923:, the cult of Kali reached Sri Lanka via South India. Although Kali shrines may have been part of Tamil Hindu temples prior to the 12th century CE, the Sinhalese Buddhist population came to revere Kali as a village demon at least by the 12th century CE. The first known Hindu temple with a shrine to Kali to become popular with the Sinhalese Buddhists is Munneswaram. A myth that has Kali landing at the town of Chilaw, and residing in Munneswaram, has made the temple a popular place of visit for cursing and sorcery purposes. In the early 1970s, the majority of the Sinhalese visitors were there for sorcery purposes, but by the 1990s more than half have been visiting the temple for general veneration purposes, demonstrating the transformation of the deity from a malevolent demigod to a
904:
510:
126:
960:
747:(1581–1593), who continuously harassed the Portuguese during his reign. Rajasinghe I rebuilt the temple again, but due to continuous conflict most of the area around the temple was depopulated, and proper cultivation of lands abandoned. Irrigation tanks, which provided water for cultivation, fell into disuse. The Portuguese again destroyed the temple in the early 17th century, but the temple was rebuilt by the local people. It was nominally in usage when
1024:
680:. In his thirty-eighth regnal year (1450 or 1453) he summoned the chief priest of the temple, Vijasamagava Panditha(r), and reaffirmed the lands that had belonged to the Siva temple. The villages mentioned as belonging to the temple are Ilupaideni(ya), Kottaipitti and Tittakatai. Revenue accrued from this land grant was exempt from tax. The grant was inscribed on a granite slab and installed as part of the renovated temple. The conquest of
800:
equivalent myth amongst the
Sinhalese people indicates that the diseased king was Rajasinghe or Bhuvanekabahu and the king prayed to the presiding goddess who cured him of his affliction. There were at least two kings called Rajasinghe in Sri Lanka, and both of them were involved in the actual renovations of the temple, and at least seven kings named Bhuvanekabahu, thereby making it difficult to identify the right king.
133:
31:
844:. His family maintains the hereditary priestly position of the Siva temple, and controls all temple properties. A Tamil family from Munneswaram village controls the priestly position of the Kali temple. The Siva temple was renovated in 1875 by the personal efforts of Cumaraswamy Kurukal. Improvements were effected again in 1919 and 1963 through public support from Tamil Hindus from Colombo and
556:, as well as the landed gentry of the surrounding villages who provided the resources to maintain the temple. Proximity to the trading routes and to the port provided an opportunity for transmission of ideas and people from India to Sri Lanka. The Pattuva has many temples dedicated to the higher echelons of Hindu or Buddhist deities, and to village guardian deities such Ayyanar or Ayyanayake,
980:. Until the 1830s the festival lasted up to 18 days but since the 1960s it lasts for 28 days in the months of August and September. The festival begins with the hoisting of the temple flag. This is followed by 13 days of internal temple processions conducted in the outer pathways of the Siva temple. On each day of the festival, the images of Ganesha,
731:. Jesuits recorded that they used iron bars to destroy the presiding deity. According to a 1640 Portuguese records, they were able to convert 500 people from the village of Munneswaram as Roman Catholics. However, the locals and temple administrators were able to hide many of the idols of the temple complex before the destruction.
317:. Although the Jesuits built a Catholic chapel over the temple foundation, locals reconstructed the temple both times. Due to religious and demographic change after the late 18th century, most surrounding villages and towns are not directly associated with the temple administration and maintenance. However, the villages of
336:. The former is a nine-day long festival in honour of the presiding Goddess, while the latter is an overnight observation in honour of Lord Shiva. In addition to these two Hindu festivals, the temple has a festival of its own, the Munneswaram festival, a four-week-long event attended by Hindus and Buddhists.
799:
king, Kullakotan. According to that myth, the king, who was afflicted with an incurable skin disease, was cured after taking a bath in the ruined temple's holy pond. Following the miracle, the king went on to renovate the temple and created a community of temple caretakers to maintain the temple. The
575:
that was transformed into a major Siva temple due to royal patronage. The temple was already an established temple by the 11th century CE, as it had issued coins by then. The temple began under the patronage of
Pattuva chiefs and was probably constructed during the early part of the 10th century CE.
