544:
1030:
1834:, respectively, as a part of the NMD Program. The administration continued to push the program, but received pushback from multiple fronts. Firstly, some scientists opposed the program and raised ethical objections. Secondly, some trial-and-error technical failures during development became highly publicized, though from a technical standpoint they were unsurprising and even expected. The projected cost of the program for the years 2004 to 2009 was 53 billion US dollars, making it the largest single line in
888:
923:
289:
845:
1167:
1298:
678:(also known as Polus, Skif-DM or 17F19DM), the final version of which according to some reports could be armed with nuclear space mines and defensive cannon. The Polyus weapons platform was designed to defend itself against anti-satellite weapons with recoilless cannon. It was also equipped with a sensor blinding laser to confuse approaching weapons and could launch test targets to validate the fire control system. The attempt to place the satellite into orbit failed.
825:
366:. The late 1950s Nike-Zeus programme involved firing Nike nuclear missiles against oncoming ICBMs, thus exploding nuclear warheads over the North Pole. This idea was soon scrapped and work began on Project Defender in 1958. Project Defender attempted to destroy Soviet ICBMs at launch with satellite weapon systems, which orbited over Russia. This programme proved infeasible with the technology from that era. Work then began on the Sentinel Program which used
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135:
1471:
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1078:
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36:
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421:. Though it was only operational as an ABM facility for less than a year, the Perimeter Acquisition Radar (PAR), one of Safeguard's components, was still operational as of 2005. One major problem with the Safeguard Program, and past ABM systems, was that the interceptor missiles, though state-of-the-art, required nuclear warheads to destroy incoming ICBMs. Future ABMs will likely be more accurate and use
266:-style satellites, as well as orbital nuclear explosives were researched with varying levels of success. Spy satellites were, and continue to be, used to monitor the dismantling of military assets in accordance with arms control treaties signed between the two superpowers. To use spy satellites in such a manner is often referred to in treaties as "national technical means of verification".
774:). These tasks are performed on a regular basis both during peacetime and war operations. Satellites are also used by the nuclear states to provide early warning of missile launches, locate nuclear detonations, and detect preparations for otherwise clandestine or surprise nuclear tests (at least those tests or preparations carried out above-ground); this was the case when, in 1998,
1380:
707:
1759:, "call on all States, in particular those with major space capabilities, to contribute actively to the peaceful use of outer space, prevent an arms race there, and refrain from actions contrary to that objective." There were 178 countries that voted in favour to none against, with 2 abstentions (Israel, United States).
1766:, emphasises the prevention of an arms race in space and states that "other measures could contribute to ensuring that weapons were not placed in outer space." 126 countries voted in favour to 4 against (Georgia, Israel, Ukraine, United States), with 46 abstentions (EU member States abstained on the resolution).
1455:
HEMPs cause banana-shaped areas of effect, due to the pulse's interaction with the Earth's magnetic field. A nuclear weapon detonated at 400 km creates an EMP 2,200 km in radius, large enough to cover the continental United States. However, any nuclear device detonated above 30 km will
1451:
The 1962 Starfish Prime test produced an HEMP which caused electronics to fail 1400 km (800) away in Hawaii where about 300 streetlights immediately failed. Soviet tests with HEMPs were executed above land, where a 1000 km power line was shut down, and all telephone lines within 500 km
697:
The Soviet Union executed their own high-altitude tests for the purpose of studying and developing High-Altitude
Electromagnetic Pulse (HEMP) weapons. The most notable of these is the 1962 Nuclear Test 184 in which a nuclear bomb was detonated at an altitude of 290 km. The ensuing HEMP damaged a
1745:
1210:
and can be used by anyone, free of charge. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$ 400 million per year, including the replacement of ageing satellites. The first of 24 satellites that form the current GPS constellation (Block II) was placed into orbit on
February 14, 1989. The 52nd
721:
As the Cold War ended with the implosion of the Soviet Union the space race between the two superpowers ended. The United States of
America was left as the only superpower on Earth with a large concentration of the world's wealth and technological advancement. Despite the United States' new status
496:
The U.S. military has relied on communications, intelligence, navigation, missile warning and weather satellite systems in areas of conflict since the early 1990s, including the
Balkans, Southwest Asia and Afghanistan. Space systems are considered indispensable providers of tactical information to
1360:
has denied claims that the X-37 has been, or will be, used in the development or testing of space-based weapons. The USAF has confirmed that Hall thruster electric propulsion tests have been carried out using the X-37, utilizing
Aerojet Rocketdyne's AEHF satellites' Hall thrusters. These thrusters
765:
with regard to the details of space sensing systems.) The first application is the continuing development of "spy" or reconnaissance satellites which began in the Cold War era, but has progressed significantly since that time. Spy satellites perform a variety of missions such as high-resolution
1699:
The Moon Treaty (not ratified by any space capable state, though signed by some) bans any military use of celestial bodies, including weapon testing, nuclear weapons in orbit, or military bases. The use of military personnel for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes shall not be
534:
was a series of nuclear tests carried out by the United States
Government in 1958. A major facet of these tests was three high-altitude nuclear tests: YUCCA, ORANGE, and TEAK. YUCCA was detonated April 28 at an altitude of 86,000 feet and had a comparatively small yield of 1.7 kilotons. YUCCA is
566:
was a nuclear test carried out in 1962 over
Johnston Atoll by the United States as part of Operation Fishbowl. The 1.4 megaton bomb was detonated at an altitude of 400 km (250 miles), in the ionosphere and was the highest altitude nuclear test ever demonstrated. The test is notable for its
1447:
A high-altitude electromagnetic pulse is a result of an atmospheric nuclear explosion, as demonstrated by the United States' Starfish Prime and the Soviet Union's
Nuclear Test 184. Though such explosions lack the usual damage caused by nuclear explosions such as physical damage and radioactive
1708:
In 1963 the
Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. The treaty was a response to growing concerns over the rapidly increasing power of nuclear weapons as well as damage from radioactive fallout. The treaty banned underwater tests and
1438:
on Soyuz spacecraft, as part of the emergency landing survival kit. The intent of the weapon is to protect cosmonauts from wild animals in the event of an off-course wilderness landing. The specially designed gun is capable of firing bullets, shotgun shells, or flares.
