429:, France, Kovner's name along with three others was called over the public address system. Kovner told a friend, Yitzik Rosenkranz, to convey the duffel bag to Kempner in Paris, and then threw half the poison overboard. After this, he turned himself in and was arrested by the British police. Nakam members later claimed that Kovner had been betrayed by the Haganah, but Porat writes that it is more likely that he was arrested as a suspected organiser of Aliyah Bet. Kovner, who spoke no English and had not attended the Jewish Brigade training, was not questioned about Nakam; after two months in jails in Egypt and Palestine, he was released. His involvement in Nakam ended at that time.
451:
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should be shocking. The
Germans should know that after Auschwitz there can be no return to normality." According to survivors, Kovner's "hypnotic" eloquence put words to the emotions that they were feeling. Members of the group believed that the laws of the time were unable to adequately punish such an extreme event as the Holocaust and that the complete moral bankruptcy of the world could be cured only by catastrophic retributive violence. Porat hypothesises that Nakam was "a necessary stage" before the embittered survivors would be prepared "to return to a life of society and laws".
494:. After becoming friends with Poles who worked in the bakery, Rotem got the manager drunk, made copies of his keys, and then returned them before he sobered up. A few days before the planned attack, Reichman received a tip-off from a Jewish intelligence officer in the United States Army that two of the operatives were wanted by the police. As ordered, the Dachau Nakam operatives aborted on 11 April 1946. Reichman feared that the failure of one attack would cause the United States to increase its security measures at prison camps, preventing a second attack.
535:
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laboratory in the Nakam headquarters in Paris, where he tested various formulations in order to find a tasteless, odorless poison that would have delayed effects. Ratner eventually formulated a mixture of arsenic, glue, and other additives which could be painted onto loaves of bread; tests on cats proved the lethality of the mixture. He obtained more than 18 kilograms (40 lb) of arsenic from friends who worked in the
31:
189:
562:, and were invited to travel through the country. Although Kovner, and the majority of the operatives, considered that the time for revenge had passed, a small group led by Bolek Ben-Ya'akov returned to Europe to continue the mission. Nine other Nakam operatives broke away in the spring of 1947 and returned to Europe the following year, helped by Labor Party politician
675:
the Jewish people. She struggled to reconcile the personalities of Nakam's members with the actions that they tried to carry out. When asked how he could plan an attack in which many innocent people would have been killed, one survivor explained that "f you had been there with me, at the end of the war, you wouldn't talk that way". Porat's 2019 book on Nakam is titled
578:
speak about their experiences for several decades, beginning to discuss the issue only in the 1980s. Porat writes that Kovner "committed political suicide" by participating in Nakam; she describes its failure as a "miracle." Members of the group showed no remorse, said that the
Germans "deserved it," and wanted recognition, rather than forgiveness, for their actions.
504:
paint it onto the bottom of each loaf. On
Saturday 13 April, the bakery workers were on strike, delaying the Nakam operatives and preventing three of them from entering the bakery. As a result, Distel and his two accomplices had only enough time to poison some 3,000 loaves of bread instead of 14,000 as originally planned. After painting the loaves, they fled to
482:, a survivor of several Nazi concentration camps, posed as a Polish displaced person awaiting a visa to work at an uncle's bakery in Canada. He asked the manager if he could work for free and eventually secured access to the bakery storeroom after bribing him with cigarettes, alcohol, and chocolate. The Nakam operatives met each night in a rented room in
297:(illegal immigration to Mandate Palestine). Kovner refused because he was already set on revenge. Nakam developed a network of underground cells and immediately set out raising money, infiltrating German infrastructure, and securing poison. The group received a large supply of German-forged British currency from a
526:, the amount of arsenic found in the bakery was enough to kill approximately 60,000 persons. It is unknown why the poisoners failed, but it is suspected to be either that they spread the poison too thinly, or else that the prisoners realised that the bread had been poisoned and did not eat very much.