521:
Munneswaram temple is situated in
Munneswaram village, the center of the spiritual and religious life of the people dwelling in a medieval administrative division called Munneswaram Pattuva ("Munneswaram division"). For most of the temple's existence, Munneswaram Pattuva has had over 60 villages for
991:
and make their offerings. Booths are erected outside for the sale of food, drink, brassware, pottery, cloth and holy images. On the penultimate day of the festival there is a procession, when the image of the goddess is placed upon a huge wooden chariot and pulled around the temple by devotees. On
975:
functions. Navaratri lasts for nine days and is dedicated to various aspects of the presiding goddess, whereas
Sivarathri is dedicated to Siva. Both these functions primarily attract Hindus to the temple. The annual Munneswaram festival is an important part of the temple calendar and it attracts
775:
Most of the myths associated with the temple are not dated and vary with the different religious and ethnic groups as well. One set of myths deals with the creation of the temple, and the other deals with various reconstruction efforts. For the Hindu Tamils, the
Munneswaram temple is primarily a
875:
The Siva temple is surrounded by various other temples and shrines. To the southeast of the Siva Temple is a shrine dedicated to
Ganesha. A temple dedicated to Ayyanayake, a Sinhalese Buddhist deity, is situated in the northeast corner of the third pathway of the Siva temple. The popular temple
828:
plantations quickly covering all suitable
Pattuva lands. Establishments of large-scale plantations also led to population increase due to migration and settlement of plantation workers from the interior of the country. This led to a demographic change, and the local Pattuva people became
724:, after their arrival in Sri Lanka in 1505, began a campaign of forced conversion and destruction of many Buddhist and Hindu temples around the island. They destroyed the Munneswaram temple completely in 1578 CE with the exception of the basement, and used the core of the building as a
927:. The veneration of Kali has completely overtaken the previously popular veneration of Pattini. Since the 1960s a number of Sinhalese Buddhist shrines dedicated to Kali have sprung up all over the island, especially in urban areas. These are managed by Sinhalese priests who are
808:
It has been recorded that in 1830 the temple festival attracted thousands of people from the surrounding
Pattuva, but by the 1870s the temple was abandoned again. One of the reasons was the depopulation of the Pattuva, due to various causes, and the conversion of
984:, and the presiding consort goddess are paraded around the temple. Local Pattuva village deity temples also have festivals that coincide with the annual festival. Villagers belonging to Maradankulama and Uddappu sponsor a day each of the 28-day festival.
708:("Beautiful City") in the North of Sri Lanka. It mentions the Munneswaram temple. The second set of grants to be recorded were by another Kotte King, Parakramabahu IX (1509–1528), who donated extensive lands to the temple and recorded the deed in a
996:("holy bath") ceremony when the images are dipped into the river. At the same time thousands of devotees also jump into the river. After the holy bath, the procession goes back to the temple along a route through Chilaw, accompanied by traditional
692:("Message carried by Kokila bird") written in the 15th century by the principal monk of the Irugalkula Tilaka Pirivena in Mulgirigala. The book contains a contemporary description of the country traversed by the road taken by the
767:(consecration) ceremonies were performed in the year 1753, and for the performance of daily and special rites of the temple, Kirti Sri Rajasinghe made a grant of lands to the priests, recorded through a copper plate in 1753.
1410:
951:("Personal veneration of deity") aspect of Hinduism. Following protests by Buddhist monks and animal rights activist, the government banned the age old custom of animal sacrifices at the Kali temple in 2011.
623:
is a post-19th century CE addition. The
Ganesha temple, located to the south west of the main temple is the newest amongst the Hindu temples and was built during the early 19th century by artisans from
880:
stands in the northern part of the pathway. In the southwest of the outer courtyard is another temple dedicated to
Ganesha. Within the Siva temple there are shrines dedicated to the
1814:
615:. Spirit possession of devotees was noted by the Jesuit priests who left behind records of it in the 16th century. The temple dedicated to the Sinhala deity Ayyanayake (
282:. The Kali temple is also popular with Buddhists, who frequent the complex. Post-19th century, most of the devotees of all temples in the complex belong to the majority
1498:
788:. Sinhalese myths say that Munneswaram is the place where the deity Kali landed from India. The legend further postulates that another Sinhalese female deity,
780:
temple. According to a Tamil legend, Sinhala Buddhists who hail from outside of Pattuva, Munneswaram is primarily a goddess temple, currently associated with
522:
which Maradankulama provided political leadership. The Pattuva belonged to an even bigger medieval division called Demala Pattuva ruled by semi-independent
1571:
410:
156:
305:. The main Shiva temple owns extensive property in the surrounding villages, ownership of which was affirmed when the region was part of the medieval
1374:
1540:
286:
Buddhist ethnic group; the temples, excluding the Ayyanayake and the Buddhist temple, are administered by families belonging to the minority
840:
accepting temple properties as belonging to a newly created temple trust. The trust came under the control of one Cumaraswamy Kurukal from
1804:
557:
848:. The temple has become very popular amongst the Sinhalese and they make up over 78% of the pilgrims to both the Siva and Kali temples.
