290:
Colombo (2013, p. 233) shows that bilingual individuals perform better than monolingual individuals on a wide variety of cognitive tests, thus demonstrating cognitive control advantages. Two different concepts, attentional inhibition and attentional monitoring, are used to measure attentional control. In terms of attentional control, early bilingual learners showed the greatest advantage, compared to monolingual speakers and late bilingual speakers. In terms of overall performance on ATN, the three groups performed equally, but when age and verbal ability variables were controlled, there was a difference in reaction time. The early bilingual children's reaction time was tremendously faster than the monolingual children, and only slightly faster than the late bilingual children (Kapa & Colombo, 2013). Early bilingual learners showed that they simply responded most efficiently to the task at hand. The results from this study demonstrate the advantages bilingual children have with attentional control. This is likely because bilingual children are used to balancing more than one language at time, and are therefore used to focusing on which language is necessary at a certain time. By constantly being aware of what language to use and being able to successfully switch between languages, it makes sense that bilingual children would be better at directing and focusing their attention.
239:
similar to stimulating mental activity. To test whether or not bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve, Bialystok et al. (2012) looked at hospital records among monolingual and bilingual adults who have dementia. The researchers found that elderly bilingual adults were diagnosed with dementia about three to four years later than elderly monolingual adults. The results have been replicated and validated, with outside factors being controlled. In fact, outside factors such as socioeconomic status and cultural differences always helped monolinguals, making the argument the bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve even stronger (Bialystok et al., 2012). That finding enhances the fact that bilinguals are at an advantage because of their ability to speak two languages, not because of outside factors. A probable explanation for this phenomenon is that knowledge of multiple languages keeps the brain alert and therefore more mentally aware for a longer period of time.
278:, but not in any of the other tasks used in their study. The researchers noted that the tasks where bilinguals had a significant disadvantage were those which were data-driven (subjects were given verbal input and asked to make decisions about it), as opposed to conceptually driven (subjects were asked to produce verbal output). The study differed from prior research in that the bilingual subjects were more balanced in their familiarity with their two languages. Mägiste hypothesized that the bilingual disadvantage could have been due to differential familiarity with the dominant language. They explained that for bilinguals, it could be because the acquiring and using of the
191:
language, but when their vocabularies were combined, the content size was approximately similar to that of the monolingual. Monolingual children demonstrated larger vocabulary scored than their bilingual peers, but bilingual children's vocabulary scores still increased with age, just like the monolingual children's vocabulary scores (Core et al., 2011). Despite a variation in vocabulary scores, there was absolutely no difference between monolingual and bilingual children in terms of total vocabulary size and total vocabulary gains (Core et al., 2011). Bilingual children and monolingual children have the same vocabulary size and gain the same vocabulary knowledge.
414:, American corporations and heavily-Americanized subsidiaries of foreign corporations both mediate and control most citizens' contact with most other nations' products. There is a popular joke: "What do you call a person who speaks three languages? A trilingual. What do you call a person who speaks two languages? A bilingual. What do you call a person who speaks one language? An American."
