443:
10436:
10431:
10424:
10419:
10412:
10407:
10400:
10395:
10388:
10383:
10376:
10371:
10365:, p. 61.
10364:
10359:
10352:
10347:
10340:
10335:
10328:
10323:
10316:
10311:
10304:
10299:
10292:
10287:
10280:
10275:
10269:, p. 99.
10268:
10263:
10256:
10251:
10245:, p. 58.
10244:
10239:
10237:
10235:
10228:, p. 15.
10227:
10222:
10215:
10210:
10203:
10198:
10191:
10186:
10179:
10174:
10167:
10162:
10155:
10150:
10144:, p. 87.
10143:
10138:
10132:, p. 11.
10131:
10126:
10119:
10118:Bartlett 1994
10114:
10107:
10106:Bartlett 1994
10102:
10096:, p. 40.
10095:
10090:
10083:
10078:
10071:
10066:
10059:
10054:
10047:
10042:
10035:
10034:Bartlett 1994
10030:
10023:
10018:
10011:
10006:
9999:
9994:
9987:
9982:
9975:
9970:
9963:
9958:
9952:, p. 73.
9951:
9946:
9939:
9934:
9927:
9922:
9915:
9910:
9903:
9898:
9891:
9886:
9879:
9874:
9872:
9864:
9859:
9852:
9847:
9841:, p. 80.
9840:
9835:
9833:
9825:
9820:
9813:
9808:
9801:
9796:
9790:, p. 41.
9789:
9784:
9778:, p. 52.
9777:
9772:
9765:
9760:
9753:
9748:
9741:
9736:
9729:
9724:
9717:
9712:
9705:
9700:
9698:
9690:
9685:
9678:
9673:
9666:
9661:
9654:
9649:
9642:
9637:
9630:
9625:
9618:
9613:
9606:
9601:
9594:
9589:
9582:
9577:
9570:
9565:
9558:
9553:
9551:
9543:
9538:
9531:
9526:
9519:
9514:
9507:
9502:
9495:
9490:
9488:
9480:
9475:
9468:
9463:
9456:
9451:
9444:
9439:
9432:
9427:
9420:
9415:
9408:
9403:
9396:
9391:
9384:
9379:
9372:
9367:
9360:
9355:
9348:
9343:
9336:
9331:
9324:
9319:
9312:
9307:
9300:
9295:
9288:
9283:
9276:
9271:
9264:
9259:
9252:
9247:
9240:
9235:
9228:
9223:
9216:
9211:
9209:
9201:
9196:
9194:
9186:
9181:
9174:
9169:
9162:
9157:
9150:
9145:
9138:
9133:
9126:
9121:
9114:
9109:
9102:
9097:
9090:
9085:
9079:, p. 51.
9078:
9073:
9066:
9061:
9054:
9049:
9042:
9037:
9030:
9025:
9018:
9013:
9006:
9001:
8994:
8989:
8982:
8977:
8970:
8965:
8958:
8953:
8947:, p. 87.
8946:
8941:
8934:
8929:
8922:
8917:
8910:
8905:
8898:
8893:
8886:
8881:
8874:
8873:Hamilton 2003
8869:
8862:
8857:
8850:
8845:
8838:
8833:
8826:
8821:
8814:
8809:
8802:
8797:
8790:
8785:
8778:
8773:
8766:
8761:
8755:, p. 35.
8754:
8753:Hamilton 2003
8749:
8742:
8737:
8730:
8725:
8719:, p. 41.
8718:
8713:
8711:
8703:
8698:
8691:
8686:
8679:
8674:
8667:
8662:
8655:
8650:
8643:
8642:Naismith 2023
8638:
8631:
8626:
8619:
8614:
8607:
8606:Ringrose 2016
8602:
8595:
8590:
8584:, p. 15.
8583:
8578:
8571:
8566:
8559:
8554:
8547:
8542:
8535:
8530:
8524:, p. 92.
8523:
8518:
8511:
8506:
8499:
8494:
8487:
8482:
8476:, p. 26.
8475:
8470:
8463:
8458:
8451:
8446:
8439:
8434:
8427:
8422:
8415:
8410:
8403:
8398:
8391:
8386:
8379:
8374:
8367:
8362:
8355:
8350:
8343:
8338:
8331:
8326:
8319:
8314:
8307:
8302:
8295:
8290:
8283:
8278:
8271:
8266:
8259:
8254:
8247:
8246:Ringrose 2016
8242:
8235:
8230:
8224:, p. 83.
8223:
8218:
8211:
8206:
8199:
8194:
8187:
8182:
8175:
8170:
8163:
8158:
8152:, p. 77.
8151:
8146:
8140:, p. 78.
8139:
8134:
8132:
8124:
8119:
8112:
8107:
8100:
8095:
8088:
8083:
8076:
8071:
8064:
8059:
8052:
8047:
8040:
8035:
8028:
8023:
8016:
8011:
8005:, p. 86.
8004:
7999:
7992:
7987:
7981:, p. 79.
7980:
7975:
7968:
7963:
7957:, p. 80.
7956:
7951:
7944:
7939:
7932:
7927:
7920:
7915:
7908:
7903:
7896:
7891:
7889:
7881:
7876:
7869:
7864:
7857:
7852:
7845:
7840:
7833:
7828:
7821:
7816:
7810:, p. 35.
7809:
7804:
7797:
7792:
7785:
7780:
7773:
7768:
7762:, p. 34.
7761:
7756:
7749:
7744:
7737:
7732:
7725:
7720:
7718:
7710:
7705:
7703:
7695:
7690:
7683:
7678:
7671:
7666:
7659:
7658:Naismith 2023
7654:
7647:
7642:
7635:
7630:
7623:
7618:
7611:
7606:
7599:
7594:
7587:
7582:
7575:
7570:
7563:
7558:
7551:
7546:
7539:
7534:
7527:
7522:
7515:
7510:
7503:
7498:
7496:
7488:
7483:
7476:
7471:
7469:
7461:
7456:
7449:
7444:
7437:
7432:
7425:
7420:
7413:
7408:
7401:
7396:
7389:
7384:
7382:
7374:
7369:
7365:
7352:
7351:
7350:Duke of Berry
7344:
7343:
7337:
7331:
7324:
7320:
7314:
7306:
7300:
7293:
7286:
7280:
7273:
7272:Vladislaus II
7269:
7265:
7261:
7255:
7248:
7244:
7240:
7236:
7232:
7228:
7223:
7216:
7204:
7200:
7192:
7188:
7184:
7180:
7179:Andronikos II
7176:
7170:
7163:
7157:
7150:
7146:
7140:
7133:
7129:
7125:
7121:
7115:
7108:
7104:
7100:
7099:Jagiellonians
7096:
7092:
7086:
7079:
7075:
7071:
7065:
7058:
7054:
7048:
7037:
7031:
7020:
7014:
7005:
6998:
6994:
6991:in Germany,
6990:
6986:
6982:
6978:
6974:
6968:
6961:
6957:
6953:
6947:
6936:
6932:
6926:
6918:
6917:
6911:
6907:
6903:
6897:
6890:
6889:San Gimignano
6885:
6878:
6871:
6870:trial by jury
6867:
6863:
6858:
6857:
6851:
6846:
6845:
6839:
6833:
6825:
6824:
6818:
6817:Alan of Lille
6814:
6810:
6799:
6788:
6782:
6775:
6768:
6761:
6757:
6753:
6747:
6740:
6736:
6730:
6723:
6719:
6715:
6711:
6708:, and seized
6707:
6703:
6697:
6690:
6681:
6674:
6670:
6666:
6662:
6658:
6654:
6649:
6642:
6638:
6637:Thomas Hobbes
6634:
6631:philosophers
6630:
6624:
6617:
6616:female orgasm
6613:
6610:Often facing
6607:
6600:
6596:
6589:
6583:of the towns.