561:
46:
1713:
1564:
755:
had the superstructure rebuilt in the 1750s. The Kalasam or Kotha on top was made of silver, a work of art displaying affinity to
247:. It has been in existence at least since 1000 CE although myths surrounding the temple associate it with the popular Indian epic
125:
1640:
569:
1757:
1232:
868:. The Siva temple faces east and has three pathways around it. A sacred pond is situated in front of the Siva temple and a
1182:
1737:
1557:
872:
tree stands by the side of it. The main sanctum and the structure above the sanctum are one of the largest in Sri Lanka.
817:. By 1816, Munneswaram village had hardly 64 people, and the entire Munneswaram Pattuva had 1008 people in 63 villages.
1809:
669:
1508:
1448:
1420:
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the final day of the festival, two large chariots are drawn by the devotees to the Deduru oya, a local river for the
820:
The temple properties were no longer cultivated, and tanks were not maintained. Thus the population was surviving on
71:
748:
1674:
266:
The temple complex is a collection of five temples, including a Buddhist temple. The central temple dedicated to
1747:
1708:
270:(Siva) is the most prestigious and biggest, and is popular amongst Hindus. The other temples are dedicated to
864:. The Siva temple's architectural details conform to what is written down in the Hindu scriptures known as
149:
1382:
1004:
musicians. The procession then passes the Ayyanayake and Kali temples prior to entering the main temple.
603:
The Siva temple is historically attested in grants and in local literature. The Kali temple is a popular
310:
568:. Anthropologist Rohan Bastin speculates that the main Siva temple was once a minor shrine dedicated to
1718:
509:
1679:
1537:
655:), forms the five ancient temples (Ishwarams) dedicated to Shiva in the region including Sri Lanka.
517:
is one of the few surviving idols from the days prior to the temple's destruction by the Portuguese.
1742:
1703:
903:
832:
A few villagers from Munneswaram village filed a case in the Chilaw district courts to prevent the
744:
440:
364:
739:
Following the destruction, the Munneswaram Pattuva area came under the control of the expanding
668:
The first known reconstruction of the temple was recorded in a grant made by Kotte Kingdom King
760:
196:
1013:
619:
to the Tamils) is administered by a local Sinhalese family. The Buddhist temple Pushparamaya
294:
99:
1438:
824:
agriculture. British colonial policies favored the conversion of these lands into lucrative
920:
467:
959:
8:
1752:
1650:
1615:
1600:
814:
740:
648:
640:
963:
A chariot carrying images of the deities in procession, as part of the temple festivals.
865:
944:
604:
795:
Another myth current amongst Tamils says that the temple was renovated by a legendary
792:, prevented Kali from devouring human beings and made her settle down in Munneswaram.
1698:
1655:
1605:
1514:
1504:
1486:
1478:
1454:
1444:
1426:
1416:
1412:
The Domain of Constant Excess: Plural Worship at the Munnesvaram Temples in Sri Lanka
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932:
721:
709:
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632:
612:
429:
399:
302:
287:
61:
931:
specialists and act as intermediaries between the deity and the devotee while being
1620:
1592:
1028:
916:
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685:
581:
283:
256:
232:
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kingdoms of Tamilakam, stopping at Puttalam of the Jaffna kingdom and sailing the
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924:
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681:
673:
597:
535:
298:
224:
530:("Lord of antiquity" alluding to its ancient roots) and the goddess is called
1798:
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1490:
1482:
593:
589:
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318:
306:
297:, a village with mixed Sinhala and Tamil population situated in the historic
171:
158:
1518:
1458:
1430:
1580:
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240:
1154:
The adventures of Ibn Battuta, a Muslim traveler of the fourteenth century
688:, a military leader sent by the Kotte king in 1450, was celebrated in the
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756:
701:
697:
636:
625:
585:
577:
1781:
997:
972:
869:
785:
644:
572:
368:
333:
329:
1467:"Munnicuvaram (Munnesvaram) Kovil: Its History, Ceremonies and Layout"
935:. The popular veneration of previously Hindu deities such as Kali and
1584:
968:
892:
881:
833:
538:
244:
113:
526:
chiefs subject to Sinhalese kingdoms. The presiding deity is called
888:
677:
616:
248:
51:
1689:
1665:
981:
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885:
841:
825:
789:
565:
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314:
275:
271:
1772:
1762:
1001:
948:
928:
857:
845:
728:
693:
620:
553:
514:
486:
322:
103:
1440:
Sri Lanka in the Modern Age: A History of Contested Identities
704:(referred to as Devi Nuwara - "City of Gods") in the south to
576:
A ferry transported traders, pilgrims and chroniclers such as
30:
1728:
1631:
908:
796:
777:
608:
379:
267:
260:
83:
78:
967:
The Munneswaram temple is well known for its celebration of
907:
Panel View within the Munneswaram temple, depicting goddess
836:
of temple properties by outsiders. The case resulted in the
544:
The temple has historically been associated with the nearby
877:
810:
781:
279:
252:
325:
are associated with organizing the main temple festival.