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is the first academic historian to systematically study the group, meeting with many of the survivors and gaining access to their private documents. She hypothesises that the failure of the attack may have been deliberate, as Kovner and other leaders began to realise that it could have greatly harmed
281:
The group's members believed that the defeat of Nazi
Germany did not mean that Jews were safe from another Holocaust-level genocide. Kovner believed that a proportional revenge, killing six million Germans, was the only way to teach enemies of the Jews that they could not act with impunity: "The act
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members. Most returned to Israel between 1950 and 1952. Ben-Ya'akov said in an interview that he "could not have looked at himself in the mirror" if he had not tried to get revenge, and that he still deeply regretted that it did not succeed. After coming to Israel, former Nakam members refused to
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in
Nuremberg. Subverting tight security aimed at preventing the theft of food, they smuggled the arsenic in over several days, hiding it under raincoats, and stashed it beneath the floorboards. Because experiments had shown that the arsenic mixture did not spread evenly, the operatives decided to
486:
to discuss their findings, especially how to confine their attack to the German prisoners and avoid harming the
American guards. When Harmatz placed a few of the workers in clerical positions in the camp, they discovered that on Sundays, the black bread would be eaten only by the German prisoners
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near
Nuremberg (formerly Stalag XIII-D), where 12,000 to 15,000 prisoners, mainly former SS officers or prominent Nazis, were imprisoned by the United States. Initially, two Nakam members were hired by the camp, one as a driver, another as a storehouse worker. The bread for Langwasser came from a
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because of its belief that the world was so evil as to deserve large-scale catastrophe. Unlike most terrorist organisations which commit violence for political reasons and hope for a new, better future through terror, Nakam wanted to kill indiscriminately. The Nakam operatives came from "heavily
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camps, promised by the leaders that in future they would be reactivated to implement Plan A. The cells in
Nuremberg and Dachau remained active because of the large US prisoner of war camps nearby. Yitzhak Ratner was recruited into the group to obtain poison locally. In October 1945, he set up a
406:, via one of their students who was a member of the Haganah. The Katzir brothers were sympathetic to Kovner's revenge plot and convinced the head of chemical storage at the Hebrew University to give him poison. Decades after the fact, Kovner claimed that he had pitched Plan B to
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Because Kovner had not managed to secure the quantity of poison required, the
Nuremberg cell decided to switch to poisoning SS prisoners definitively during the first months of 1946. Most of the Nakam action groups disbanded as ordered and their members dispersed into
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In 1999, Harmatz and Distel appeared in a documentary and discussed their role in Nakam. Distel maintained that Nakam's actions were moral and that the Jews "had a right to revenge against the
Germans." German prosecutors opened an investigation against them for
332:, in a position with the municipal water company. Schwarzreich obtained the plan of the water system and control of the main water valve, and plotted where the poison should be introduced so as to kill the largest possible number of Germans. In Paris,
172:, later said he "didn't know a Jew who wasn't obsessed with revenge". However, very few survivors acted on these fantasies, instead focusing on rebuilding their lives and communities and commemorating those who had perished. In all, Israeli historian
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In September, Kovner informed Nakam in Europe that he had not had any success in locating poison, and therefore they should recruit Yitzhak Ratner, a chemist and former Vilna Ghetto insurgent, and focus on Plan B. Kovner was eventually introduced to
370:, disguising himself as a Jewish Brigade soldier on leave, and boarded a ship for Palestine the following month. Reichman became leader in Europe in his absence. Upon reaching Palestine, Kovner was held for three days in an apartment by the
742:
425:, in December 1945 carrying false papers that identified him as a Jewish Brigade soldier returning from leave, and a duffel bag with gold hidden in toothpaste tubes and cans full of poison. Shortly after boarding a ship headed to
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reported that 2,283 German prisoners of war had fallen ill from poisoning, with 207 hospitalized and seriously ill. However, the operation ultimately caused no known deaths. According to documents obtained by a
414:, who had directed him to the Katzir brothers. However, according to his biographer, if Kovner met Weizmann at all it was in February or March 1946, as Weizmann was out of the country before that.