248:
outcomes in their school years. The non-English monolingual children had the highest level of externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems by fifth grade (around 10–11 years of age), even though the children were all measured to have similar levels of internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems at the start. In contrast, the fluent
410:, increase the geographic and economic barriers to foreign travel. Nevertheless, the requirement for all school children to learn a foreign language in some English speaking countries and areas works against this to some extent. Although the country is economically interdependent with trade partners such as
343:
According to the convergence principle, language style tends to change to that of people who are liked and admired. Conversations in which one party speaks a language different from the other persons both are hard to maintain and have reduced intimacy. Thus, speech is usually adapted and accommodated
329:
in every language. However, their metalinguistic development allowed them to understand better the structure of the language. They also performed better in non-verbal control tests. A non-verbal control test refers to the ability to focus and then able to divert their attention when being instructed
289:
However, evidence from a research study shows that bilinguals have a faster reaction time in most working memory tasks. While a lot of research asserts that monolingual children outperform bilingual children, other research asserts the opposite. Research by
Bialystok et al., as reported by Kapa and
238:
by preventing effects of cognitive delay and prolonging the onset of sicknesses such as dementia. Cognitive reserve refers to the idea that engaging in stimulating physical or mental activity maintains cognitive functioning (Bialystok et al., 2012). In that case, knowing more than one language is
247:
A study conducted with children in their early school years suggested that there are emotional and behavioural benefits to being bilingual. In the same study, the findings show that monolingual children, in particular non-English monolingual children, display more poor behavioural and emotional
104:. This statement reflects the traditional assumption that linguistic theories often take on: that monolingualism is the norm. Monolingualism is thus rarely the subject of scholarly publications, as it is viewed to be an unmarked or prototypical concept where it has the sense of being normal and
190:
It is important to note here that bilinguals' overall vocabulary size in both languages combined was equivalent to monolinguals' in one language, even though monolinguals may excel in vocabulary size for the one language they speak. Bilinguals may have smaller vocabularies in each individual
178:
size may be a factor that moderated a person's performance in verbal fluency and naming tasks. The same study also found that bilinguals, in a version of the letter fluency task that placed more demand on executive control, performed better than monolinguals. Thus, once
252:
and non-English dominant bilingual children were found to have the lowest level of these behavioural problems. The authors suggest that monolingualism seems to be a risk factor. However, if there is a supportive school environment with teachers who are experienced in
1227:
318:. The research takes into consideration factors like the similarity of the language, the cultural background and education experience. These students mostly come from public schools from various areas, having similar social and economic background.
422:
Snow and Hakuta write that in a cost-benefit analysis, the choosing of
English as the official and national language often comes with additional costs on the society, as the alternative choice of multilingualism has its own benefits.
306:
journal reviewed the effects of the development of a child's verbal and non-verbal language, matched between monolinguals and bilinguals in a particular language. Researchers compared about 100 6-year-old monolingual and
273:
to
English monolinguals, although there was no difference in accuracy between the two groups, there was a slower response rate from bilinguals on tasks that involve latency of recognition of a list of abstract words and
81:
in which a single language is either used or officially recognized (in particular when being compared with bilingual or multilingual entities or in the presence of individuals speaking different languages). Note that
173:
Also, monolinguals performed better than bilinguals on verbal fluency in the study. If the vocabulary abilities were made to be more comparable, however, many of the differences would disappear, indicating that
123:(1987) said that this assumption is adopted by many in Western society. One explanation is provided by Edwards, who in 2004 claimed that evidence of the "monolingual mindset" can be traced back to 19th century
344:
for convenience, lack of misunderstanding and conflict and the maintenance of intimacy. In intermarriages, one partner tends to become monolingual, which also usually applies to the children.
487:, discusses how to prepare for the future advancement of America. He also questioned the importance and necessity of learning foreign languages by remarking that "English's emergence as the
749:
166:
In letter fluency tasks, monolinguals in the study were also able to respond with more words to the letter cue than bilinguals, but such an effect was not seen in bilinguals with a high
495:
and the fragmentation of languages spoken around the world, makes it less clear that the substantial investment necessary to speak a foreign tongue is universally worthwhile."
203:, researchers found that monolinguals performed better on fluency and flexibility than bilinguals. The trend was reversed, however, on tests for originality and elaboration.
1165:
Core, C.; Hoff, E.; Rumiche, R.; Senor, M. (2011). "Total and conceptual vocabulary in
Spanish–English bilinguals from 22 to 30 months: Implications for assessment".
502:
hosted a discussion among six panelists, all of whom were for learning foreign languages and cited the benefits and advantages and the changing global landscape.
311:
children (monolingual in
English; bilingual in English and Mandarin, bilingual in French and English, bilingual in Spanish and English), to test their verbal and
722:
Torrance, E. Paul; Gowan, John.C.; Wu, Jing-Jyi; Aliotti, Nicholas C. (1970). "Creative functioning of monolingual and bilingual children in
Singapore".
325:
skills development, and also when compared to monolingual children. When compared to monolinguals, multilingual children are slower in building up their
163:, and that increases the efficiency of word retrieval in monolinguals. Monolinguals also access words more often than bilinguals in a target language.