1815:
Archaeological protected monuments in Puttalam District
829:
disassociated from the temple and its administration.
856:
The presiding deity Siva is installed in the form of
496:
Animal sacrifices banned by the Sri Lankan government
943:) have fundamentally altered the rational nature of
328:
The main festivals celebrated at the temple include
1500:
Buddhism Transformed: Religious Change in Sri Lanka
420:
Animal sacrifices banned by Portuguese missionaries
1538:Buddhist monks protest animal sacrifice In Chilaw
1176:
1174:
1796:
313:officers, who handed over the properties to the
1579:
1181:Maniccavasagar, Chelvatamby (14 August 2009).
1180:
1171:
987:Devotees visit the temple to attend the daily
534:("goddess of beautiful form" another name for
1565:
1436:
1261:
891:saints, various aspects of Siva, Ganesha and
658:
611:shrine associated with animal sacrifices and
1471:Uppsala Studies in the History of Religions
1296:
1294:
1226:
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1222:
1220:
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1558:
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1124:
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1098:
1049:
1047:
132:
29:
1496:
1360:
1291:
1230:
1217:
958:
902:
672:(1412/1415–1467). The grant was made in
508:
309:. The temple was destroyed twice by the
1119:
1044:
1797:
1408:
1366:
1348:
1336:
1324:
1312:
1300:
1285:
1273:
1231:Schokman, Derrick (6 September 2003).
1211:
1165:
1140:
1128:
1113:
1077:
1065:
1053:
976:Hindus, Buddhists, Catholics and even
939:(the latter identified with the Hindu
898:
1553:
1437:Wikramesinghe, Nira (November 2005),
1109:
1107:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1372:
450:Second destruction by the Portuguese
390:The Siva temple issues its own coins
1497:Gombrich, Richard (December 1999),
255:. The temple is one of the ancient
13:
1805:Hindu temples in Puttalam District
1104:
1083:
477:Renovations by Cumarasamy Kurukkal
14:
1826:
1533:The cursing practice in Sri Lanka
1526:
301:("Tamil division") region in the
1022:
884:(nine planets), the sixty three
851:
803:
206:Earliest date 1000 CE (probable)
131:
124:
1465:Velupillai, Alvapillai (1995),
1409:Bastin, Rohan (December 2002),
1354:
1342:
1330:
1318:
1306:
1279:
1267:
1255:
1205:
1443:, University of Hawaii Press,
1375:"Mervyn Bans Slaughter Houses"
1159:
1146:
1134:
1071:
1059:
784:, and also a popular place of
251:, and its legendary hero-king
1:
1477:, Uppsala University: 68–71,
1401:
1183:"Munneswaram Annual festival"
915:According to anthropologists
1621:Thennesvaram (Thondrisvaram)
954:
600:during the 14th century CE.
7:
1007:
838:British colonial government
813:land into plantations from
458:Restored by local villagers
239:) is an important regional
10:
1831:
1233:"The Munneswaram Festival"
659:Renovation and destruction
339:
1810:Siva temples in Sri Lanka
1771:
1727:
1688:
1664:
1629:
1591:
485:Renovations by concerned
293:The temple is located in
236:
228:
210:
202:
192:
187:
148:
140:Location in Sri Lanka 200
119:
109:
95:
90:
77:
67:
57:
45:
40:
28:
23:
16:Hindu temple in Sri Lanka
1675:Ariyalai Siddhivinayakar
1037:
770:
631:Munneswaram, along with
378:Temple converted into a
172:7.5807778°N 79.8166722°E
1503:, Motilal Banarsidass,
365:village guardian shrine
1543:27 August 2010 at the
1152:Ross E. Dunn. (1986).