535:
notable as the first nuclear test carried via balloon. Following tests ORANGE and TEAK were carried out July 31 and August 11 at altitudes of 252,000 feet and 141,000 feet, respectively. The bombs were delivered via rocket and their yields were in the megaton range.
1792:
With the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War defense spending was reduced and space research was chiefly focused on peaceful research. American military research is focused on a more modest goal of preventing the United States from being subject to
1805:
weapons in space, but is designed to intercept incoming warheads at a very high altitude, which requires the interceptor to travel into space to achieve the intercept. These missiles can be land-based or sea-based, and most proposed programs use a mix of the two.
1239:(global navigation system); the system operates with 24 satellites that are deployed in 3 orbital planes as opposed to the 4 in which GPS is deployed. The Chinese "Beidou" system provides China a similar regional (not global) navigation capability.
1581:, an old Soviet satellite was destroyed by the Russian military using a ground based missile. To date, there have been no human casualties resulting from conflict in space, nor has any ground target been successfully neutralised from orbit.
452:
would hasten the Soviet Union's downfall. According to this doctrine, Communist leaders were forced to either shift large portions of their GDP to counter SDI, or else watch as their expensive nuclear stockpiles were rendered obsolete.
760:
Post Cold War space militarisation seems to revolve around three types of applications. (The word "seems" is used because much of this subject matter is inconclusively verifiable, due to the high level of secrecy that exists among the
440:(SDI), a space-based system to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear missiles. The plan was ridiculed by some as unrealistic and expensive, and Dr. Carol Rosin nicknamed the policy "Star Wars", after
408:
was deployed in the mid-1970s and was based on the
Sentinel Program. Since the ABM treaty only allowed for construction of a single ABM facility to protect either the nation's capital city or an ICBM field, the
1251:. Network-centric warfare relies heavily on the use of high-speed communications, which allows all soldiers and branches of the military to view the battlefield in real-time. Real-time technology improves the
1813:
signed National Security Presidential Directive which outlined a plan to begin deployment of operational ballistic missile defense systems by 2004. The following day, the US formally requested from the UK and
1332:
had such military objectives such as to make a sudden dive into the atmosphere to drop bombs on Moscow. Although it is a popular myth that these concerns were part of the motivation behind pursuing their own
281:(ICBM) were created, which could strike virtually any target on Earth in a timeframe measured in minutes rather than hours or days. To cover large distances ballistic missiles are usually launched into
1223:, or other munitions, and spoofing or jamming location data to civilian navigation receivers during wartime. The satellites also carry nuclear detonation detectors, which form a major portion of the
698:
1000 km long line in Kazakhstan which was designed to be protected from such damage. The electrical damage is comparable to the strongest naturally occurring geomagnetic disturbances recorded.
1682:, and the Soviet Union signed the treaty and it entered into effect on October 10, 1967. As of January 1, 2005, 98 States have ratified, and an additional 27 have signed the Outer Space Treaty.
1600:(MAD) became the deterrent strategy between the two superpowers in the Cold War, many countries worked together to avoid extending the threat of nuclear weapons to space based launchers.
1403:), attack targets on the earth from space or disable missiles travelling through space. In the course of the militarisation of space, such weapons were developed mainly by the contesting
250:
were used by militaries to take accurate pictures of their rivals' military installations. As time passed the resolution and accuracy of orbital reconnaissance alarmed both sides of the
448:
pointed out that in order to defeat SDI, the Soviet Union had only to build more missiles, allowing them to overcome the defence by sheer force of numbers. Proponents of SDI said the
1337:, the actual study concerning the potential for US Space Shuttles to launch nuclear munitions into Soviet territory was released after the Buran program had already been approved.
2500:
2145:
2577:
2516:
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, July 26, 1963; Treaties and Other International Agreements Series #5433; General Records of the U.S. Government; Record Group 11; National Archives.
1782:
1542:
Only a few incidents of space warfare have occurred in world history, and all were training missions, as opposed to actions against real opposing forces. In the mid-1980s a
1615:
1271:
created by the military for the military. Communication satellites hold this system together by creating an informational grid over the given theatre of operations. The
1748:(PPWT). The US opposed the draft treaty due to security concerns over its space assets despite the treaty explicitly affirming a State's inherent right of self-defence.
1215:
rocket. The primary military purposes are to allow improved command and control of forces through improved location awareness, and to facilitate accurate targeting of
1709:
atmospheric tests, and effectively banned underground nuclear tests. The treaty put an end to further testing of high-altitude nuclear tests, and by extension HEMPs.
1267:
hovering overhead while the commander, hundreds of miles away, watches as the events unfold on a monitor. This high-speed communication is facilitated by a separate
1361:
are 4.5 kilowatt units that utilize electricity and xenon to produce thrust by ionizing and accelerating xenon gas particles.The X-37 is akin to a space version of
418:
1348:
was transferred to the US Department of Defense in 2004. It is unclear what its military mission is, although speculation ranges from the testing of experimental
2005:
1635:
States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner;
3251:
1626:
the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind;
2792:
190:, and some ballistic missiles pass through outer space during their flight. As of 2018, known deployments of weapons stationed in space include only the
425:
or conventional warheads to knock down incoming warheads. The technology involved in such systems was shaky at best, and deployment was limited by the
329:
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was fitted with a 23mm cannon, which was successfully test fired at target satellites, at ranges from 500 to 3,000 metres (1,600 to 9,800 ft).
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technology and other technologies having the potential for military application. Outer space has since been used as an operating location for
2212:
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was the first independent space force, formed in 1992, independent from 1992 to 1997 and 2001 to 2011, however it currently now part of the
2236:
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to connect all military units and branches into a computerised network in order to share information and create a more efficient military.