767:
695:
Bialystok, Ellen; Craik, Fergus I.M; Luk, Gigi. (2008). "Lexical access in bilinguals: Effects of vocabulary size and executive control".
183:
abilities were controlled, bilinguals performed better on letter fluency possibilities by the enhanced frontal executive processes in the
1121:
1120:
Berdan, Stacie
Nevadomski; Jackson, Anthony; Erard, Michael; Ho, Melanie; Suarez-Orozco, Marcelo M.; Lewis, Clayton (January 29, 2012).
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531:
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Compared to the maintenance of a language that is learned at home, more time, effort and hard work are required to learn it in school.
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is usually limited. The country's large area and the most populous regions' distance from large non-English-speaking areas, such as
227:
by four years as compared to monolinguals. Bialystok's most recent work also shows that lifelong bilingualism can delay symptoms of
554:
987:
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127:, when the nation was rising and a dominant group had control, and European mindsets on language were carried forth to its
321:
Results show that in the child's early stage, multilingual kids are very different from one another in their language and
370:, has contributed to English-speaking societies being persistently monolingual, as there is little incentive to learn a
1066:
842:
Ransdell, Sarah Ellen; Fischler, Ira (1987). "Memory in a monolingual mode:When are bilinguals at a disadvantage?".
516:
521:
90:
to speak several languages. Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population.
470:
Kirkpatrick asserts that monolinguals are at a disadvantage to bilinguals in the international job market.
383:
387:
312:
750:"Canadian study shows bilingualism has protective effect in delaying onset of dementia by 4 years"
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771:
199:
In a study testing for creative functioning that involved monolingual and bilingual children in
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443:
391:
111:
The assumption of normative monolingualism is also often the view of monolinguals who speak a
353:
315:
275:
266:
1082:
Kirkpatrick, Andy (2000). "The disadvantaged monolingual: Why
English alone is not enough".
795:"The forgotten treasure: Bilingualism and Asian children's emotional and behavioural health"
1230:
by Jose Faur, contrasting the Greek monolingualism with the polyglot culture of the
Hebrews
8:
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257:(English as a Second Language), children seem to have better emotional constitution.
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Money has to be spent to train foreign-service personnel in foreign languages.
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Some of the education budget is allocated for foreign-language training, but
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120:
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Mägiste, Edith (1980). "Memory for numbers in monolinguals and bilinguals".
155:
According to a study on lexical access, monolinguals often maintain a wider
1213:
939:
828:
1044:"About One in Four Americans Can Hold a Conversation in a Second Language"
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of foreign-language students is lower than those who learned it at home.
1144:
Neuropsychology & Neurology, Linguistics & Language & Speech
78:
363:
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77:, or conversation written or conducted in only one language, and of an
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995:
Language
Loyalties: A Source Book on the Official English Controversy
735:
322:
308:
270:
249:
220:
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142:” and the populations within these countries tend to be monolingual.
596:
Pavlenko, Aneta (2000). "L2 influence on L1 in late bilingualism".
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224:
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may be impeded by a lack of people competent in other languages.
432:
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215:, it has been shown that monolinguals were worse at the onset of
407:
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212:
124:
618:
Ellis, Elizabeth (2006). "Monolingualism: The unmarked case".
293:
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184:
552:
A Global Perspective on Bilingualism and Bilingual Education
286:, as compared to the monolingual participants in the study.
1180:"Attentional control in early and later bilingual children"
898:"Attentional control in early and later bilingual children"
378:; that is especially the case for English-speakers in the
138:
are both “the producers and beneficiaries of English as a
254:
50:. In a different context, "unilingualism" may refer to a
498:
Others have disagreed with Summers' view. A week later,
770:. University Affairs.ca. August 5, 2008. Archived from
394:, where everyday contact with other languages, such as
721:
134:
Another explanation is that the nations who speak the
150:
1164:
1119:
1016:Peel, Quentin (2001). "The monotony of monoglots".