6582:
6578:
6572:
6565:
6558:
6551:
6547:
6543:
6539:
6535:
6531:
6525:
6517:
6516:
6515:ministerialis
6508:
6501:
6500:
6495:
6494:
6487:
6480:
6479:ivory carving
6476:
6472:
6466:
6457:
6443:
6439:
6433:
6426:
6422:
6418:
6412:
6405:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6387:
6380:
6374:
6367:
6363:
6357:
6350:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6333:
6327:
6320:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6302:
6290: 30,000
6282:
6275:
6274:Birka Warrior
6271:
6267:
6257:
6250:
6246:
6240:
6231:
6224:
6220:
6216:
6210:
6206:
6198:
6196:
6192:
6188:
6184:
6179:
6178:
6172:
6168:
6164:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6135:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6123:Enlightenment
6120:
6116:
6113:According to
6109:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6075:
6073:
6072:
6067:
6063:
6058:
6057:
6051:
6046:
6045:
6039:
6035:
6030:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6019:
6014:
6010:
6009:
6004:
6000:
5999:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5978:
5975:. The use of
5974:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5953:
5951:
5950:
5945:
5941:
5932:
5922:
5913:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5893:
5892:child tribute
5889:
5888:standing army
5885:
5880:
5878:
5874:
5873:blast furnace
5870:
5866:
5858:
5847:
5843:
5834:
5832:
5830:
5826:
5825:Vasco da Gama
5823:in 1486, and
5822:
5818:
5814:
5810:
5804:
5802:
5798:
5789:
5788:
5781:
5780:
5773:
5772:
5765:
5763:
5757:led to three
5756:
5752:
5751:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5730:
5725:
5721:
5717:
5712:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5694:
5683:
5675:
5671:
5666:
5661:
5657:
5647:
5645:
5641:
5636:
5635:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5606:
5605:
5599:
5598:Martin Luther
5595:
5590:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5568:
5564:
5560:
5559:John Wycliffe
5555:
5553:
5552:Pope Martin V
5549:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5528:false charges
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5503:
5497:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5481:
5477:
5473:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5457:
5456:Ottoman Turks
5453:
5445:
5444:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5414:
5410:
5400:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5378:
5374:
5366:
5362:
5357:
5356:was lasting.
5355:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5317:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5296:seizing Ceuta
5293:
5287:
5285:
5281:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5253:
5249:
5245:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5186:
5185:
5178:
5177:
5170:
5169:
5163:
5158:
5148:
5146:
5142:
5141:from Portugal
5139:in 1492, and
5138:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5120:
5116:
5114:
5110:
5109:Ciompi Revolt
5106:
5101:
5100:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5081:
5075:
5071:
5067:
5063:
5049:
5044:
5043:
5036:
5031:
5020:
5010:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4987:
4985:
4981:
4980:horse collars
4977:
4969:
4964:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4941:rib-and-plank
4931:
4927:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4903:
4899:
4896:(d. 1263) by
4895:
4890:
4885:
4881:
4871:
4869:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4833:
4832:book of hours
4829:
4825:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4814:stained glass
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4794:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4771:font at Liège
4768:
4764:
4760:
4755:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4732:
4731:
4725:
4721:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4697:
4695:
4691:
4690:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4674:
4670:
4665:
4664:
4658:
4654:
4649:
4643:
4638:
4634:
4630:
4625:
4624:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4605:mystery plays
4602:
4598:
4587:
4584:collected by
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4566:
4561:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4547:
4543:
4539:
4532:
4527:
4526:
4519:
4518:
4511:
4499:
4498:(d. 1274).
4497:
4492:
4491:
4484:
4483:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4467:Scholasticism
4464:
4460:
4459:Peter Lombard
4456:
4455:Peter Abelard
4452:
4448:
4444:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4415:
4414:
4408:
4404:
4396:
4391:
4381:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4346:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4321:in the east.
4320:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4226:First Crusade
4223:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4184:
4180:
4170:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4115:Mongol Empire
4111:
4109:
4101:
4097:
4094:during their
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4068:disintegrated
4065:
4061:
4057:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4025:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3987:
3986:
3979:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3911:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3889:
3885:
3882:
3878:
3873:
3869:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3837:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3821:(r. 1155–90)
3820:
3813:
3809:
3808:Hohenstaufens
3801:
3797:
3793:
3788:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3777:Muslim rulers
3774:
3770:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3716:
3707:
3705:
3700:
3699:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3664:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3609:Monte Gargano
3606:
3601:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3574:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3543:reform-minded
3540:
3536:
3535:controlled by
3532:
3525:
3521:
3516:
3507:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3487:
3485:
3481:
3480:Trading fairs
3477:
3476:Low Countries
3472:
3471:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3444:
3442:
3436:
3434:
3430:
3425:
3419:
3418:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3399:
3391:
3386:
3377:
3375:
3371:
3365:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3350:Church courts
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3322:
3320:
3319:primogeniture
3315:
3310:
3308:
3303:
3302:
3296:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3216:
3212:
3211:Seljuk Empire
3208:
3203:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3171:
3161:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3140:
3135:
3131:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3103:
3099:
3098:heavy cavalry
3095:
3091:
3090:composite bow
3087:
3080:
3079:
3074:
3070:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3033:Christian art
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
3001:Byzantine art
2998:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2982:
2981:Book of Kells
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2952:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2938:animal motifs
2935:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2903:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2869:
2865:
2864:
2863:Book of Kells
2858:
2853:
2849:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2820:Árpád dynasty
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2689:
2685:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2663:
2658:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2640:
2633:in the early
2632:
2628:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2582:
2577:
2573:
2570:10th-century
2568:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2537:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2414:
2404:
2395:
2386:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2354:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2301:
2296:
2295:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2233:Childeric III
2230:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2191:
2187:
2186:
2180:
2175:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2123:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2103:monastic name
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1988:7th centuries
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1921:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1868:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1845:8th centuries
1837:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1809:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1767:
1766:southern Gaul
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1713:
1703:
1693:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1664:Rise of Islam
1661:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1650:Hispanic Jews
1645:
1643:
1638:
1628:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1593:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1565:
1563:
1552:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1525:
1521:
1515:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1450:
1444:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1277:their kingdom
1274:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1175:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1153:
1147:
1143:
1140:(d. 472), or
1139:
1135:
1131:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1077:crossed into
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1036:
1031:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
997:
993:
988:
986:
982:
978:
977:monophysitism
974:
970:
966:
962:
954:
950:
945:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
872:
864:
860:
859:
854:
849:
843:
833:
830:
826:
822:
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
798:
794:
790:
786:
781:
780:
774:
769:
768:
762:
758:
747:
743:
742:on birch bark
738:
733:
729:
719:
717:
713:
709:
701:
694:. During the
693:
689:
685:
681:
676:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
645:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
615:
613:
608:
603:
599:
598:periodisation
595:
591:
587:
583:
575:
571:
567:
558:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
496:
492:
487:
485:
481:
477:
473:
472:scholasticism
469:
465:
461:
457:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
435:heavy cavalry
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
379:
377:
369:
365:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
241:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
220:
213:
210:
208:
205:
204:
201:
196:
192:
188:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
133:
131:
127:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
107:
105:
101:
96:
92:
77:
73:
72:stained-glass
67:
62:
57: AD 500
51:
46:
43:
41:
37:
33:
19:
19419:
19402:
19385:
19368:
19351:
19339:from Commons
19334:
19313:
19245:Western Bloc
19045:AUSCANNZUKUS
19001:Contemporary
18950:Human rights
18796:Latin Church
18770:Christianity
18720:
18679:Conservatism
18524:contemporary
18361:Architecture
18297:World War II
18257:Emancipation
18252:Abolitionism
18184:
18140:Romanization
18135:Roman legacy
18116:Roman Empire
17940:World War II
17793:Early modern
17770:Kalmar Union
17641:Papal States
17595:
17559:Roman Empire
17428:Principality
17162:Papal States
16887:histories of
16607:Architecture
16579:Great Famine
16569:Universities
16509:Hussite Wars
16426:Great Schism
16313:Papal States
16254:
16159:
16134:
16130:Smith, Julia
16106:
16074:
16070:
16067:
16039:
16007:
16003:
16000:
15968:
15964:
15961:
15925:
15921:
15918:
15886:
15857:
15853:
15850:
15822:
15798:
15767:
15763:
15760:
15732:
15707:
15675:
15643:
15639:
15636:
15604:
15600:
15597:
15569:
15535:
15506:
15478:
15445:
15417:
15393:
15361:
15333:
15308:
15282:
15251:
15224:
15192:
15164:
15140:
15112:
15082:
15051:
15026:
14996:
14992:
14963:
14919:
14913:
14886:
14861:
14836:
14805:
14779:
14752:
14749:Lasko, Peter
14726:
14699:
14667:
14639:
14611:
14585:
14558:
14526:(suppl_13).
14523:
14517:
14485:
14460:
14432:
14404:
14372:
14343:
14316:
14292:
14264:
14236:
14211:
14187:
14162:
14135:
14100:
14073:
14045:
14017:
13992:
13964:
13931:
13903:
13876:
13872:
13840:
13812:
13784:
13751:
13723:
13719:Brown, Peter
13695:
13672:World of Art
13666:
13638:
13610:
13582:
13553:
13528:
13500:
13477:
13465:
13460:, p. 9.
13453:
13441:
13429:
13424:, p. 7.
13417:
13405:
13393:
13381:
13369:
13357:
13345:
13333:
13321:
13309:
13297:
13290:Nicolle 1996
13285:
13273:
13261:
13249:
13242:Wickham 2016
13237:
13225:
13218:Epstein 2009
13213:
13206:Epstein 2009
13201:
13189:
13182:Singman 1999
13177:
13170:Singman 1999
13165:
13158:Fossier 1986
13153:
13141:
13134:Fossier 1986
13129:
13117:
13110:Fossier 1986
13105:
13093:
13081:
13069:
13062:Singman 1999
13057:
13050:Backman 2022
13045:
13038:Fassler 2014
13033:
13021:
13009:
13002:Backman 2022
12997:
12985:
12973:
12961:
12954:Thomson 1998
12949:
12937:
12930:Thomson 1998
12925:
12913:
12901:
12894:Thomson 1998
12889:
12877:
12865:
12858:Thomson 1998
12853:
12841:
12834:Thomson 1998
12829:
12822:Swanson 2021
12817:
12810:Wickham 2016
12805:
12793:
12786:Thomson 1998
12781:
12769:
12757:
12745:
12733:
12721:
12709:
12697:
12685:
12673:
12661:
12649:
12637:
12625:
12613:
12606:Wickham 2016
12601:
12589:
12577:
12570:Wickham 2016
12565:
12553:
12546:Wickham 2016
12541:
12529:
12522:Wickham 2016
12517:
12505:
12493:
12481:
12469:
12457:
12450:Wickham 2016
12445:
12433:
12421:
12414:Backman 2022
12409:
12397:
12390:Wickham 2016
12385:
12373:
12361:
12349:
12337:
12330:Wickham 2016
12325:
12313:
12301:
12289:
12260:
12253:Swanson 2021
12248:
12236:
12224:
12212:
12200:
12193:Epstein 2009
12188:
12176:
12164:
12152:
12140:
12128:
12121:Backman 2022
12116:
12104:
12097:Singman 1999
12092:
12085:Wickham 2016
12070:Backman 2022
12065:
12053:
12041:
12034:Nicolle 1996
12029:
12022:Nicolle 1996
12017:
12010:Singman 1999
12005:
11998:Nicolle 1996
11993:
11981:
11974:Backman 2022
11969:
11962:Epstein 2009
11957:
11950:Backman 2022
11945:
11933:
11921:
11914:Epstein 2009
11894:
11887:Backman 2022
11872:Epstein 2009
11867:
11855:
11843:
11831:
11819:
11807:
11795:
11783:
11771:
11759:
11747:
11740:Dodwell 1993
11735:
11730:, p. 7.
11728:Dodwell 1993
11723:
11711:
11699:
11687:
11675:
11663:
11651:
11644:Nicolle 1996
11639:
11632:Nicolle 1996
11627:
11615:
11608:Backman 2022
11603:
11596:Backman 2022
11591:
11579:
11567:
11555:
11543:
11516:
11504:
11497:Backman 2022
11492:
11485:Fassler 2014
11480:
11468:
11461:Backman 2022
11456:
11449:Backman 2022
11444:
11432:
11420:
11413:Backman 2022
11408:
11396:
11384:
11372:
11360:
11348:
11336:
11324:
11317:Backman 2022
11297:
11285:
11273:
11266:Backman 2022
11261:
11249:
11237:
11225:
11213:
11206:Wickham 2016
11201:
11189:
11177:
11165:
11153:
11141:
11129:
11117:
11105:
11093:
11081:
11069:
11057:
11050:Backman 2022
11045:
11033:
11026:Wickham 2016
11021:
11009:
11002:Backman 2022
10997:
10990:Backman 2022
10985:
10973:
10966:Wickham 2016
10961:
10949:
10937:
10930:Backman 2022
10925:
10913:
10901:
10894:Backman 2022
10889:
10877:
10870:Backman 2022
10865:
10858:Backman 2022
10853:
10841:
10834:Backman 2022
10829:
10817:
10805:
10798:Backman 2022
10793:
10788:, p. 7.