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As soon as intercontinental missiles were developed, military planners began programmes and strategies to counter their effectiveness.
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100:
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International treaties governing space limit or regulate conflicts in space and limit the installation of weapon systems, especially
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The USSR Space Forces were established as the Ministry of Defense Space Units in 1982. In 1991, the Soviet Union disintegrated. The
72:
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outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means;
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481:
53:
2618:"General Assembly Adopts 63 Drafts on First Committee's Recommendation with Nuclear Disarmament at Core of Several Recorded Votes"
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17:
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Su, J. (2010). The “peaceful purposes” principle in outer space and the Russia–China PPWT Proposal. Space policy, 26(2), 81–90.
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485:(CINCNORAD), and for the majority of time during USSPACECOM's existence also the Commander of the U.S. Air Force major command
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The Soviet Union was also researching innovative ways of gaining space supremacy. Two of their most notable efforts were the
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Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects
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States shall be responsible for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental activities;
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later that year on 10 August. In July 1997, the Space Force was dissolved as a separate service arm and incorporated to the
2025:
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489:. Military space operations coordinated by USSPACECOM proved to be very valuable for the U.S.-led coalition in the 1991
86:
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by the United States Armed Forces. The Commander in Chief of U.S. Space Command (CINCUSSPACECOM), with headquarters at
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143:
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For a more complete account on the doctrinal precepts of acquisition of the high ground, ref Squadron Leader KK Nair,
2427:
1751:
On December 4, 2014, the General Assembly of the UN passed two resolutions on preventing an arms race in outer space:
757:. The Russian Space Forces were officially reborn on June 1, 2001, as an independent section of the Russian military.
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2322:
2091:
1995:
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Treaties are agreed to when all parties perceive a benefit from becoming a signatory participant in the treaty. As
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on developing military technologies. The drive to place objects in orbit stimulated space research and started the
68:
2664:
2189:"The Space Review: Target Moscow: Soviet suspicions about the military uses of the American Space Shuttle (part 1)"
1801:. This overlapped with militarization of space in the form of ballistic missile defense. Missile defense does not
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The third current application of militarisation of space can be demonstrated by the emerging military doctrine of
3570:
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1911:
1619:
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798:. Early-warning satellites can also be used to detect tactical missile launches; this capability was used during
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516:, one would have to be deactivated in order to maintain that level. Thus the USSPACECOM merger into USSTRATCOM.
195:
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2343:
2143:
Birds of a Feather? How Politics and Culture Affected the Designs of the U.S. Space Shuttle and the Soviet Buran
397:) was conducted. In 1958, a plan for a 21-airman underground Air Force base on the Moon by 1968 was developed (
3379:
3241:
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2047:
Defense Nuclear Agency. (1958). United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests Nuclear Test Personnel Review.
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Note that this treaty does not ban the placement of weapons in space in general, only nuclear weapons and WMD.
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57:
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1956:
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concern about the level of control over the GPS network and commercial issues has resulted in the planned
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was formed as the world's only independent space force, with 8600 military personnel and 77 spacecraft.
500:
As part of the ongoing initiative to transform the U.S. military, on 26 June 2002, Secretary of Defense
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early warning systems are oriented. The missile was phased out in January 1983 in compliance with the
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Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) effect, which was felt as far as 1400 km (800 miles) away in Hawaii.
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in the battle zone can access satellite imagery of enemy positions two blocks away, and if necessary
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166:. The early exploration of space in the mid-20th century had, in part, a military motivation, as the
93:
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The long Sunday : election day 2016 - inauguration day 2017 : nuclear EMP attack scenarios
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1539:, which was established on August 10, 1992 and was the first independent space force in the world.
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Defense Atomic Support Agency. (August 1962). Project Officer's Interim Report STARFISH PRIME.
2340:"Russia has the corner on guns in space – Technology & science – Space – Human spaceflight"
1961:
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whereupon it would de-orbit for an attack. This system would approach North America over the
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both conducted a series of nuclear tests; in addition, a nuclear-detection satellite of the
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in the world, the monopoly of space militarisation is in no way certain. Countries such as
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across great distances. As rocket science developed, the range of missiles increased and
2364:
2237:"New details emerge about electric propulsion experiment aboard X-37B – Spaceflight Now"
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3258:
3113:
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https://www.saffm.hq.af.mil/Portals/84/documents/FY23/SUPPORT_/BOB_28Mar_1125_LoRes.pdf
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2620:. United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. 2 December 2014. Archived from
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EMP Task Force on National and Homeland Security. (January 2021). RUSSIA: EMP THREAT.
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In February 2008, China and Russia together submitted a draft to the UN known as the
1411:, and some remain under development today. Space weapons are also a central theme in
868:
859:
405:
363:
351:
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321:
270:
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175:
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the Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes;
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of at least 24 satellites. The GPS system was designed by and is controlled by the
738:
collectively works to create satellite systems to rival those of the United States.
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of all of the military's assets and commanders in a given theatre. For example, a
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GPS satellite since the beginning in 1978 was launched November 6, 2004 aboard a
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Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium
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As of 2008, it was reported that Russian cosmonauts have regularly carried the
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is used for determining one's precise location and providing a highly accurate
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along with the Space Missile Defense Forces, which previously were part of the
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flew for the first time. The payload was a prototype orbital weapons platform
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involves the placement and development of weaponry and military technology in
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fallout, ensuing HEMPs have far-reaching effects on unprotected electronics.
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where the targets themselves are in space. Space warfare therefore includes
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2114:"Military space – Navigation – Glonass – Russian strategic nuclear forces"
1178:
The second application of space militarisation currently in use is GPS or
627:, thereby striking targets from the opposite direction from that to which
393:). In 1959, a feasibility study of a possible military base on the Moon (
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1946:
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In summary, the treaty initiated the banning of signatories' placing of
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1951:
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States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies.
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The Outer Space Treaty was considered by the Legal Subcommittee of the
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714:(LEAP), which attaches to a modified SM-2 Block IV missile used by the
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By the end of the 1960s, both countries regularly deployed satellites.
