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of the inside of the nose, and, by directing and deflecting airflow across the maximum mucosal surface of the inner nose, they are able to propel the inspired air. This, coupled with the humidity and filtration provided by the conchae, helps to carry more scent molecules towards the higher, and very
840:
The bones of nasal turbinates are very fragile and seldom survive as fossils. In particular none have been found in fossil birds. But there is indirect evidence for their presence in some fossils. Rudimentary ridges like those that support respiratory turbinates have been found in advanced
Triassic
697:
In the case of turbinate reduction, only small amounts of turbinate tissue are removed because the turbinates are essential for respiration. Turbinectomy is usually reserved for patients who have persistent symptoms despite previous turbinate reduction surgery. Risks of reduction of the inferior or
798:
bone) surfaces in a counter-current heat-exchange system. Dogs are capable of prolonged chases, in contrast to the ambush predation of cats, and these complex turbinates play an important role in enabling this (cats only possess a much smaller and less-developed set of nasal turbinates). This same
817:
have olfactory turbinates that are involved in sensing smell rather than preventing desiccation. While the maxilloturbinates of mammals are located in the path of airflow to collect moisture, sensory turbinates in both mammals and reptiles are positioned farther back and above the nasal passage,
861:
and others have argued that no evidence of nasal turbinates has been found in dinosaurs. All the dinosaurs they examined had nasal passages that they claimed were too narrow and too short to accommodate nasal turbinates, so dinosaurs could not have sustained the breathing rate required for a
799:
complex turbinate structure help conserve water in arid environments. The water conservation and thermoregulatory capabilities of these well-developed turbinates in dogs may have been crucial adaptations that allowed dogs (including both domestic dogs and their wild prehistoric
533:, heating, and humidification of air inhaled through the nose. Of these three, filtration is achieved mostly by other more effective means such as mucus and cilia. As air passes over the conchae, it is heated to 32–34 °C (89–93 °F), humidified (up to 98%
874:. They are also absent or very small in some mammals, such as anteaters, bats, elephants, whales and most primates, although these animals are fully endothermic and in some cases very active. Furthermore, ossified turbinate bones have been identified in the
1015:
In man, the three conchae define the meatuses: Inferior meatus: between inferior concha/turbinate and floor of nasal cavity; Middle meatus: between middle concha/turbinate and inferior concha; Superior meatus: between superior concha/turbinate and middle
505:
regulate the mechanism of breathing through deepening of inhalation. Triggered by the flow of the air, the pressure of the air in the nose, and the quality of the air, impulses from the nasal mucosa are transmitted by the trigeminal nerve to the
758:
that can perform two functions. They can improve the sense of smell by increasing the area available to absorb airborne chemicals, and they can warm and moisten inhaled air, and extract heat and moisture from exhaled air to prevent
1244:
Camacho, M.; Zaghi, S.; Certal, V.; Abdullatif, J.; Means, C.; Acevedo, J.; Liu, S.; Brietzke, S. E.; Kushida, C. A.; Capasso, R. (2014). "Inferior
Turbinate classification system, grades 1 to 4: Development and validation study".
441:) in which the total amount of the airway space that the inferior concha takes up is estimated. Grade 1 is 0–25% of the airway, grade 2 is 26–50% of the airway, grade 3 is 51–75% of the airway and grade 4 is 76–100% of the airway.
589:, which in turn is needed to keep the olfactory receptors healthy and alert. If the epithelial layer gets dry or irritated, it may cease to function. This is usually a temporary condition but, over time, may lead to chronic
862:
mammal-like or bird-like metabolic rate while at rest, because their lungs would have dried out. However, objections have been raised against this argument. Nasal turbinates are absent or very small in some birds, such as
1338:
Maloney, S. K.; Dawson, T. J. (1998). "Ventilatory accommodation of oxygen demand and respiratory water loss in a large bird, the Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), and a re-examination of ventilatory allometry for birds".
824:
has ridges positioned low in the nasal cavity, indicating that it had maxilloturbinates that were in the direct path of airflow. The maxilloturbinates may not have been preserved because they were either very thin or
274:
A rapidly dilating arteriolar circulation to these bones may lead to a sharp increase in the pressure within, in response to acute cooling of the body core. The pain from this pressure is often referred to as
255:
In humans, the conchae divide the nasal airway into four groove-like air passages, and are responsible for forcing inhaled air to flow in a steady, regular pattern around the largest possible
625:). Research has shown that there is a strong connection between these nerve endings and activation of the olfactory receptors, but science has yet to fully explain this interaction.