10781:
10769:
10762:Backman 2022
10757:
10745:
10733:
10721:
10709:
10697:
10685:
10673:
10666:Backman 2022
10661:
10649:
10637:
10630:Ramirez 2022
10610:
10598:
10586:
10574:
10562:
10550:
10538:
10526:
10514:
10502:
10490:
10483:Backman 2022
10478:
10471:Backman 2022
10466:
10454:
10447:Backman 2022
10442:
10430:
10418:
10406:
10399:Epstein 2009
10394:
10382:
10375:Epstein 2009
10370:
10358:
10351:Epstein 2009
10346:
10339:Backman 2022
10334:
10327:Epstein 2009
10322:
10310:
10303:Epstein 2009
10298:
10291:Epstein 2009
10286:
10274:
10262:
10255:Epstein 2009
10250:
10226:Singman 1999
10221:
10209:
10202:Singman 1999
10197:
10190:Singman 1999
10185:
10178:Thomson 1998
10173:
10166:Backman 2022
10161:
10154:Singman 1999
10149:
10142:Thomson 1998
10137:
10130:Singman 1999
10125:
10113:
10101:
10089:
10084:, p. 3.
10082:Singman 1999
10077:
10072:, p. 8.
10070:Singman 1999
10065:
10053:
10048:, p. 2.
10046:Singman 1999
10041:
10029:
10022:Backman 2022
10017:
10005:
9998:Backman 2022
9993:
9986:Backman 2022
9981:
9974:Backman 2022
9969:
9962:Singman 1999
9957:
9945:
9933:
9928:, p. 6.
9926:Singman 1999
9921:
9914:Singman 1999
9909:
9902:Backman 2022
9897:
9890:Backman 2022
9885:
9858:
9851:Nicolle 1996
9846:
9839:Nicolle 1996
9824:Nicolle 1996
9819:
9812:Nicolle 1996
9807:
9800:Nicolle 1996
9795:
9788:Nicolle 1996
9783:
9771:
9764:Nicolle 1996
9759:
9752:Nicolle 1996
9747:
9735:
9723:
9711:
9684:
9672:
9660:
9648:
9636:
9624:
9612:
9600:
9588:
9581:Stalley 1999
9576:
9569:Stalley 1999
9564:
9557:Stalley 1999
9537:
9530:Stalley 1999
9525:
9518:Stalley 1999
9513:
9506:Wickham 2009
9501:
9494:Stalley 1999
9474:
9462:
9450:
9438:
9426:
9414:
9402:
9395:Wickham 2009
9390:
9383:Collins 2010
9378:
9366:
9354:
9347:Wickham 2009
9342:
9335:Collins 2010
9330:
9323:Backman 2022
9318:
9311:Collins 2010
9306:
9299:Wickham 2009
9294:
9287:Collins 2010
9282:
9275:Collins 2010
9270:
9263:Backman 2022
9258:
9251:Collins 2010
9246:
9239:Collins 2010
9234:
9227:Backman 2022
9222:
9215:Wickham 2009
9200:Collins 2010
9185:Backman 2022
9180:
9173:Wickham 2009
9168:
9161:Collins 2010
9156:
9149:Backman 2022
9144:
9137:Wickham 2009
9132:
9125:Collins 2010
9120:
9108:
9096:
9089:Fassler 2014
9084:
9077:Fassler 2014
9072:
9060:
9053:Backman 2022
9048:
9036:
9029:Backman 2022
9024:
9012:
9000:
8993:Collins 2010
8988:
8976:
8969:Collins 2010
8964:
8957:Backman 2022
8952:
8940:
8933:Backman 2022
8928:
8916:
8904:
8892:
8880:
8868:
8861:Wickham 2009
8856:
8844:
8837:Collins 2010
8832:
8825:Collins 2010
8820:
8808:
8796:
8784:
8772:
8765:Wickham 2009
8760:
8748:
8736:
8729:Collins 2010
8724:
8697:
8685:
8673:
8661:
8654:Collins 2010
8649:
8637:
8630:Collins 2010
8625:
8618:Wickham 2009
8613:
8601:
8594:Collins 2010
8589:
8577:
8570:Collins 2010
8565:
8558:Collins 2010
8553:
8546:Collins 2010
8541:
8529:
8517:
8505:
8493:
8481:
8469:
8462:Backman 2022
8457:
8445:
8438:Wickham 2009
8433:
8426:Wickham 2009
8421:
8414:Wickham 2009
8409:
8397:
8390:Backman 2022
8385:
8378:Ramirez 2022
8373:
8366:Ramirez 2022
8361:
8354:Wickham 2009
8349:
8342:Wickham 2009
8337:
8330:Wickham 2009
8325:
8318:Wickham 2009
8313:
8301:
8289:
8282:Collins 2010
8277:
8265:
8253:
8241:
8234:Backman 2022
8229:
8222:Wickham 2009
8217:
8210:Wickham 2009
8205:
8193:
8181:
8169:
8162:Collins 2010
8157:
8145:
8118:
8106:
8094:
8082:
8075:Wickham 2009
8070:
8063:Wickham 2009
8058:
8051:Wickham 2009
8046:
8034:
8027:Wickham 2009
8022:
8015:Collins 2010
8010:
8003:Wickham 2009
7998:
7991:Wickham 2009
7986:
7979:Wickham 2009
7974:
7962:
7955:Collins 2010
7950:
7943:Heather 2006
7938:
7931:Collins 2010
7926:
7919:Heather 2006
7914:
7907:Heather 2006
7902:
7880:Collins 2010
7875:
7863:
7856:Stalley 1999
7851:
7839:
7827:
7815:
7803:
7796:Collins 2010
7791:
7784:Backman 2022
7779:
7767:
7755:
7748:Collins 2010
7743:
7736:Collins 2010
7731:
7724:Heather 2006
7694:Collins 2010
7689:
7682:Heather 2006
7677:
7665:
7653:
7646:Wickham 2009
7641:
7629:
7617:
7605:
7593:
7581:
7576:, p. 4.
7569:
7557:
7545:
7538:Mommsen 1942
7533:
7521:
7509:
7489:, p. 5.
7482:
7477:, p. 1.
7462:, p. 1.
7460:Wickham 2016
7455:
7443:
7431:
7419:
7414:, p. 4.
7407:
7400:Mommsen 1942
7395:
7388:Hankins 2001
7375:, p. 3.