230:
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134:
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used a missile system to destroy one of its obsolete satellites (see
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957:
807:
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2037:
https://www.airandspaceforces.com/app/uploads/2020/06/Spaceforce.pdf
1647:
States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and
1399:. They include weapons that can attack space systems in orbit (i.e.
786:
type was also reported to have detected a nuclear detonation in the
35:
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1408:
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863:
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263:
212:
2213:"The Militarization of Outer Space: The Pentagon's Space Warriors"
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It was revealed that Soviet officials were concerned that the US
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was also the Commander in Chief of the bi-national U.S.-Canadian
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missile, each one of which could carry 10 independently targeted
1741:, has been the forum for discussion of these issues since 1985.
1629:
outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States;
1554:, a communications satellite in a 345-mile (555 km) orbit.
585:
254:. Both the United States and the Soviet Union began to develop
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2092:"A Russian Assessment of Several U.S.S.R. and U.S. HEMP Tests"
1442:
2574:"PROPOSED PREVENTION OF AN ARMS RACE IN SPACE (PAROS) TREATY"
2527:"Proposed Prevention of an Arms Race in Space (PAROS) Treaty"
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United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
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which depicted space warfare. From 1985 to 2002 there was a
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1087:
382:
217:
During the Cold War, the world's two great superpowers—the
1781:
467:, was created in 1985 to help institutionalise the use of
3181:
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745:
were established on 7 May 1992, enabling the creation of
642:
treaty (1979) prohibited the deployment of FOBS systems:
1618:
in 1966. Later that year, agreement was reached in the
1379:
1235:. Russia already operates an independent system called
647:
Each Party undertakes not to develop, test, or deploy:
1641:
Astronauts shall be regarded as the envoys of mankind;
802:, when America was able to provide advance warning to
551:
nuclear test in space (1962). Such tests in space and
2553:"Defining and regulating the weaponization of space".
2365:
https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a955694.pdf
1577:
destroyed a live satellite. and on 15 November 2021,
692:
1422:
512:
be capped at ten, and with the formation of the new
1090:
series of photo reconnaissance and radar satellites
504:announced that U.S. Space Command would merge with
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1139:
619:in the 1960s that, once launched, would go into a
2562:The International Relations and Security Network.
1770:
1622:. The treaty included the following principles:
1569:similarly destroyed its malfunctioning satellite
1456:create an EMP of at least 600 km in radius.
1242:
1225:United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System
734:have begun their own space programmes, while the
3562:
2572:Nuclear Threat Initiative (September 29, 2017).
1993:
2697:Spy satellites used for arms control monitoring
2382:. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
194:space-station armament and pistols such as the
2507:India shoots into star wars club, Mar 28, 2019
2437:
2062:
2738:
1352:and spy sensors and how they hold up against
794:nuclear test in what was famously called the
258:to blind or destroy each other's satellites.
2410:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2079:https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/AD1124730.pdf
2049:https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA136819.pdf
1764:No first placement of weapons in outer space
1492:Space warfare is combat that takes place in
2638:, (Cambridge:MIT Press), 1999, pp. 101–109.
1516:, such as satellites attacking satellites.
1443:High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulses (HEMP)
1162:Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
442:the popular science-fiction movie franchise
2745:
2731:
1703:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2604:
2155:
1989:
1987:
1757:Prevention of an arms race in outer space
1729:(PAROS) is a committee subsidiary to the
1727:Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space
657:(c) systems for placing into Earth orbit
174:used it as an opportunity to demonstrate
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
2565:
2443:
2376:Vincent., Pry, Peter (25 October 2016).
2375:
1780:
1563:2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test
1469:
1378:
1165:
823:
705:
665:, including fractional orbital missiles;
584:
542:
482:North American Aerospace Defense Command
287:
233:. In 1957, the USSR launched the first
133:
3230:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
2255:
2111:
2089:
1282:
14:
3563:
3252:Psychological and sociological effects
2679:Space: The Frontiers of Modern Defence
2676:Nair, Kiran Krishan (1 January 2006).
2601:
2268:
1984:
1733:. The PAROS Cttee, which meets at the
712:Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile
411:Stanley R. Mickelsen Safeguard Complex
198:(for post-landing, pre-recovery use).
2726:
2701:
2580:from the original on December 7, 2019
2260:. RussianSpaceWeb.com. Archived from
1603:
1184:satellite navigation system
813:
603:Fractional Orbital Bombardment System
577:Fractional Orbital Bombardment System
2675:
2545:
2164:"Buran – the Soviet 'space shuttle'"
2058:
2056:
1996:"Star Wars Traced to Eisenhower Era"
1994:William J. Broad (28 October 1986).
1387:in Saint-Petersburg Artillery museum
1292:
1275:is currently working to establish a
770:) and communications eavesdropping (
370:(ABM) to shoot down incoming ICBMs.
350:Early American efforts included the
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
27:Use of outer space for military aims
2519:
2249:
2170:from the original on March 21, 2009
2161:
2120:. Russianforces.org. Archived from
1712:
1368:
1208:United States Department of Defense
385:to display U.S. superiority to the
279:intercontinental ballistic missiles
144:Intercontinental ballistic missiles
24:
2961:Weather and environment monitoring
2162:Sak, Anatoly (November 20, 2008).
1809:On 16 December 2002, US President
1674:, or to otherwise station them in
1158:BeiDou Navigation Satellite System
790:in 1978 that was believed to be a
693:Soviet high-altitude nuclear tests
300:along trajectories outside of the
225:—spent large proportions of their
150:at the missile defence complex at
25:
3587:
2454:Federation of American Scientists
2315:Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia
2313:Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001)
2152:. Master's thesis, Virginia Tech.
2063:George H Baker, I. I. I. (2011).