964:
933:possessed by the deity
912:
761:Dravidian architecture
570:village guardian deity
518:
197:Dravidian architecture
150:Geographic coordinates
1738:Nainativu Nagapushani
1641:East Thanthonrisvaram
1014:Hinduism in Sri Lanka
962:
906:
512:
177:7.5807778; 79.8166722
1775:Temples & others
1385:on 23 September 2011
1029:Sri Lanka portal
921:Gananath Obeyesekere
670:Parakrakrama Bahu VI
532:Sri Vativampika Devi
468:Kirti Sri Rajasinghe
1758:Thambiluvil Kannaki
1656:Jaffna Saddainathar
899:Center of Kali cult
815:subsistence farming
751:(1747–1782) of the
749:Kirti Sri Rajasinha
741:Kingdom of Sitawaka
311:Portuguese colonial
229:முன்னேசுவரம் கோயில்
168: /
1415:, Berghahn Books,
1363:, pp. 133–162
1262:Wikramesinghe 2005
965:
945:Theravada Buddhism
913:
743:, led by its king
649:Thiruketheeshwaram
519:
350:Munneswaram temple
237:මුන්නේශ්වරම් කෝවිල
221:Munneswaram temple
24:Munneswaram temple
1790:
1789:
1782:Vallipuram Vishnu
1753:Nuwara Eliya Sita
1704:Nallur Kandaswamy
1193:on 19 August 2009
1031:
937:Kataragama deviyo
862:sanctum sanctorum
613:spirit possession
507:
506:
503:
502:
491:(1919 & 1963)
428:Destroyed by the
411:Parakrama Bahu IX
400:Parakrama Bahu VI
354:(1000–1963)
303:Puttalam District
218:
217:
1822:
1743:Trinco Badrakali
1593:Pancha Ishwarams
1574:
1567:
1560:
1551:
1550:
1521:
1493:
1461:
1433:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1381:. Archived from
1373:Samantha, Jude.
1370:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1339:, pp. 35–38
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1303:, pp. 45–52
1298:
1289:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1239:. Archived from
1228:
1215:
1209:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1189:. Archived from
1178:
1169:
1163:
1157:
1150:
1144:
1143:, pp. 20–22
1138:
1132:
1126:
1117:
1116:, pp. 21–23
1111:
1102:
1101:, pp. 68–71
1096:
1081:
1080:, pp. 17–18
1075:
1069:
1063:
1057:
1051:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1020:
917:Richard Gombrich
765:kumbhabhishekham
690:Kokila Sandesaya
686:Sapumal Kumaraya
582:Tenavaram temple
528:Sri Munnainathar
360:
359:
352:
344:
343:
257:Pancha Ishwarams
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230:
203:Date established
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33:
21:
20:
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1795:
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1786:
1767:
1763:Udappu Draupadi
1748:Mutwal Mahakali
1723:
1684:
1660:
1625:
1587:
1578:
1545:Wayback Machine
1529:
1524:
1511:
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1399:
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1371:
1367:
1359:
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1335:
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1327:, p. 30–31
1323:
1319:
1311:
1307:
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1268:
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1246:
1244:
1243:on 30 June 2009
1229:
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1194:
1179:
1172:
1164:
1160:
1151:
1147:
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1099:Velupillai 1995
1097:
1084:
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1060:
1052:
1045:
1040:
1023:
1021:
1010:
957:
901:
854:
806:
773:
753:Kandyan Kingdom
661:
466:Renovations by
415:(1509–28)
409:Renovations by
398:Renovations by
353:
347:
342:
263:in the region.