7368:
7347:
7330:
7313:
7292:
7279:
7254:
7235:John Hunyadi
7222:
7169:
7156:
7149:young nephew
7139:
7124:Wittelsbachs
7114:
7085:
7064:
7047:
7030:
7013:
7004:
6987:in England,
6967:
6946:
6939:12th century
6925:
6896:
6877:
6861:
6849:
6832:
6823:Stabat Mater
6808:
6781:
6767:
6746:
6729:
6696:
6685:Frederick II
6680:
6648:
6629:early modern
6623:
6606:
6588:
6571:
6557:
6542:King David I
6534:Robert Bruce
6530:Anglo-Norman
6524:
6507:
6497:
6491:
6486:
6465:
6456:
6432:
6411:
6386:
6373:
6356:
6326:
6301:
6281:
6256:
6239:
6230:
6219:Four Empires
6209:
6139:19th century
6136:
6131:Edward Grant
6112:
6105:
6069:
6062:Art of Dying
6061:
6056:Ars moriendi
6049:
6031:
6023:Jan van Eyck
6016:
6006:
5996:
5965:Brunelleschi
5957:Quattrocento
5954:
5947:
5942:chests, and
5936:15th century
5928:
5908:14th century
5881:
5862:
5833:
5805:
5801:movable type
5793:14th century
5762:formes fixes
5748:
5727:
5713:
5679:
5639:
5622:witch trials
5591:
5587:church union
5556:
5509:
5500:15th century
5460:at Gallipoli
5449:
5369:14th century
5358:
5322:14th century
5318:
5304:Ferdinand II
5288:
5282:and much of
5201:
5154:
5121:
5117:
5082:
5052:
5047:
5007:horse armour
4988:
4965:
4922:11th century
4906:
4868:carved-ivory
4864:12th century
4826:
4795:
4756:
4718:
4687:
4644:
4607:, but comic
4563:
4557:
4542:courtly love
4536:
4399:11th century
4393:
4370:Hospitallers
4347:
4319:Latin Empire
4278:
4254:at Dorylaeum
4219:
4163:described by
4151:Ottoman clan
4139:Golden Horde
4123:Genghis Khan
4112:
4104:12th century
4102:in the late
4053:
4022:
3980:
3907:
3897:, Bishop of
3890:
3883:
3836:Frederick II
3789:
3760:Innocent III
3752:
3724:18th century
3721:
3665:
3602:
3575:
3559:papal legate
3549:, Patriarch
3529:
3492:antisemitism
3488:
3446:The Italian
3445:
3437:
3411:partnerships
3395:
3366:
3362:13th century
3323:
3311:
3291:11th century
3264:
3234:
3192:
3137:
3126:
3114:scale armour
3083:
3076:
3056:letters and
3005:iconophiles'
2994:
2979:
2976:Gospel Books
2949:
2944:such as the
2923:
2904:
2884:Hagia Sophia
2873:
2861:
2775:
2744:
2681:
2635:10th century
2624:
2601:Viking realm
2586:
2483:
2455:
2420:
2371:West Francia
2363:East Francia
2343:music theory
2304:
2300:royal chapel
2281:
2257:
2253:Papal States
2229:Carolingians
2226:
2195:
2189:
2188:, completed
2183:
2126:10th century
2119:
2069:
2038:
2024:
1992:penitentials
1962:Few western
1961:
1957:10th century
1945:Nicene Creed
1916:
1879:house slaves
1869:
1849:walrus ivory
1841:
1836:Theudebert I
1770:
1758:North Africa
1718:
1646:
1625:
1566:
1562:compensation
1517:
1486:
1482:public roads
1463:
1436:
1370:
1366:Danube Delta
1330:North Africa
1311:
1257:
1211:
1200:
1126:
1103:Anglo-Saxons
1032:
989:
946:
871:Roman Empire
868:
856:
818:
789:Rolls Series
754:
750:12th century
704:20th century
696:19th century
677:
657:Christianity
646:
616:
607:medium aevum
579:
551:trade routes
503:14th century
491:great famine
488:
468:universities
429:between the
421:and eastern
380:
352:North Africa
336:new kingdoms
302:
269:
265:
264:(also spelt
261:
257:
251:
190:
42:
40:
19445:5th century
19440:Middle Ages
19314:Middle Ages
19282:Middle Ages
19185:Open Balkan
19003:integration
18933:Rule of law
18928:Natural law
18905:Agnosticism
18883:Hellenistic
18861:Anglo-Saxon
18791:Catholicism
18730:Atlanticism
18635:Rationalism
18441:Immigration
18424:Esotericism
18282:World War I
18247:Romanticism
18227:Reformation
18207:Renaissance
18185:Middle Ages
18150:Christendom
18079:Foundations
17925:World War I
17915:Nationalism
17803:Reformation
17788:Renaissance
17760:Black Death
17693:Kievan Rus'
17596:Middle Ages
17394:Kievan Rus'
17130:Western and
17123:territories
17047:Czech lands
16898:Western and
16836:WikiProject
16763:Medievalism
16602:Agriculture
16466:Manorialism
16461:Communalism
16456:Monasticism
16373:Reconquista
16363:Kievan Rus'
15474:Watts, John
15247:Rubin, Miri
15137:Peters, Ted
14926:: 226–242.
14766:14-056036-X
14740:7141-1327-1
13506:McGraw Hill
13482:Arnold 2021
13434:Russel 1991
13398:Sedlar 1994
13350:Benton 2002
13326:Benton 2002
13278:Sedlar 1994
13266:Sedlar 1994
13194:Arnold 2009
13146:Denley 2001
13122:Denley 2001
13074:Denley 2001
13026:Colish 2002
12990:Colish 2002
12870:Sedlar 1994
12774:Sedlar 1994
12750:Sedlar 1994
12726:Denley 2001
12702:Sedlar 1994
12690:Denley 2001
12654:Sedlar 1994
12630:Sedlar 1994
12510:Denley 2001
12462:Denley 2001
12366:Jordan 2002
12241:Chazan 2006
12229:Chazan 2006
12046:Sedlar 1994
11986:Barber 2004
11938:Barber 2004
11926:Barber 2004
11899:Ilardi 2007
11860:Benton 2002
11848:Benton 2002
11836:Benton 2002
11824:Benton 2002
11800:Benton 2002
11776:Benton 2002
11752:Benton 2002
11680:Benton 2002
11656:Benton 2002
11620:Jordan 2002
11584:Jordan 2002
11560:Hoppin 1978
11548:Colish 2002
11536:Colish 2002
11521:Colish 2002
11509:Barber 2004
11473:Colish 2002
11437:Colish 2002
11425:Barber 2004
11401:Barber 2004
11341:Barber 2004
11290:Barber 2004
11278:Barber 2004
11254:Barber 2004
11230:Barber 2004
11170:Barber 2004
11122:Barber 2004
11098:Barber 2004
11086:Barber 2004
11062:Barber 2004
11014:Barber 2004
10978:Jordan 2002
10954:Jordan 2002
10942:Barber 2004
10846:Barber 2004
10822:Barber 2004
10654:Chazan 2006
10603:Jordan 2002
10567:Morris 2001
10555:Barber 2004
10543:Morris 2001
10531:Barber 2004
10507:Barber 2004
10495:Barber 2004
10435:Chazan 2006
10423:Chazan 2006
10411:Chazan 2006
10387:Chazan 2006
10363:Barber 2004
10315:Barber 2004
10279:Barber 2004
10243:Barber 2004
10214:Barber 2004
10094:Barber 2004
10058:Barber 2004
10010:Jordan 2002
9950:Sedlar 1994
9878:Jordan 2002
9704:Benton 2002
9677:Benton 2002
9665:Benton 2002
9641:Benton 2002
9455:Barber 2004
9419:Davies 1996
9407:Davies 1996
9113:Hoppin 1978
9101:Hoppin 1978
9065:Colish 2002
9041:Davies 1996
8945:Barber 2004
8921:Colish 2002
8885:Colish 2002
8789:Colish 2002
8522:Chazan 2006
8510:Chazan 2006
8198:Davies 1996
7808:Chazan 2006
7670:Arnold 2021
7610:Arnold 2021
7598:Arnold 2021
7586:Arnold 2021
7574:Harris 2008
7514:Arnold 2021
7502:Davies 1996
7424:Hornby 2005
7412:Murray 2004
7305:illiteratus
7239:at Belgrade
7213:caused the
7103:Trastámaras
7091:Luxembourgs
7040:90 per cent
6983:in France,
6973:in Chartres
6850:Seven Parts
6805: 1164
6794: 1125
6595:possessions
6532:aristocrat
6341:eight modes
6313:river, and
6294:6th century
6262:9th century
6195:Soviet Bloc
6161:(d. 1883).