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in 1949 made illegal operations even more difficult. Many of the members turned to a life of crime to support themselves, and then tried to escape from German jails with the help of former
843:
164:, was widespread. From late 1942, as news of the Holocaust arrived in Mandatory Palestine, Jewish newspapers were full of calls for retribution. One of the leaders of the
586:, but halted the preliminary investigation in 2000 because of the "unusual circumstances." As of November 2019, four members of the group are reported to still be alive.
176:
estimates that about 200 or 250 Holocaust survivors attempted to exact violent revenge, of which Nakam was a significant portion. Including assassinations carried out by
313:
156:. Many survivors, having lost their entire families and communities, had difficulty imagining a return to a normal life. The desire for revenge, either against
1776:
Waligorska, Magdalena (2014). ""Darkness at the beginning": the Holocaust in contemporary German crime fiction". In Kutch, Lynn M.; Herzog, Todd (eds.).
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in order to secure large quantities of poison for poisoning water mains to kill large numbers of Germans. His followers infiltrated the water system of
490:
Similar preparations were made with regard to a prison camp near Dachau and the bakery supplying it, an effort led by Warsaw Ghetto uprising veteran
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during the latter's trip to a DP camp in Germany, but the latter preferred to work towards Israeli independence than seek revenge for the Holocaust.
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324:. Harmatz had difficulty finding rooms for the conspirators to rent due to the housing shortage caused by the destruction of most of the city by
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on 23 June 1946 and arrived by the end of July following brief detention by the British authorities. They received a warm welcome at Kovner's
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519:
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prisoners held in US prisoner of war camps. From Romania Kovner's group traveled to Italy, where Kovner received a warm reception from
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because the American guards were specially issued white bread. Therefore, they decided to execute the attack on a Saturday night.
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in hopes of convincing them to give him poison for a smaller revenge operation in return for not linking the murder to the Yishuv.
328:. Through the use of bribes, he managed to place Willek Schwerzreich (Wilek Shinar), an engineer from Kraków who spoke fluent
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locally and infiltrated the bakeries that supplied these prison camps. The conspirators poisoned 3,000 loaves of bread at
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The group's leaders formed two plans: Plan A, to kill a large number of Germans, and Plan B, to poison several thousand
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232:. Recruited for their ability to live undercover and not break down, most were in their early twenties and hailed from
1825:
1789:
1766:
1747:
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1649:
1609:
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Biological, Chemical, and Radiological Terrorism: Emergency Preparedness and Response for the Primary Care Physician
128:, German public prosecutors dismissed a case against two of its members in 2000 due to the "unusual circumstances".
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emissary, forced speculators to contribute, and also obtained some money from sympathisers in the Jewish Brigade.
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124:. However, no known deaths can be attributed to the group. Although Nakam is considered by some to have been a
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brutalized communities" which, according to Sprinzak and Zertal, sometimes consider catastrophic violence.
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The breakaway groups faced mounting challenges, both logistical and financial, and the foundation of the
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213:
1346:
1734:
Stier, Oren Baruch (2016). "Six Million: The Numerical Icon of the Holocaust". In Kravel-Tovi, Michal;
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508:, helped by an Auschwitz survivor named Yehuda Maimon, continuing on through Italy to southern France.
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120:(Consumer Cooperative Bakery) in Nuremberg, which sickened more than 2,000 German prisoners of war at
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which expresses her belief that the Jewish people are best to leave vengeance in the hands of the
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366:, the Jewish leadership in Mandatory Palestine. In July 1945, Kovner left the Jewish Brigade for
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844:"'An Eye for an Eye': The Jews Who Sought to Poison Six Million Germans to Avenge the Holocaust"
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is based on the story. The story of Nakam has also entered German popular culture. In 2009,
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1521:"Precautions against biological and chemical terrorism directed at food and water supplies"
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8:
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Vengeance and Retribution are Mine: Community, the Holocaust, and Abba Kovner's Avengers
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band, recorded a song called "Six Million Germans (Nakam)". Based on tapes Kovner made
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1821:
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Klezmer's Afterlife: An Ethnography of the Jewish Music Revival in Poland and Germany
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1382:"The Jewish avengers who survived the death camps and tracked down their tormentors"
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224:, decided to take revenge. He recruited about 50 Holocaust survivors, mostly former
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1430:"Film to show new details of Jewish post-war revenge plot to poison German cities"
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329:
316:(DP) named "Maim Mendele", attempted to infiltrate the municipal water supply in
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153:
99:
52:
704:, directed and produced by Doron Paz and Yoav Paz, adapted the plot for cinema.