2053:
2008:from the original on 9 March 2014
1591:
1423:Terrestrial-type weapons in space
538:
3544:
3534:
3533:
2118:Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces
1922:Mutual assured destruction (MAD)
1531:, which in 2002 merged with the
1459:
1296:
1115:
1096:
1076:
1047:
1028:
1021:Information Gathering Satellites
1009:
990:
971:
946:
921:
886:
843:
701:
311:
34:
3005:Space launch market competition
2752:
2628:
2592:
2510:
2491:
2472:
2418:
2369:
2357:
2346:from the original on 2013-09-06
2332:
2311:История авиационного вооружения
2303:
2229:
2205:
2181:
1912:High-altitude nuclear explosion
1620:United Nations General Assembly
1533:United States Strategic Command
1436:TP-82 Cosmonaut survival pistol
1385:TP-82 Cosmonaut survival pistol
1263:the coordinates to a bomber or
1140:Global Positioning System (GPS)
206:
196:TP-82 Cosmonaut survival pistol
142:, designed to destroy incoming
45:needs additional citations for
3242:Health threat from cosmic rays
2434:, Broadcast February 12, 2008.
2135:
2105:
2083:
2071:
2041:
2030:
2019:
1854:Fractional Orbital Bombardment
1771:National Missile Defense (NMD)
1688:
1243:Military communication systems
1154:Galileo (satellite navigation)
570:
514:United States Northern Command
13:
1:
2425:PBS Nova Program “Astrospies”
1978:
322:Project Nike § Nike Zeus
2665:Resources in other libraries
2636:Contemporary Nuclear Debates
2444:Lindborg, Christina (1997).
2327:History of aircraft armament
1967:Militarisation of cyberspace
1957:Strategic Defense Initiative
1598:mutually assured destruction
1500:. Technically, it refers to
1356:and other hazards of orbit.
555:stopped completely with the
438:Strategic Defense Initiative
432:In 1983, American president
318:Strategic Defense Initiative
7:
3358:Self-replicating spacecraft
3194:International Space Station
1841:
1660:weapons of mass destruction
1550:successfully shot down the
1529:United States Space Command
1525:Space and National Security
1519:A film was produced by the
1512:from the Earth, as well as
1200:intermediate circular orbit
663:weapons of mass destruction
457:United States Space Command
389:and the rest of the world (
10:
3592:
2872:Space Liability Convention
1902:Commercialization of space
1797:or nuclear terrorism by a
1774:
1718:
1700:prohibited. (Article 3.4)
1692:
1607:
1559:People's Republic of China
1523:in the early 1960s called
1463:
1372:
1286:
1233:Galileo positioning system
1143:
1035:People's Republic of China
817:
574:
519:On December 10, 2019, the
510:Unified Combatant Commands
315:
269:The superpowers developed
210:
201:
3528:
3495:
3448:
3400:
3286:
3235:Space adaptation syndrome
3222:
3127:
3047:
3038:
2926:
2760:
2660:Resources in your library
2531:Nuclear Threat Initiative
1731:Conference on Disarmament
1721:Conference on Disarmament
1678:. The United States, the
1666:, installing them on the
1427:The Soviet space station
1180:Global Positioning System
1174:satellite in Earth orbit.
1172:Global Positioning System
1170:Artist's conception of a
1146:Global Positioning System
837:Reconnaissance satellites
521:United States Space Force
508:. The UCP directed that
419:Grand Forks ICBM facility
377:considered detonating an
248:Reconnaissance satellites
188:communications satellites
69:"Militarisation of space"
2968:Communications satellite
2342:. NBC News. 2008-02-12.
2090:Pfeffer, Robert (2009).
1777:National Missile Defense
1413:military science fiction
687:Russian Aerospace Forces
609:orbital weapons system.
223:United States of America
154:, Alaska, July 22, 2004.
140:Ground-Based Interceptor
3472:reusable launch systems
3089:Extravehicular activity
3000:Commercial use of space
2904:Militarisation of space
2877:Registration Convention
2793:Accidents and incidents
2651:Militarisation of space
2634:Lennon, Alexander T.J.
2309:Широкоград А.Б. (2001)
1762:The second resolution,
1704:Limited Test Ban Treaty
1506:ground-to-space warfare
1363:Unmanned aerial vehicle
1277:Global Information Grid
1249:network-centric warfare
1204:satellite constellation
751:Strategic Rocket Forces
557:Partial Test Ban Treaty
487:Air Force Space Command
473:Peterson Air Force Base
375:United States Air Force
368:anti-ballistic missiles
283:sub-orbital spaceflight
260:Directed-energy weapons
160:militarisation of space
18:Militarization of space
3571:Military globalization
3520:Mission control center
3482:Non-rocket spacelaunch
2916:Billionaire space race
2193:www.thespacereview.com
2141:Garber, S. J. (2002).
2112:Glonass (2007-12-26).
1962:Strategy of technology
1789:
1787:Missile Defense Agency
1755:The first resolution,
1514:space-to-space warfare
1489:
1486:anti-satellite missile
1401:anti-satellite weapons
1388:
1175:
832:
718:
595:
560:
465:United States military
450:strategy of technology
305:
273:to enable them to use
256:anti-satellite weapons
155:
146:, is lowered into its
3370:Spacecraft propulsion
2820:European Space Agency
2551:DeFrieze, D. (2014).
2099:Combating WMD Journal
2065:EMP: A Brief Tutorial
1879:Artificial satellites
1874:Anti-satellite weapon
1818:use of facilities in
1784:
1473:
1382:
1330:Space Shuttle program
1273:Department of Defense
1253:situational awareness
1169:
827:
755:Troops of Air Defense
709:
661:or any other kind of
588:
546:
413:was constructed near
291:
137:
2995:Satellite navigation
2702:Sagan, Carl (1999).
2460:on November 23, 2011
1937:Prompt Global Strike
1508:, such as attacking
1283:Military spaceplanes
828:Launch of the first
747:Russian Space Forces
743:Russian Armed Forces
683:Russian Space Forces
670:On May 15, 1987, an
532:Operation Hardtack I
527:Operation Hardtack I
415:Nekoma, North Dakota
235:artificial satellite
54:improve this article
3380:Electric propulsion
3067:Life-support system
2951:Imagery and mapping
2911:Private spaceflight
1927:Orbital bombardment
1864:Kinetic bombardment
1537:Russian Space Force
1496:, i.e. outside the
1190:almost anywhere on
935:(project cancelled)
497:U.S. war-fighters.