6147:medievalism
6137:During the
6119:Renaissance
6034:Block books
5987:(d. 1455).
5919: 1360
5900:wagon forts
5896:Jannisaries
5884:mercenaries
5853: 1470
5745: 1430
5689: 1348
5628: 1450
5554:(1417–31).
5542:; two and,
5309:Reconquista
5272:Henry Tudor
5264:Richard III
5248:Joan of Arc
5242:, allowing
5196:Joan of Arc
5089:flagellants
5070:Black Death
5058: 1200
4991:crossbowmen
4972:30 per cent
4937: 1200
4593: 1155
4574:troubadours
4451:rationalism
4427:nominalists
4286:Reconquista
4242:annihilated
4169:(d. 1324).
4165:the trader
4064:sacked Kyiv
3985:Reconquista
3952:Magna Carta
3817:Frederick I
3704:kabbalistic
3674:of popular
3668:revelations
3657:Franciscans
3649:Cistercians
3645:Carthusians
3633:inquisitors
3625:Waldensians
3578:investiture
3496:blood libel
3403:in Florence
3279:manorialism
3222: 1000
3106:6th century
2997:Hellenistic
2990:Insular art
2960:grave goods
2946:Old English
2915:drawbridges
2812:Piast dukes
2790:Kievan Rus'
2702:, captured
2692:9th century
2339:9th century
2260:Charlemagne
2220:. His son,
2150:Cluny Abbey
2084:Constantine
2072:land trusts
2065:Mount Athos
2061:Great Lavra
2016:homosexuals
2012:fornicators
1976:pilgrimages
1911:Holy Spirit
1897:Church life
1865:7th century
1627:Landholding
1606:9th century
1580:, act as a
1540:Cassiodorus
1528:6th century
1439:7th century
1326:the Vandals
1297:Gallo-Roman
1285:Childeric I
1099:Burgundians
1039:4th century
1028:5th century
1000:3rd century
957:4th century
821:archaeology
806:chrysobulls
708:Eurocentric
667:—violence,
507:intensified
499:50 per cent
495:Black Death
476:pilgrimages
372:9th century
360:7th century
348:Middle East
340:Later Roman
258:Middle Ages
228:Renaissance
171:Black Death
161:Magna Carta
87: 1180
83: 1175
74:panel from
48:Middle Ages
18:Middle ages
19434:Categories
19353:Quotations
19205:Rio Treaty
18716:Relativism
18674:Liberalism
18640:Empiricism
18592:Philosophy
18580:Secularism
18531:Philosophy
18468:Literature
18262:Capitalism
17688:Viking Age
17503:Prehistory
17289:Almoravids
17277:al-Andalus
17250:Portugal (
17093:Anatolia (
16758:Land terms
16712:Technology
16692:Philosophy
16672:Literature
16637:Demography
16338:Viking Age
13491:References
13470:Rubin 2014
13458:Grant 2001
13446:Grant 1994
13374:Adams 2011
13362:Adams 2011
13314:Adams 2011
13302:Adams 2011
13230:Watts 2014
13014:Adams 2011
12978:Fried 2015
12942:Fried 2015
12906:Fried 2015
12642:Watts 2014
12618:Watts 2014
12594:Watts 2014
12582:Watts 2014
12558:Watts 2014
12534:Watts 2014
12498:Watts 2014
12486:Watts 2014
12474:Watts 2014
12438:Watts 2014
12426:Watts 2014
12402:Watts 2014
12378:Watts 2014
12342:Watts 2014
12318:Watts 2014
12306:Watts 2014
12294:Rubin 2014
12282:Watts 2014
12265:Watts 2014
12109:Fried 2015
11812:Adams 2011
11788:Adams 2011
11764:Adams 2011
11716:Lasko 1972
11704:Curta 2019
11692:Curta 2019
11668:Adams 2011
11218:Curta 2019
11194:Curta 2019
11182:Curta 2019
11158:Curta 2019
11146:Curta 2019
11134:Curta 2019
11110:Curta 2019
11074:Fried 2015
11038:Fried 2015
10918:Watts 2014
10906:Fried 2015
10882:Watts 2014
10810:Fried 2015
10726:Fößel 2016
10714:Fößel 2016
10702:Watts 2014
10690:Fried 2015
10642:Bitel 2002
10267:Rubin 2014
9938:Curta 2019
9776:Curta 2019
9716:Lasko 1972
9542:Adams 2011
9479:Curta 2019
9467:Curta 2019
9443:Curta 2019
9431:Curta 2019
9371:Curta 2019
9359:Curta 2019
9017:Curta 2019
9005:Curta 2019
8981:Brown 2001
8909:Bitel 2002
8897:Curta 2019
8849:Curta 2019
8813:Curta 2019
8801:Bitel 2002
8777:Bitel 2002
8741:Brown 2001
8717:Brown 2001
8582:Brown 2001
8486:Brown 2001
8474:Brown 2001
8402:Bitel 2002
8306:Brown 2001
8294:Brown 1989
8270:Brown 2001
8258:Brown 1989
8186:Curta 2019
8174:Curta 2019
8150:James 2009
8138:James 2009
8123:Brown 1989
8111:James 2009
8099:James 2009
8087:James 2009
8039:Rubin 2014
7967:James 2009
7895:Brown 1989
7772:Brown 1989
7760:Brown 1989
7709:Brown 1989
7634:Curta 2019
7622:Curta 2019
7526:Power 2006
7487:Rubin 2014
7475:Rubin 2014
7448:Fried 2015
7373:Power 2006
7227:Skanderbeg
7187:fratricide
7132:Palatinate
6999:in Prague.