407:
sinuses, and act as buffers to protect the sinuses from coming in direct contact with pressurized nasal airflow. Most inhaled airflow travels between the inferior concha and the
1189:
Lee, Hye Yeon; Kim, Chang-Hoon; Kim, Jin Young; Kim, Jin Kook; Song, Mee Hyun; Yang, Hee Jun; Kim, Kyung-Su; Chung, In Hyunk; Lee, Jeung-Gweon; Yoon, Joo-Heon (September 2006).
702:. As Steven M. Houser suggested, "this is especially true in cases of anterior inferior turbinate (IT) resection because of its important role in the internal nasal valve."
491:
486:
conditions and changing needs of the body. In addition, the erectile tissue undergoes an often unnoticed cycle of partial congestion and decongestion called the
102:
778:
Animals with respiratory turbinates can breathe faster without drying out their lungs, and consequently can have a faster metabolism. For example, when the
1114:
736:(nostrils) which expand during exercise. The nasal passages have two turbinates on either side which increase the surface area to which air is exposed.
2042:
1713:
Ruben, J.A., Jones, T.D., Geist, N.R. and
Hillenius, W. J. (November 1997). "Lung structure and ventilation in theropod dinosaurs and early birds".
2000:
1812:
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388:
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in humans, and are responsible for the majority of airflow direction, humidification, heating, and filtering of air inhaled through the nose.
1302:
Houser SM. Surgical
Treatment for Empty Nose Syndrome. Archives of Otolaryngology Head & Neck Surgery\ Vol 133 (No.9) Sep' 2007: 858–863.
1761:
919:
383:. There are three mutually perpendicular segments of the middle turbinate: from proximal to distal, there is the horizontal segment (
657:
Treatment of the underlying allergy or irritant may reduce turbinate swelling. In cases that do not resolve, or for treatment of
267:
mucous membrane with shallow blood supply, the nasal mucosa cleans, humidifies and warms the inhaled air in preparation for the
2080:
1882:
1611:
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Ruben, J.A., Hillenius, W.J., Geist, N.R., Leitch, A., Jones, T.D., Currie, P.J., Horner, J.R., and Espe, G. (August 1996).
790:
possess well-developed nasal turbinates. These turbinates allow for heat exchange between small arteries and veins on their
569:. This secreted mucus covers the nasal cavities, and serves as a filter, by trapping air-borne particles larger than 2 to 3
1526:
Witmer, L.M. (August 2001). "Nostril
Position in Dinosaurs and Other Vertebrates and Its Significance for Nasal Function".
376:
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and downward into the nasal airway. Each pair is composed of one concha in either side of the nasal cavity, divided by the
2354:
837:
may have been able to rapidly breathe without drying out the nasal passage, and therefore could have been an endotherm.
1949:
Coulombe, H.N., Sam H. Ridgway, S.H., and Evans, W.E. (1965). "Respiratory water exchange in two species of porpoise".
605:(a porous bone plate that separates the nose from the brain) into the nose. Some areas of the middle conchae are also
2052:
318:
359:
are smaller but have the most complex anatomy of the nasal turbinates. They originate from the lateral edge of the
729:
943:
2038:
1411:
Hillenius, W.J. (1994). "Turbinates in therapsids: Evidence for Late
Permian origins of mammalian endothermy".
1111:
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environment and other cold areas of northern
Eurasia and North America, which are both very dry and very cold.
1084:
638:
Large, swollen conchae, often referred to clinically as turbinates, may lead to blockage of nasal breathing.
97:
17:
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is an abnormal pneumatization of the middle turbinate, which may interfere with normal ventilation of the
675:
296:
750:
Generally, in animals, nasal conchae are convoluted structures of thin bone or cartilage located in the
2073:
368:
907:
1540:
967:
931:
2412:
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are smaller structures, connected to the middle conchae by nerve-endings, and serve to protect the
109:
85:
1678:
Ruben, J. (1995). "The evolution of endothermy in mammals and birds: from physiology to fossils".
1495:"The origin of mammalian endothermy: a paradigm for the evolution of complex biological structure"
1290:
2359:
2120:
683:
470:. They are enriched with airflow pressure and temperature-sensing nerve receptors (linked to the
1112:
Turbinate
Dysfunction: Focus on the role of the inferior turbinates in nasal airway obstruction.