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309:
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After this failure, Nakam turned their attention to "Plan B", targeting German
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22:
1619:
Lang, Berel (1996). "Holocaust Memory and Revenge: The Presence of the Past".
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who, after 1945, sought revenge for the murder of six million Jews during the
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describing his activities in Nakam, a television documentary was produced by
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Sprinzak, Ehud; Zertal, Idith (2000). "Avenging Israeli's Blood (1946)". In
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180:, these operations claimed the lives of as many as 1,000 to 1,500 people.
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Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons
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41:
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320:; Nakam targeted the city because it had been the stronghold of the
245:
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1239:
1483:"Plan A movie review & film summary (2022) | Roger Ebert"
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34:
A US Army lieutenant (left) and a German detective inspecting the
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Tatort Germany: The Curious Case of German-language Crime Fiction
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Taking Stock: Cultures of Enumeration in Contemporary Jewish Life
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Endkampf: Soldiers, Civilians, and the Death of the Third Reich
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1235:"Jewish avengers unapologetic for targeting Nazis after WWII"
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It fell to Kovner to obtain the poison from leaders in the
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21:"Jewish Avengers" redirects here. Not to be confused with
1742:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 29–46.
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Safe Among the Germans: Liberated Jews After World War II
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The Fall of a Sparrow: The Life and Times of Abba Kovner
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after the liberation; Kovner is in the center, standing.
1810:לי נקם ושילם: היישוב, השואה וקבוצת הנוקמים של אבא קובנר
985:
983:
594:
An early journalistic account of Nakam's mission is in
1498:"'Plan A' Review: Seeking Vengeance for the Holocaust"
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Khan, A. S.; Swerdlow, D. L.; Juranek, D. D. (2001).
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The Seventh Million: The Israelis and the Holocaust
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602:. The story was given a fictionalised treatment in
254:("revenge"), the organisation used the Hebrew name
91:. However, Kovner was arrested upon arrival in the
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1362:
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546:About 30 former Nakam operatives boarded the ship
1644:. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media.
351:, Kovner's future wife and former comrade in the
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374:and was personally interrogated by Mossad chief
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558:, from leading members of the Haganah and the
497:By this time, six Nakam members worked at the
228:, but including a few who had escaped to the
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524:National Archives and Records Administration
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473:
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305:Plan A (planned mass poisoning in Nuremberg)
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267:
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35:
447:industry, which was smuggled into Germany.
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417:After several delays, Kovner travelled to
355:underground. Reichman reportedly spoke to
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293:soldiers who wanted him to help organise
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347:was in charge of a Nakam cell including
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95:and had to throw the poison overboard.
29:
1719:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
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433:Plan B (mass poisoning of SS prisoners)
75:, the group sought to kill six million
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1604:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
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902:
610:in 1971. Jonathan Freedland's novel
1761:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1592:
1496:Rapold, Nicolas (13 October 2022).
1352:
683:
659:, Nakam's worldview was similar to
278:, "the blood of Israel avenges").
268:
266:, "judgement"), also an acronym of
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56:
13:
1800:
1220:
678:Vengeance and Retribution Are Mine
616:Daniel Kahn & the Painted Bird
590:Historiography and popular culture
14:
1907:
1480:
761:Khan, Swerdlow & Juranek 2001
460:(Consumer Cooperative Bakery) in
204:, after visiting the site of the
40:(Consumer Cooperative Bakery) in
842:Aderet, Ofer (8 November 2019).