6979:, and the
6866:common law
6706:his father
6661:Petronilla
6633:Jean Bodin
6449: 950
6245:Goiswintha
6183:Marc Bloch
6082:See also:
5877:patent law
5865:sheep with
5811:landed at
5809:Dinis Dias
5490:, and the
5417:See also:
5314:conquering
5300:Isabella I
5216:Edward III
5137:from Spain
5078:50 percent
4910:spectacles
4902:spectacles
4846:, and the
4791:needlework
4787:tapestries
4783:Embroidery
4752:rib vaults
4736:Romanesque
4730:Bergfriede
4525:trobairitz
4447:empiricism
4431:universals
4419:university
4327:rump state
4234:indulgence
4187:See also:
4167:Marco Polo
4056:fell apart
4029:Almoravids
3971:enquêteurs
3957:Louis VIII
3831:recognised
3823:sanctioned
3819:Barbarossa
3706:teaching.
3684:sanctioned
3678:, such as
3672:veneration
3661:Dominicans
3637:hermetical
3605:Compostela
3522:Church of
3520:Romanesque
3450:, such as
3332:, and the
3273:, and the
3198: 950
3110:longswords
3086:cataphract
3037:Gero Cross
2968:Sutton Hoo
2948:epic poem
2930:polychrome
2846:See also:
2836:annexed by
2800: 900
2740:chieftains
2612: 860
2544:See also:
2510: 931
2479:Hugh Capet
2471:Franconian
2375:Viking Age
2268:subjugated
2202:Arnulfings
2142:sacraments
2099: 900
2045:cenobitism
2031:from Egypt
1953:church tax
1937:iconoclasm
1875: 750
1857:base metal
1832:Austrasian
1816:See also:
1808:servants.
1793:Al-Andalus
1656:after the
1598:concubines
1592:Morgengabe
1558: 525
1547: 585
1538:(d. 489),
1512:See also:
1470:Belisarius
1466:Nika riots
1377:vernacular
1332:, and the
1260:Ostrogoths
1221: 600
1209:declined.
1136:(d. 454),
1132:(d. 408),
1097:, and the
994:developed
899:Diocletian
846:See also:
797:chronicles
726:See also:
649:Miri Rubin
622: 500
590:modern era
480:Romanesque
451:were built
399:colonising
191:Chronology
129:Key events
85: – c.
19505:Dark ages
19404:Resources
19387:Textbooks
19150:Five Eyes
19145:EU–UK TCA
18987:Democracy
18876:Old Norse
18765:Abrahamic
18722:Peritrope
18704:Tolerance
18684:Socialism
18514:Mythology
18502:Classical
18451:Languages
18429:Astrology
18277:Modernism
18091:Old World
17735:Feudalism
17706:Catalonia
17448:Despotate
17392:Ukraine (
17376:Jerusalem
17340:Croatia (
17095:Byzantine
17067:Hungary (
17058:Byzantine
16957:1169–1536
16743:Dark Ages
16652:Household
16647:Hastilude
16416:Feudalism
16104:(2001) .
16037:(2006) .
15713:Routledge
15673:(1993) .
15575:Routledge
15476:(2014) .
15017:1538-4608
14940:0038-7134
14867:Routledge
14725:(1969) .
14697:(1976) .
14665:(2002) .
14546:0031-2746
14430:(1993) .
14402:(2006) .
14382:Routledge
14160:(2015) .
14101:1250–1520
14071:(2009) .
13838:(2010) .
13810:(2002) .
13721:(1989) .
13636:(1994) .
13616:Routledge
13608:(2004) .
13526:(2021) .
13254:Vale 2001
13086:Vale 2001
12966:Fine 2009
12798:Vale 2001
12762:Fine 2009
12738:Fine 2009
12714:Fine 2009
12678:Fine 2009
12666:Fine 2009
12354:Vale 2001
12217:Keen 1976
12205:Keen 1976
12181:Keen 1976
12169:Keen 1976
12157:Vale 2001
11389:Lock 2006
11365:Lock 2006
11353:Lock 2006
11329:Lock 2006
11302:Lock 2006
11242:Lock 2006
9605:Nees 2002
7868:Nees 2002
7844:Nees 2002
7820:Nees 2002
7562:Heng 2021
7361:Citations
7299:literatus
7247:at Vaslui
7095:Habsburgs
7019:gunpowder
6760:Trebizond
6710:Aquitaine
6669:Constance
6444:(d. 975)
6440:built by
6360:The monk
6349:antiphons
6027:oil paint
6013:Boticelli
6003:Donatello
5815:in 1444,
5813:Cap Verde
5720:Boccaccio
5709:humanists
5670:astronomy
5618:Hesychasm
5571:Hussitism
5563:Eucharist
5524:Philip IV
5486:, Bosnia
5476:Mehmed II
5443:Hünername
5393:Wallachia
5326:Lithuania
5276:Henry VII
5240:civil war
5099:Jacquerie
5042:Jacquerie
4957:astrolabe
4932:appeared
4926:windmills
4759:Mosan art
4671:with the
4475:patristic
4435:Aristotle
4380:in 1226.
4339:Occitania
4276:in 1291.
4131:Batu Khan
4041:Greenland
4009:from the
3962:appanages
3936:Richard I
3901:, in the
3862:Habsburgs
3773:Byzantine
3641:apostolic
3539:Henry III
3424:compagnia
3413:known as
3275:commoners
3236:Feudalism
3226:assarting
3187:peasantry
3148:horseshoe
2972:strapwork
2934:cloisonné
2907:pilasters
2876:basilicas
2778:Moravians
2618:into the
2439:Lothair I
2351:polyphony
2347:intervals
2276:destroyed
2198:Austrasia
2115:Hrosvitha
2090:as a new
1933:his claim
1931:rejected
1797:Aghlabids
1726:Armenians
1714:, 661–750
1704:, 632–661
1694:, 622–632
1524:education
1502:Heraclius
1472:(d. 565)
1455:Justinian
1443:Roman law
1322:the Suebi
1302:Britannia
1268:a kingdom
1227:(such as
1083:Visigoths
1016:basilicas
1004:Roman art
938:Byzantium
926:Tetrarchy
889:with the
861:, now in
728:Cartulary
700:Dark Ages
669:patronage
632:), 1492 (
612:Neo-Latin
586:antiquity
576:, France)
525:; in the
439:feudalism
298:Dark Ages
274:antiquity
266:mediaeval
207:Antiquity
103:Including
97:narrative
19210:Schengen
19140:Eurozone
18980:Property
18975:Religion
18866:Frankish
18856:Germanic
18836:Paganism
18757:Religion
18745:European
18657:Humanism
18560:Religion
18519:Painting
18485:Internet
18436:Folklore
18407:Clothing
18378:Calendar
18354:Cyrillic
18339:Alphabet
18302:Cold War
17974:See also
17945:Cold War
17740:Crusades
17710:Valencia
17444:Lordship
17426:Serbia (
17407:Russia (
17346:Pannonia
17342:Dalmatia
17293:Almohads
17121:Medieval
17056:Greece (
16968:Scotland
16953:800–1169
16885:Medieval
16826:Category
16793:Timeline
16682:Minstrel
16677:Medicine
16559:Chivalry
16514:Burgundy
16436:Crusades
16132:(2005).