294:LG-118A Peacekeeper
180:military spacecraft
3333:Robotic spacecraft
3259:Space and survival
3114:Space colonization
3010:Space architecture
2862:Outer Space Treaty
2682:. KnowledgeWorld.
2558:2015-02-22 at the
2503:2019-04-09 at the
2484:2019-03-28 at the
2479:Reuters World News
2430:2008-07-17 at the
2278:Space Power Theory
2258:"OPS-2 (Salyut-3)"
2217:www.spacedaily.com
2148:2015-10-25 at the
1932:Outer Space Treaty
1907:Disclosure Project
1897:Ballistic missiles
1790:
1735:Palais des Nations
1610:Outer Space Treaty
1604:Outer Space Treaty
1490:
1391:Space weapons are
1389:
1340:The NASA uncrewed
1308:. You can help by
1176:
1040:Fanhui Shi Weixing
833:
820:Military satellite
814:Military satellite
810:missile launches.
719:
612:The R-36ORB was a
596:
561:
373:In the late 1950s
306:
302:Earth's atmosphere
271:ballistic missiles
156:
3558:
3557:
3505:Flight controller
3282:
3281:
3040:Human spaceflight
3015:Space exploration
2941:Earth observation
2715:978-0-7472-5792-9
2689:978-81-87966-44-9
2646:Library resources
2450:World Space Guide
2389:978-1-5397-4647-8
1942:Space geostrategy
1795:nuclear blackmail
1326:
1325:
406:Safeguard Program
364:Safeguard Program
334:Safeguard Program
176:ballistic-missile
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
3583:
3548:
3537:
3536:
3247:Space psychology
3072:Animals in space
3045:
3044:
3025:Space technology
2867:Rescue Agreement
2747:
2740:
2733:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2693:
2639:
2632:
2626:
2625:
2614:
2599:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2585:
2569:
2563:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2523:
2517:
2514:
2508:
2495:
2489:
2488:, March 28, 2019
2476:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2465:
2456:. Archived from
2441:
2435:
2422:
2416:
2415:
2409:
2401:
2373:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2351:
2336:
2330:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2291:
2285:. Archived from
2284:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2233:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2199:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2159:
2153:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2129:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2096:
2087:
2081:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2060:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2034:
2028:
2023:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2013:
1991:
1972:Kessler Syndrome
1785:The logo of the
1713:PAROS & PPTW
1383:Triple-barreled
1369:Weapons in space
1321:
1318:
1300:
1293:
1120:
1119:
1101:
1100:
1081:
1080:
1052:
1051:
1033:
1032:
1014:
1013:
995:
994:
976:
975:
951:
950:
926:
925:
891:
890:
848:
847:
830:Skynet satellite
491:Persian Gulf War
459:(USSPACECOM), a
360:Sentinel Program
356:Project Defender
330:Sentinel Program
326:Project Defender
298:nuclear warheads
275:nuclear weaponry
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
3591:
3590:
3586:
3585:
3584:
3582:
3581:
3580:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3554:
3524:
3491:
3463:Escape velocity
3444:
3396:
3363:Space telescope
3316:Reentry capsule
3278:
3218:
3123:
3094:Overview effect
3077:Bioastronautics
3034:
2922:
2756:
2751:
2716:
2690:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2654:
2653:
2649:
2642:
2633:
2629:
2616:
2615:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2583:
2581:
2570:
2566:
2560:Wayback Machine
2550:
2546:
2536:
2534:
2525:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2511:
2505:Wayback Machine
2496:
2492:
2486:Wayback Machine
2477:
2473:
2463:
2461:
2442:
2438:
2432:Wayback Machine
2423:
2419:
2403:
2402:
2390:
2374:
2370:
2362:
2358:
2349:
2347:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2308:
2304:
2295:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2276:"James Olberg,
2274:
2273:
2269:
2254:
2250:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2230:
2221:
2219:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2197:
2195:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2173:
2171:
2160:
2156:
2150:Wayback Machine
2140:
2136:
2127:
2125:
2110:
2106:
2094:
2088:
2084:
2076:
2072:
2061:
2054:
2046:
2042:
2035:
2031:
2024:
2020:
2011:
2009:
1992:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1869:VRYAN programme
1859:Gravity tractor
1844:
1820:RAF Fylingdales
1779:
1773:
1723:
1715:
1706:
1697:
1691:
1656:nuclear weapons
1612:
1606:
1594:
1586:nuclear weapons
1565:), in 2008 the
1468:
1462:
1445:
1425:
1377:
1371:
1335:Buran programme
1322:
1316:
1313:
1306:needs expansion
1291:
1285:
1265:weapon platform
1245:
1221:cruise missiles
1164:
1144:Main articles:
1142:
1114:
1095:
1075:
1046:
1027:
1008:
989:
970:
945:
920:
885:
842:
822:
816:
704:
695:
659:nuclear weapons
621:low Earth orbit
594:
583:
575:Main articles:
573:
541:
502:Donald Rumsfeld
461:unified command
417:to protect the
395:Project Horizon
348:
342:Project Horizon
316:Main articles:
314:
215:
209:
204:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3589:
3579:
3578:
3573:
3556:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3541:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3510:Ground station
3507:
3501:
3499:
3497:Ground segment
3493:
3492:
3490:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3465:
3460:
3454:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3430:Interplanetary
3427:
3426:
3425:
3423:Geosynchronous
3420:
3410:
3404:
3402:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3390:Gravity assist
3387:
3382:
3377:
3367:
3366:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3330:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3321:Service module
3318:
3313:
3311:Orbital module
3303:
3298:
3296:Launch vehicle
3292:
3290:
3284:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3276:
3274:Space sexology
3271:
3266:
3264:Space medicine
3261:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3244:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3226:
3224:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3179:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3167:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3099:Weightlessness
3096:
3091:
3086:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3064:
3063:
3062:
3051:
3049:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3020:Space research
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2958:
2956:Reconnaissance
2953:
2948:
2938:
2932:
2930:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2886:
2885:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2854:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2825:European Union
2822:
2817:
2812:
2802:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2770:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2757:
2750:
2749:
2742:
2735:
2727:
2721:
2720:
2714:
2699:
2694:
2688:
2668:
2667:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2627:
2624:on 2017-07-04.