472:single bakery in Nuremberg, the
93:British zone of occupied Germany
1511:
1489:
1474:
1460:
1422:
1374:
640:, which was first broadcast on
478:(Consumer Cooperative Bakery).
1757:Waligorska, Magdalena (2013).
500:Konsum-Genossenschaftsbäckerei
475:Konsum-Genossenschaftsbäckerei
457:Konsum-Genossenschaftsbäckerei
404:Hebrew University of Jerusalem
117:Konsum-Genossenschaftsbäckerei
37:Konsum-Genossenschaftsbäckerei
1:
1537:10.1016/s0033-3549(04)50017-1
917:, pp. 215–216, 235–236;
724:
131:
1820:and Haifa University Press.
1576:University Press of Kentucky
638:Holocaust – The Revenge Plot
183:
63:organisation of about fifty
7:
707:
571:Federal Republic of Germany
274:
262:
250:
216:, and meeting survivors of
10:
1912:
1876:Jewish extremist terrorism
1816:] (in Hebrew). Haifa:
1455:Sprinzak & Zertal 2000
1313:Sprinzak & Zertal 2000
1282:Sprinzak & Zertal 2000
1215:Sprinzak & Zertal 2000
1199:Sprinzak & Zertal 2000
1187:Sprinzak & Zertal 2000
1170:Sprinzak & Zertal 2000
1158:Sprinzak & Zertal 2000
939:Sprinzak & Zertal 2000
807:, pp. 210, 216, 235;
749:Sprinzak & Zertal 2000
469:Langwasser internment camp
412:World Zionist Organisation
122:Langwasser internment camp
20:
1668:Stanford University Press
378:. Kovner negotiated with
44:after a poisoning attempt
1504:– via NYTimes.com.
410:, then president of the
1570:Fritz, Stephen (2004).
1470:. iMDb. 21 August 2021.
16:Jewish partisan militia
1640:Melnick, Alan (2007).
714:Tilhas Tizig Gesheften
642:Holocaust Memorial Day
543:
520:Freedom of Information
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456:
197:
166:Warsaw Ghetto uprising
136:During the Holocaust,
126:terrorist organisation
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104:United States military
45:
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1861:Collective punishment
1851:Anti-German sentiment
1621:Jewish Social Studies
1525:Public Health Reports
647:According to Israeli
537:
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312:, posing as a Polish
248:. Generally known as
191:
81:a nation for a nation
33:
1896:Terrorism in Germany
1866:History of Nuremberg
1808:Porat, Dina (2019).
1782:Boydell & Brewer
1343:, pp. 213, 234.
1132:, pp. 230–232;
1092:, pp. 143–144;
1088:, pp. 224–225;
921:, pp. 256–257;
885:, pp. 211, 216.
530:Aftermath and legacy
192:Jewish partisans in
162:entire German people
1736:Moore, Deborah Dash
1713:Tucker, Jonathan B.
1434:The Times of Israel
1300:, pp. 265–266.
1268:, pp. 264–265.
1076:, pp. 225–226.
1064:, pp. 223–224.
1052:, pp. 222–223.
977:, pp. 216–217.
811:, pp. 255–256.
644:, 27 January 2018.
612:The Final Reckoning
560:Israeli Labor Party
372:Mossad LeAliyah Bet
85:Mandatory Palestine
65:Holocaust survivors
59:, 'revenge') was a
1502:The New York Times
1108:, p. 229–230.
698:In 2021, the film
618:, a Germany-based
544:
514:The New York Times
511:On 23 April 1946,
465:
402:, chemists at the
210:extermination camp
198:
158:Nazi war criminals
83:". Kovner went to
46:
1818:Pardes Publishing
1726:978-0-262-20128-5
1703:978-0-8050-6660-9
1436:. 20 January 2017
1172:, pp. 33–34.