561:
Carnegie Mellon University CALL Digest EDO-FL-99-04
219:than bilinguals. In the study, it seems that being
33:
760:
145:
1167:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
1137:
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1235:
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234:It is believed that bilingualism contributes to
131:, further perpetuating the monolingual mindset.
1140:"Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain"
100:, that it would be weird to find a book titled
282:meant that there was less time to process the
159:in a target language relative to a comparable
997:. The University of Chicago. pp. 384–394
672:Multilingualism in the English-speaking world
1177:
1081:
895:
294:Verbal and non-verbal cognitive development
1138:Bialystok, E.; Craik, F.; Luk, G. (2012).
986:Snow, Catherine E.; Hakuta, Kenji (1992).
985:
896:Kapa, Leah L.; Colombo, John (July 2013).
532:List of multilingual countries and regions
347:
333:
1203:
1155:
1122:"English Is Global, So Why Learn Arabic?"
1101:Summers, Lawrence H. (January 20, 2012).
1061:. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 60–61.
929:
818:
793:Han, Wen-Jui; Huang, Chien-Chung (2010).
38:, "tongue, language") or, more commonly,
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792:
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647:The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language
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362:in many sectors, such as world trade,
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374:if all dealings can be done in their
260:
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465:
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206:
1057:Gramling, David (October 6, 2016).
491:, along with the rapid progress in
13:
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151:Vocabulary size and verbal fluency
18:Ability to only speak one language
14:
1255:
1221:
799:American Journal of Public Health
724:Journal of Educational Psychology
674:. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 3–5.
1103:"What You (Really) Need to Know"
709:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2007.07.001
269:, which compared Native-English
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1059:The Invention of Monolingualism
1050:
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517:Languages of the United Kingdom
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146:Comparison with multilingualism
1178:Kapa, L.; Colombo, J. (2013).
844:Journal of Memory and Language
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649:. Cambridge University Press.
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575:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 1.
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522:Languages of the United States
223:is associated with a delay of
96:pointed out, in her 1995 book
86:can only refer to lacking the
32:, "alone, solitary", + γλῶττα
1:
1018:The Language Learning Journal
988:"The Costs of Monolingualism"
598:Issues in Applied Linguistics
537:
481:, in an article published in
1196:10.1016/j.cogdev.2013.01.011
914:10.1016/j.cogdev.2013.01.011
883:10.1016/0001-6918(80)90059-1
856:10.1016/0749-596x(87)90098-2
620:Estudios de Sociolingüística
426:
265:In a study conducted at the
7:
1084:Australian Language Matters
956:. 加拿大都市网. February 10, 2012
768:"The rise of the monoglots"
697:Journal of Neurolinguistics
505:
438:
211:In another recent study in
34:
10:
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1228:Monolingualism and Judaism
384:Northeastern United States
351:
1030:10.1080/09571730185200041
993:. In Crawford, J. (ed.).
571:Romaine, Suzzane (1995).
811:10.2105/ajph.2009.174219
550:G. Richard Tucker (1999)
417:
388:Midwestern United States
313:non-verbal communication
73:is also said of a text,
645:Crystal, David (1987).
348:Predominance of English
334:Reasons for persistence
527:Linguistic imperialism
444:International business
392:Southern United States
276:lexical decision tasks
1184:Cognitive Development
902:Cognitive Development
670:Edwards, Viv (2004).
632:10.1558/sols.v7i2.173
354:English-only movement
339:Convergence principle
316:cognitive development
267:University of Florida
358:The predominance of
298:A 2012 study by the
243:Emotion and behavior
195:Creative functioning
954:"最新研究：双语儿童比单语小孩更聪慧"
756:. January 11, 2007.
493:machine translation
382:, particularly the
1126:The New York Times
1107:The New York Times
557:2012-08-22 at the
500:The New York Times
484:The New York Times
300:University of York
261:Memory performance
108:is the exception.
871:Acta Psychologica
681:978-0-631-23613-9
656:978-0-521-55967-6
582:978-0-631-19539-9
466:Job opportunities
450:National security
304:Child Development
236:cognitive reserve
207:Mental well-being
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