2600:
2591:
2564:
2544:
2533:. May 31, 2017
2518:
2509:
2498:Times of India
2490:
2471:
2436:
2417:
2388:
2368:
2356:
2331:
2302:
2267:
2264:on 2009-06-01.
2248:
2228:
2204:
2180:
2154:
2134:
2104:
2082:
2070:
2052:
2040:
2029:
2018:
2001:New York Times
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1811:George W. Bush
1775:Main article:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1760:
1714:
1711:
1705:
1702:
1693:Main article:
1690:
1687:
1680:United Kingdom
1672:celestial body
1652:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1608:Main article:
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1592:Space treaties
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1452:were damaged.
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1373:Main article:
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1350:reconnaissance
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1317:September 2010
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1287:Main article:
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1188:time reference
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818:Main article:
815:
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736:European Union
703:
700:
694:
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672:Energia rocket
668:
667:
654:
649:
589:
572:
569:
564:Starfish Prime
553:high-altitudes
549:Starfish Prime
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539:Starfish Prime
537:
444:. Astronomer
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211:Main article:
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26:
9:
6:
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2:
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3458:Direct ascent
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3441:
3440:Intergalactic
3438:
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3405:
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3378:
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3375:Rocket engine
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3309:
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3306:Space capsule
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3285:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3269:Space nursing
3267:
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3257:
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3250:
3249:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
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3228:
3227:
3225:
3223:Health issues
3221:
3215:
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3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3188:
3185:
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3177:Space Shuttle
3175:
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3138:
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3110:
3109:Space tourism
3107:
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3030:Space weather
3028:
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3018:
3016:
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3008:
3006:
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2897:
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2894:Space command
2892:
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2889:Space warfare
2887:
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2875:
2873:
2870:
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2865:
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2858:
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2850:United States
2848:
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2768:Astrodynamics
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2345:
2341:
2335:
2328:
2324:
2323:985-433-695-6
2320:
2316:
2312:
2306:
2292:on 2018-07-12
2288:
2281:
2279:
2271:
2263:
2259:
2256:Anatoly Zak.
2252:
2238:
2232:
2218:
2214:
2208:
2194:
2190:
2184:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2151:
2147:
2144:
2138:
2124:on 2014-02-13
2123:
2119:
2115:
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2100:
2093:
2086:
2080:
2074:
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2059:
2057:
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2027:
2022:
2007:
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1990:
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1983:
1973:
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1895:
1891:
1890:Spy satellite
1888:
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1732:
1728:
1722:
1717:
1710:
1701:
1696:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1670:or any other
1669:
1665:
1661:
1658:or any other
1657:
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1637:
1634:
1631:
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1599:
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1576:
1572:
1568:
1567:United States
1564:
1560:
1557:In 2007, the
1555:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1540:
1538:
1535:. There is a
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1521:U.S. Military
1517:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1487:
1484:
1481:launching an
1480:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1466:Space warfare
1460:Space warfare
1457:
1453:
1449:
1440:
1437:
1432:
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1420:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1397:space warfare
1394:
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1364:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1336:
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1320:
1311:
1307:
1304:This section
1302:
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1290:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
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1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1198:. It uses an
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1133:
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1128:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1118:
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1109:
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1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1065:
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1060:
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1055:
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1041:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1026:
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1019:
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1007:
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1000:
999:
998:
993:
988:
984:
981:
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979:
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969:
965:
962:
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956:
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949:
944:
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937:
934:
931:
930:
929:
924:
919:
915:
912:
910:
907:
904:
901:
899:
896:
895:
894:
889:
884:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
861:
858:
856:
855:Lacrosse/Onyx
853:
852:
851:
850:United States
846:
841:
840:
839:
838:
831:
826:
821:
811:
809:
805:
801:
797:
796:Vela incident
793:
792:South African
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
766:photography (
764:
758:
756:
752:
748:
744:
739:
737:
733:
729:
725:
717:
713:
708:
702:Post-Cold War
699:
690:
688:
684:
679:
677:
673:
666:
664:
660:
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653:
650:
648:
645:
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483:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
451:
447:
443:
439:
436:proposed the
435:
434:Ronald Reagan
430:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
407:
402:
400:
399:Lunex Project
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
371:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
347:
346:Lunex Project
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
312:United States
309:
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295:
290:
286:
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280:
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261:
257:
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236:
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228:
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199:
197:
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189:
185:
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177:
173:
169:
168:United States
165:
161:
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149:
145:
141:
136:
132:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3450:Space launch
3435:Interstellar
3401:Destinations
3170:Apollo–Soyuz
3119:Space diving
3104:Space toilet
2928:Applications
2903:
2845:Soviet Union
2805:Space policy
2800:Space launch
2708:. Headline.
2704:
2678:
2650:
2635:
2630:
2622:the original
2594:
2582:. Retrieved
2567:
2547:
2535:. Retrieved
2530:
2521:
2512:
2493:
2474:
2462:. Retrieved
2458:the original
2449:
2439:
2420:
2378:
2371:
2359:
2348:. Retrieved
2334:
2326:
2314:
2310:
2305:
2294:. Retrieved
2287:the original
2277:
2270:
2262:the original
2251:
2240:. Retrieved
2231:
2220:. Retrieved
2216:
2207:
2196:. Retrieved
2192:
2183:
2172:. Retrieved
2166:. BBC News.