687:), a phrase from
596:Michael Bar-Zohar
575:French Resistance
467:Nakam focused on
440:displaced persons
275:Dam Yisrael Noter
170:Yitzhak Zuckerman
140:, its allies and
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1881:Jewish partisans
1856:Chemical warfare
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357:David Ben-Gurion
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314:displaced person
299:Hashomer Hatzair
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226:Jewish partisans
146:six million Jews
119:
110:. They obtained
100:prisoners of war
58:
39:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1836:
1835:
1834:
1828:
1803:
1801:Further reading
1798:
1792:
1769:
1750:
1727:
1704:
1678:
1652:
1612:
1586:
1514:
1509:
1494:
1490:
1479:
1475:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1439:
1437:
1428:
1427:
1423:
1413:Waligorska 2013
1411:
1407:
1401:Waligorska 2014
1399:
1395:
1390:. 25 July 2008.
1387:TheGuardian.com
1380:
1379:
1375:
1367:
1363:
1351:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1327:, p. 235;
1323:
1319:
1311:
1304:
1296:, p. 236;
1292:
1288:
1280:, p. 236;
1276:
1272:
1264:
1260:
1250:
1248:
1233:
1232:
1221:
1213:
1209:
1197:
1193:
1185:
1176:
1168:
1164:
1156:
1152:
1144:
1140:
1128:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1104:
1100:
1084:
1080:
1072:
1068:
1060:
1056:
1048:
1044:
1036:
1032:
1024:
1020:
1012:
1008:
1000:
996:
988:
981:
973:
969:
961:
957:
949:
945:
937:, p. 216;
933:
929:
913:
909:
901:, p. 212;
893:
889:
881:
874:
866:
862:
852:
850:
840:
815:
803:
799:
791:
787:
779:
775:
765:Waligorska 2014
747:
743:
735:
731:
727:
710:
624:on his deathbed
592:
532:
522:request to the
435:
336:
307:
206:Ponary massacre
186:
144:murdered about
134:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1909:
1899:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1833:
1832:
1826:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1790:
1780:. Woodbridge:
1773:
1767:
1754:
1748:
1731:
1725:
1708:
1702:
1682:
1676:
1656:
1650:
1637:
1616:
1610:
1590:
1584:
1567:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1507:
1488:
1473:
1459:
1447:
1421:
1405:
1403:, p. 119.
1393:
1373:
1361:
1345:
1333:
1317:
1302:
1286:
1270:
1258:
1219:
1207:
1205:, p. 262.
1201:, p. 34;
1191:
1174:
1162:
1150:
1148:, p. 261.
1138:
1136:, p. 260.
1122:
1120:, p. 230.
1110:
1098:
1096:, p. 259.
1078:
1066:
1054:
1042:
1040:, p. 219.
1030:
1028:, p. 218.
1018:
1016:, p. 226.
1006:
1004:, p. 259.
994:
992:, p. 258.
979:
967:
965:, p. 212.
955:
953:, p. 142.
943:
927:
925:, p. 142.
907:
897:, p. 35;
887:
872:
870:, p. 235.
860:
813:
797:
795:, p. 211.
785:
773:
751:, p. 40;
741:
739:, p. 215.
728:
726:
723:
722:
721:
716:
709:
706:
636:series titled
633:Secret History
608:Michael Elkins
604:Forged in Fury
591:
588:
531:
528:
506:Czechoslovakia
434:
431:
408:Chaim Weizmann
388:Israel Galilee
334:Pasha Reichman
326:Allied bombing
310:Joseph Harmatz
306:
303:
291:Jewish Brigade
185:
182:
150:mass shootings
133:
130:
23:Goel (Judaism)
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1908:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1871:Jewish ethics
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1829:
1827:9781618385116
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1805:
1793:
1791:9781571135711
1787:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1768:9780199995790
1764:
1760:
1755:
1751:
1749:9780253020574
1745:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1677:9780804772525
1673:
1669:
1666:. Palo Alto:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1651:9780387472324
1647:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1617:
1613:
1611:9780300133127
1607:
1602:
1601:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1585:9780813171906
1581:
1577:
1574:. Lexington:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1516:
1503:
1499:
1492:
1484:
1481:Minow, Nell.