176:
174:
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1646:Adi Konesvaram
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363:Founded as a
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163:79°49′00.02″E
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1709:Maviddapuram
1651:Choleeswaram
1616:Nagulesvaram
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1389:19 September
1387:. Retrieved
1383:the original
1378:
1368:
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1351:, p. 28
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1315:, p. 30
1308:
1288:, p. 23
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1276:, p. 18
1269:
1264:, p. 21
1257:
1245:. Retrieved
1241:the original
1236:
1214:, p. 36
1207:
1195:. Retrieved
1191:the original
1186:
1168:, p. 21
1161:
1153:
1148:
1136:
1131:, p. 15
1073:
1061:
1056:, p. 35
1019:
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993:
986:
966:
947:towards the
914:
874:
855:
831:
819:
807:
794:
774:
745:Rajasinghe I
738:
719:
710:copper plate
702:Tevan Thurai
689:
667:
641:Naguleswaram
630:
602:
586:Tevan Thurai
543:
531:
527:
520:
441:Rajasinghe I
423:(After 1505)
349:
348:Timeline of
327:
292:
288:Hindu Tamils
265:
241:Hindu temple
220:
219:
188:Architecture
160:7°34′50.80″N
18:
1714:Thirukkovil
1699:Kathirkamam
1611:Munnesvaram
1601:Kethisvaram
1349:Bastin 2002
1337:Bastin 2002
1325:Bastin 2002
1313:Bastin 2002
1301:Bastin 2002
1286:Bastin 2002
1274:Bastin 2002
1212:Bastin 2002
1166:Bastin 2002
1141:Bastin 2002
1129:Bastin 2002
1114:Bastin 2002
1078:Bastin 2002
1066:Bastin 2002
1054:Bastin 2002
757:South India
716:Destruction
696:bird, from
637:Trincomalee
626:South India
578:Ibn Battuta
439:Rebuilt by
295:Munneswaram
243:complex in
175: /
100:Munneswaram
47:Affiliation
35:Siva temple
1799:Categories
1606:Konesvaram
1402:References
1247:5 December
1237:Daily News
1197:5 December
1187:Daily News
998:Nadeswaram
973:Sivarathri
722:Portuguese
664:Renovation
645:Keerimalai
633:Koneswaram
573:Munisvaran
430:Portuguese
369:Munisvaran
334:Sivarathri
330:Navarathri
1585:Sri Lanka
1491:476421554
1483:1400-4763
969:Navaratri
955:Festivals
882:Navagraha
834:land grab
698:Tenavaram
558:Viramunda
245:Sri Lanka
211:Completed
114:Sri Lanka
1666:Pillayar
1541:Archived
1519:17871961
1459:65538901
1431:50028737
1008:See also
994:thirtham
889:Nayanmar
678:Sanskrit
617:Aiyyanar
562:Kadavara
552:town of
546:pearling
249:Ramayana
96:Location
91:Location
68:Province
62:Puttalam
58:District
52:Hinduism
41:Religion
1731:Temples
1692:Temples
1690:Murugan
1680:Manipay
1668:Temples
1634:Temples
978:Muslims
886:Saivite
860:in the
842:Colombo
826:coconut
790:Pattini
786:sorcery
609:cursing
605:sorcery
588:to the
566:Bandara
550:fishing
340:History
315:Jesuits
284:Sinhala
276:Aiyanar
272:Ganesha
233:Sinhala
110:Country
102:, near
1773:Vishnu
1630:Other
1517:
1507:
1489:
1481:
1457:
1447:
1429:
1419:
1002:Thavil
982:Skanda
949:Bhakti
941:Skanda
929:trance
866:agamas
858:Lingam
846:Jaffna
763:. The
729:chapel
706:Nallur
694:cookoo
653:Mannar
621:Vihara
554:Chilaw
515:Lingam
499:(2011)
487:Tamils
480:(1875)
472:(1753)
461:(????)
453:(1600)
445:(????)
434:(1578)
393:(1100)
385:(????)
382:temple
373:(1000)
323:Udappu
104:Chilaw
86:(Siva)
1729:Amman
1632:Shiva
1038:Notes
989:pujas
909:Durga
893:Amman
811:paddy
797:Chola
771:Myths
594:Chola
590:Chera
580:from
539:Ambal
524:Tamil
513:This
268:Shiva
261:Shiva
225:Tamil
84:Shiva
79:Deity
1515:OCLC
1505:ISBN
1487:OCLC
1479:ISSN
1455:OCLC
1445:ISBN
1427:OCLC
1417:ISBN
1391:2011
1249:2009
1199:2009
1000:and
971:and
919:and
878:Kali
782:Kali
778:Siva
720:The
607:and
592:and
564:and
548:and
380:Siva
332:and
321:and
280:Kali
278:and
253:Rama
214:1753
193:Type
1583:in
870:fig
759:'s
684:by
676:in
647:),
639:),
541:).
367:to
1801::
1513:,
1485:,
1473:,
1469:,
1453:,
1425:,
1377:.
1293:^
1235:.
1219:^
1185:.
1173:^
1121:^
1106:^
1085:^
1046:^
895:.
700:,
628:.
584:,
560:,
290:.
274:,
235::
231:,
227::
1573:e
1566:t
1559:v
1475:2
1393:.
1251:.
1201:.
911:.
651:(
643:(
635:(
223:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