2157:
2137:
2126:. Retrieved
2122:the original
2117:
2107:
2098:
2085:
2073:
2043:
2032:
2021:
2010:. Retrieved
1999:
1917:Kill vehicle
1849:Project A119
1836:The Pentagon
1808:
1802:
1791:
1763:
1756:
1750:
1743:
1724:
1716:
1707:
1698:
1684:
1662:in orbit of
1653:
1613:
1595:
1583:
1556:
1546:pilot in an
1541:
1524:
1518:
1513:
1505:
1491:
1483:ASM-135 ASAT
1454:
1450:
1446:
1433:
1426:
1390:
1375:Space weapon
1358:The Pentagon
1339:
1327:
1314:
1310:adding to it
1305:
1246:
1177:
1002:COSMO-SkyMed
983:SAR-Lupe 1–5
893:Soviet Union
834:
800:Desert Storm
788:Indian Ocean
763:great powers
759:
740:
720:
696:
680:
669:
656:
651:
646:
637:
611:
597:
562:
530:
526:
525:
518:
499:
495:
480:
455:
431:
403:
391:Project A119
387:Soviet Union
372:
349:
338:Project A119
307:
292:Test of the
268:
252:Iron Curtain
245:
238:
219:Soviet Union
216:
207:The Cold War
172:Soviet Union
159:
157:
131:
116:
110:October 2007
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
3408:Sub-orbital
3343:Space probe
3209:New Shepard
3187:Shuttle–Mir
2946:Archaeology
2899:Space force
2882:Moon Treaty
2754:Spaceflight
2584:December 7,
2101:(3): 36–41.
1947:Space force
1838:'s budget.
1799:rogue state
1695:Moon Treaty
1689:Moon Treaty
1676:outer space
1579:Kosmos 1408
1573:. In 2019,
1494:outer space
1417:video games
1415:and sci-fi
1407:during the
1405:superpowers
1217:smart bombs
1196:Earth orbit
960:(destroyed)
605:(FOBS) and
571:USSR/Russia
469:outer space
423:hit-to-kill
379:atomic bomb
164:outer space
152:Fort Greely
3565:Categories
3477:Launch pad
3468:Expendable
3418:Geocentric
3385:Solar sail
3328:Spaceplane
3288:Spacecraft
3082:Space suit
3060:commercial
2988:Television
2783:Space Race
2350:2013-09-17
2296:2016-07-22
2242:2024-05-03
2222:2024-05-03
2198:2024-05-03
2174:2008-12-07
2128:2013-09-17
2012:2014-02-06
1979:References
1952:Space Race
1719:See also:
1510:satellites
1498:atmosphere
1479:F-15 Eagle
1342:spaceplane
1289:spaceplane
625:South Pole
506:USSTRATCOM
446:Carl Sagan
427:ABM treaty
231:Space Race
80:newspapers
3487:Spaceport
3338:Satellite
3055:Astronaut
2983:Telephone
2936:Astronomy
2857:Space law
2810:Australia
2464:March 24,
2406:cite book
2398:990059905
2317:Harvest.
2067:(Report).
1832:Greenland
1354:radiation
1132:Göktürk-2
1127:Göktürk-1
964:Helios 2A
958:Helios 1B
835:Types of
808:SS-1 SCUD
806:of Iraqi
716:U.S. Navy
547:Image of
429:of 1972.
354:Program,
352:Nike-Zeus
240:Sputnik 1
3539:Category
3204:Tiangong
3199:Shenzhou
3128:Programs
2973:Internet
2778:Timeline
2578:Archived
2556:Archived
2501:Archived
2482:Archived
2428:Archived
2344:Archived
2329:) p. 162
2280:, Ch. 2"
2168:Archived
2146:Archived
2006:Archived
1842:See also
1429:Salyut 3
1409:Cold War
1395:used in
1344:project
1269:internet
1229:European
1213:Delta II
905:(crewed)
864:Sirconic
780:Pakistan
635:treaty.
477:Colorado
362:and the
264:kamikaze
221:and the
213:Cold War
182:such as
170:and the
3413:Orbital
3214:Artemis
3145:Voskhod
3140:Mercury
3048:General
2788:Records
2773:History
2761:General
2537:May 27,
1824:England
1816:Denmark
1803:station
1571:USA 193
1502:battles
1393:weapons
1257:soldier
1237:GLONASS
1182:. This
1150:GLONASS
1069:CCI-Sat
1064:RISAT-2
1059:RISAT-1
978:Germany
640:SALT II
633:SALT II
600:R-36ORB
593:(1987).
559:(1963).
463:of the
381:on the
202:History
184:imaging
94:scholar
3550:Portal
3543:
3532:
3348:Lander
3301:Rocket
3165:Skylab
3160:Apollo
3150:Gemini
3135:Vostok
2840:Russia
2712:
2686:
2648:about
2396:
2386:
2321:
1739:Geneva
1261:e-mail
1202:(ICO)
1194:or in
1160:, and
1122:Turkey
1083:Israel
953:France
939:Skynet
933:Sircon
909:Yantar
898:Cosmos
874:Quasar
804:Israel
772:SIGINT
730:, and
676:Polyus
614:Soviet
607:Polyus
591:Polyus
358:, the
344:, and
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
3353:Rover
3155:Soyuz
2978:Radio
2835:Japan
2830:India
2815:China
2446:"VKS"
2290:(PDF)
2283:(PDF)
2095:(PDF)
1828:Thule
1664:Earth
1575:India
1552:P78-1
1192:Earth
1103:Spain
1054:India
1016:Japan
997:Italy
914:Zenit
903:Almaz
869:Samos
860:Misty
776:India
768:IMINT
732:India
728:Japan
724:China
652:(...)
629:NORAD
581:Almaz
192:Almaz
101:JSTOR
87:books
3515:Pass
3470:and
2710:ISBN
2684:ISBN
2586:2019
2539:2018
2466:2012
2412:link
2394:OCLC
2384:ISBN
2319:ISBN
1826:and
1725:The
1668:Moon
1548:F-15
1544:USAF
1476:USAF
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