1477:
1469:
1463:
1457:, p. 40.
1456:
1451:
1435:
1431:
1425:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1402:
1397:
1389:
1388:
1383:
1377:
1371:, p. 18.
1370:
1365:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1342:
1337:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1315:, p. 38.
1314:
1309:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1290:
1284:, p. 37.
1283:
1279:
1274:
1267:
1262:
1246:
1242:
1241:
1236:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1217:, p. 35.
1216:
1211:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1189:, p. 34.
1188:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1171:
1166:
1160:, p. 33.
1159:
1154:
1147:
1142:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1119:
1114:
1107:
1102:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1075:
1070:
1063:
1058:
1051:
1046:
1039:
1034:
1027:
1022:
1015:
1010:
1003:
998:
991:
986:
984:
976:
971:
964:
959:
952:
947:
941:, p. 33.
940:
936:
931:
924:
920:
916:
911:
904:
900:
896:
891:
884:
879:
877:
869:
864:
849:
845:
838:
836:
834:
832:
830:
828:
826:
824:
822:
820:
818:
810:
806:
801:
794:
789:
783:, p. 34.
782:
777:
770:
766:
763:, p. 4;
762:
758:
754:
750:
745:
738:
733:
729:
720:
717:
715:
712:
711:
705:
703:
702:
696:
694:
693:God of Israel
690:
680:
679:
673:
669:
666:
662:
658:
654:
653:Ehud Sprinzak
650:
645:
643:
639:
635:
634:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
598:'s 1969 book
597:
587:
585:
579:
576:
572:
567:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
541:
536:
527:
525:
521:
516:
515:
509:
507:
501:
495:
493:
488:
485:
481:
480:Leipke Distel
476:
470:
463:
458:
452:
448:
446:
441:
430:
428:
424:
420:
415:
413:
409:
405:
401:
400:Aharon Katzir
397:
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
360:
358:
354:
350:
349:Vitka Kempner
344:
340:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
302:
300:
296:
292:
288:
283:
279:
276:
269:דם ישראל נוטר
264:
252:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
195:
190:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
142:collaborators
139:
129:
127:
123:
118:
113:
109:
108:American zone
105:
101:
96:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
54:
50:
43:
38:
32:
28:
24:
19:
1886:Nazi hunters
1813:
1809:
1777:
1758:
1739:
1716:
1689:
1663:
1641:
1624:
1620:
1599:
1571:
1528:
1524:
1512:Bibliography
1501:
1491:
1476:
1462:
1450:
1438:. Retrieved
1433:
1424:
1408:
1396:
1385:
1376:
1364:
1348:
1336:
1331:, p. 6.
1320:
1289:
1273:
1261:
1249:. Retrieved
1238:
1210:
1194:
1165:
1153:
1141:
1125:
1113:
1101:
1081:
1069:
1057:
1045:
1033:
1021:
1009:
997:
970:
958:
946:
930:
910:
905:, p. 5.
890:
863:
851:. Retrieved
847:
800:
788:
776:
753:Melnick 2007
744:
732:
699:
697:
684:לי נקם ושילם
676:
670:
657:Idith Zertal
646:
637:
631:
611:
603:
600:The Avengers
599:
593:
580:
568:
556:Ein HaHoresh
547:
545:
540:Ein HaHoresh
512:
510:
496:
492:Simcha Rotem
489:
466:
436:
416:
392:
376:Shaul Meirov
361:
353:Vilna Ghetto
308:
284:
280:
230:Soviet Union
199:
138:Nazi Germany
135:
102:held by the
97:
61:paramilitary
48:
47:
27:
18:
1660:Porat, Dina
1627:(2): 1–20.
1531:(1): 3–14.
1251:1 September
853:15 November
689:Deuteronomy
337: [
242:Częstochowa
202:Abba Kovner
73:Abba Kovner
1840:Categories
1692:. London:
1686:Segev, Tom
1415:, p.