15797:(1992).
15504:(2009).
15359:(1999).
15281:(1991).
15249:(2014).
15223:(eds.).
15198:WH Allen
15190:(2022).
15081:(1996).
15003:: 1–22.
14915:Speculum
14834:(eds.).
14804:(1978).
14751:(1972).
14637:(2009).
14556:(1978).
14530:: 1–44.
14458:(2021).
14290:(2023).
14262:(1996).
14209:(1994).
14134:(eds.).
14043:(2014).
13990:(2012).
13962:(1993).
13901:(1996).
13875:Volume I
13870:(2019).
13782:(2006).
13664:(2002).
13098:Lee 2021
7336:Champmol
7130:and the
7057:Limerick
6935:tympanum
6906:Toulouse
6856:Landslov
6739:Novgorod
6722:annulled
6641:decretal
6612:misogyny
6379:Robert I
6307:Liudewit
6215:Six Ages
6038:woodcuts
5993:the nude
5969:Pantheon
5944:maiolica
5912:handguns
5701:Petrarch
5674:geometry
5567:Lollardy
5397:Moldavia
5385:Novgorod
5381:Ivan III
5280:Scotland
5268:Bosworth
5228:Poitiers
5220:claim to
5204:Florence
5162:burghers
5157:polities
5113:Florence
5074:pandemic
4848:Trecento
4793:images.
4775:sketches
4689:Almagest
4642:1260.
4538:Chivalry
4425:and the
4423:realists
4372:and the
4222:Urban II
4212:for the
4210:crusades
4179:Crusades
4173:Crusades
4100:Bulgaria
4080:Dalmatia
4033:Almohads
4031:and the
4015:Sardinia
4003:Portugal
3966:Louis IX
3919:Henry II
3884:(centre)
3879:showing
3804:Henry IV
3800:Burgundy
3781:Roger II
3740:chancery
3659:and the
3647:and the
3586:prelates
3582:Henry IV
3417:commenda
3370:ordained
3309:.
3271:nobility
3193:Between
3144:crossbow
3102:stirrups
3094:Scythian
2984:and the
2919:cisterns
2888:transept
2771:Basil II
2688:resisted
2671:and the
2572:Ottonian
2518:Normandy
2475:Conrad I
2288:counties
2264:Carloman
2249:Holy See
2218:Neustria
2154:Burgundy
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2107:Cyrillic
2076:classics
2020:Bogomils
1891:Zaragoza
1818:Saqaliba
1801:Tulunids
1773:Asturias
1734:Muhammad
1692:Muhammad
1637:slavicus
1602:monogamy
1570:abbesses
1551:Boethius
1494:Anatolia
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1358:defeated
1334:Lombards
1307:Brittany
1289:Clovis I
1241:Scotland
1162:emperors
1130:Stilicho
1110:province
1095:Alemanni
1035:invaders
987:rights.
973:Arianism
944:in 330.
920:and two
810:graffiti
787:and the
746:Novgorod
673:charisma
638:Americas
543:Humanist
539:heresies
493:and the
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419:Catholic
314:(mainly
270:mediæval
156:Crusades
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19294:History
19268:Portals
19055:Benelux
18960:Thought
18910:Atheism
18851:Finnish
18827:Culture
18822:Judaism
18784:Eastern
18780:Western
18775:Culture
18709:Paradox
18575:Decline
18536:Science
18412:History
18400:Studies
18383:Cuisine
18371:Periods
18331:Culture
18160:History
18126:Eastern
18121:Western
18072:culture
17815:Baroque
17714:Majorca
17626:Francia
17436:Kingdom
17368:Antioch
17364:Tripoli
17107:Ottoman
17084:Romania
17062:Ottoman
17052:Georgia
17042:Croatia
17032:Armenia
17027:Albania
16949:400–800
16945:Ireland
16940:Germany
16917:England
16912:Denmark
16907:Corsica
16889:current
16736:Related
16722:Warfare
16717:Theatre
16707:Slavery
16702:Science
16657:Hunting
16622:Cuisine
16595:Culture
16534:Castile
16529:England
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7207:John VI
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6798:Héloïse
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6657:Castile
6404:Ravenna
6362:Hucbald
6315:Pribina
6260:In the
6217:or the
6187:Marxism
6177:Annales
5940:cassone
5904:cannons
5869:fashion
5787:virelai
5779:ballade
5771:rondeau
5575:Jan Hus
5516:Avignon
5488:in 1463
5484:in 1460
5480:in 1459
5373:Muscovy
5338:Jadwiga
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5292:Morocco
5284:Ireland
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5184:Landtag
5003:helmets
4995:sappers
4961:compass
4850:master
4840:Cimabue
4684:Ptolemy
4680:algebra
4673:decimal
4653:Bologna
4623:organum
4521:by the
4471:Vulgate
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4266:Saladin
4258:Antioch
4228:at the
4117:in the
4076:Croatia
4049:Finland
4037:Maghreb
3999:Navarre
3991:Castile
3891:(right)
3858:Austria
3796:Salians
3790:In the
3676:mystics
3629:Cathars
3500:pogroms
3390:Hamburg
3358:confess
3314:knights
3301:corvées
3287:serfdom
3283:demesne
3258:pronoia
3244:Hungary
3183:knights
3165:Society
3017:codices
2964:Tournai
2951:Beowulf
2926:fibulae
2816:Hungary
2747:Basil I
2720:Denmark
2684:Khazars
2631:Germany
2495:Croatia
2491:Moravia
2487:Bohemia
2247:to the
2212:. One,
2146:baptism
2004:sinners
1996:penance
1980:shrines
1972:mission
1964:bishops
1943:of the
1925:Leo III
1860:coinage
1830:of the
1828:solidus
1621:Germany
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1582:seeress
1549:), and
1490:new war
1459:eunuchs
1431:Ravenna
1389:central
1354:Bulgars
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1281:Francia
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1071:Vandals
1059:Balkans
1026:in the
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910:eastern
887:the war
865:, Italy
785:Germany
722:Sources
574:Avignon
517:states
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443:knights
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395:Slavery
366:of the
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19306:Europe
19075:CANZUK
18965:Speech
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18740:Values
18541:Values
18101:Greece
17702:Aragon
17681:Amalfi
17666:Venice
17654:Second
17440:Empire
17421:Moscow
17417:Ryazan
17372:Edessa
17360:Cyprus
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1730:Islam
1373:Latin
1342:Avars
1245:Picts
1237:Wales
1075:Suebi
1067:Alans
1047:Goths
814:seals
757:women
684:Early
286:Early
19190:OSCE
19170:NATO
19115:EFTA
19080:CBSS
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