1355:, p.
1341:Porat 2009
1325:Porat 2009
1298:Fritz 2004
1294:Porat 2009
1278:Porat 2009
1266:Fritz 2004
1203:Fritz 2004
1146:Fritz 2004
1134:Fritz 2004
1130:Porat 2009
1118:Porat 2009
1106:Porat 2009
1094:Fritz 2004
1090:Segev 2000
1086:Porat 2009
1074:Porat 2009
1062:Porat 2009
1050:Porat 2009
1038:Porat 2009
1026:Porat 2009
1014:Porat 2009
1002:Fritz 2004
990:Fritz 2004
975:Porat 2009
963:Porat 2009
951:Segev 2000
935:Porat 2009
923:Segev 2000
919:Fritz 2004
915:Porat 2009
899:Porat 2009
895:Stier 2016
883:Porat 2009
868:Porat 2009
809:Fritz 2004
805:Porat 2009
793:Porat 2009
781:Stier 2016
767:, p.
755:, p.
737:Porat 2009
725:References
672:Dina Porat
663:groups or
564:Abba Hushi
419:Alexandria
384:Moshe Sneh
322:Nazi Party
295:Aliyah Bet
174:Dina Porat
132:Background
1694:Macmillan
1688:(2000) .
1662:(2009) .
1594:Gay, Ruth
1545:0033-3549
1369:Lang 1996
1329:Lang 1996
903:Lang 1996
661:messianic
628:Channel 4
462:Nuremberg
318:Nuremberg
218:Auschwitz
200:In 1945,
184:Formation
89:Nuremberg
71:. Led by
69:Holocaust
42:Nuremberg
1738:(eds.).
1596:(2008).
1563:11571403
1468:"Plan A"
1440:1 August
1353:Gay 2008
1240:Fox News
708:See also
651:experts
630:for its
538:Kibbutz
214:Majdanek
208:and the
1891:Revenge
1715:(ed.).
1633:4467468
1554:1497290
848:Haaretz
620:klezmer
552:kibbutz
542:in 1940
445:tanning
396:Ephraim
382:chiefs
380:Haganah
234:Vilnius
222:Romania
194:Vilnius
160:or the
154:gassing
112:arsenic
106:in the
77:Germans
1824:
1788:
1765:
1746:
1723:
1700:
1674:
1648:
1631:
1608:
1582:
1561:
1551:
1543:
701:Plan A
548:Biriya
427:Toulon
364:Yishuv
330:German
246:Kraków
178:Mossad
53:Hebrew
1846:Nakam
1812:[
1629:JSTOR
665:cults
484:Fürth
423:Egypt
368:Milan
345:]
251:Nakam
244:, or
238:Rovno
49:Nakam
1822:ISBN
1786:ISBN
1763:ISBN
1744:ISBN
1721:ISBN
1698:ISBN
1672:ISBN
1646:ISBN
1606:ISBN
1580:ISBN
1559:PMID
1541:ISSN
1442:2018
1253:2016
855:2019
719:Gmul
655:and
454:The
398:and
386:and
152:and
1549:PMC
1533:doi
1529:116
1417:167
769:111
757:154
606:by
263:Din
257:דין
220:in
212:at
57:נקם
1842::
1784:.
1696:.
1670:.
1623:.
1578:.
1557:.
1547:.
1539:.
1527:.
1523:.
1500:.
1432:.
1384:.
1357:89
1305:^
1243:.
1237:.
1222:^
1177:^
982:^
875:^
846:.
816:^
759:;
695:.
566:.
554:,
421:,
343:he
341:;
339:de
287:SS
240:,
236:,
168:,
55::
1830:.
1794:.
1771:.
1752:.
1729:.
1706:.
1680:.
1654:.
1635:.
1625:2
1614:.
1588:.
1565:.
1535::
1485:.
1444:.
1419:.
1359:.
1255:.
857:.
771:.
681:(
272:(
260:(
51:(
25:.
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