791:
2246:
2231:
2115:
1535:
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507:
306:
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rather than turbinates. Nonetheless, the possible presence of maxilloturbinates suggests that
450:
superior to the superior conchae. When present, these usually take the form of a small crest.
283:. The shallowness of the venous blood supply of the mucosa contributes to the ease with which
2364:
2207:
2197:
2135:
2066:
1994:
1806:
1742:
433:
420:
339:
330:
2192:
2130:
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1958:
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1316:
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446:
1712:
829:. The possibility has also been raised that these ridges are associated with an olfactory
8:
2202:
716:. In some cases, the concha bullosa may be resected to help resolve persistent symptoms.
699:
679:
475:
355:
2014:
1962:
1782:
1726:
1691:
1640:
2407:
1982:
1931:
1861:
Bang, B.G. (1971). "Functional anatomy of the olfactory system in 23 orders of birds".
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857:. This suggests that they may have had fairly high metabolic rates. The paleontologist
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exhales, its nasal turbinates condense moisture from the air and absorbs it for reuse.
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The superior conchae completely cover and protect the nerve axons piercing through the
523:
519:
467:
346:. The openings to the posterior ethmoidal sinuses exist under the superior meatus. The
299:
276:
1763:
1627:
Hillenius, W.H. (1992). "The evolution of nasal turbinates and mammalian endothermy".
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The conchae provide, first and foremost, the humidity needed to preserve the delicate
126:
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1136:"The sphenoid sinus natural ostium is consistently medial to the superior turbinate"
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narrow regions of the nasal airways, where olfaction nerve receptors are located.
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Anatomy and
Histology of the Laboratory Rat in Toxicology and Biomedical Research
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are graded 1–4 based on the inferior concha classification system (known as the
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335:
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tissue layer. The conchae are located laterally in the nasal cavities, curling
1919:
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in humans and various other animals. The conchae are shaped like an elongated
2396:
2332:
2327:
2236:
1906:
Scott, J.H. (1954). "Heat regulating function of the nasal mucous membrane".
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577:, which protects the body from being infected by viruses or bacteria.
573:. The respiratory epithelium also serves as a means of access for the
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within the sinuses can lead to turbinate swelling. Deformity of the
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by the olfactory bulb. All three pairs of conchae are innervated by
1826:
1352:
842:
814:
768:
515:
303:
229:
1459:"Selective factors associated with the origin of fur and feathers"
27:
Piece of bone in the breathing passage of humans and other animals
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590:
483:
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in position. (Superior and middle in pink, and inferior in blue.)
553:) of the conchae plays a major role in the body's first line of
2172:
863:
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502:
264:
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279:", and is frequently associated with the rapid consumption of
200:
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is a surgery to reduce the size of the turbinates (typically
562:
209:
73:
1243:
991:
Maynard, Robert Lewis; Downes, Noel (2019). "Nasal Cavity".
1337:
733:
610:
268:
241:
225:
163:
694:, and use of cold steel instruments (e.g. microdebrider).
490:. The flow of blood to the nasal mucosa in particular the
191:
154:
39:
783:
779:
1764:"The metabolic status of some Late Cretaceous dinosaurs"
1123:
Grand Rounds Presentation, UTMB, Dept. of Otolaryngology
1021:
2044:
Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History
2017:(1977). "Ankylosauridae (Dinosauria) from Mongolia".
682:). There are different techniques, including bipolar
197:
194:
188:
160:
157:
151:
1028:
Carlson, Bruce M. (2019). "The Respiratory System".
478:), allowing for tremendous erectile capabilities of
514:, and the generated response is transmitted to the
399:). They project downwards over the openings of the
185:
148:
424:are the largest turbinates, can be as long as the
1134:Millar, D. Anderson; Orlandi, Richard R. (2006).
224:that protrudes into the breathing passage of the
2394:
1942:
1579:Brink, A.S. (1955). "A study on the skeleton of
1456:
775:turbinates are found in most mammals and birds.
350:ostium exists medial to the superior turbinate.
1604:Mammal-like reptiles and the origin of mammals
1237:
2088:
2074:
2007:
1133:
990:
411:. In humans, they are usually as long as the
1999:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1811:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1747:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1525:
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1291:Reduction/Removal of the Inferior Turbinate
742:2 : Concha nasalis media
2081:
2067:
1860:
1825:
1519:
1191:"Surgical anatomy of the middle turbinate"
240:). A concha is any of the scrolled spongy
2013:
1899:
1755:
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1499:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
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654:can also result in enlarged turbinates.
628:
498:and heats or cools the air in the nose.
439:inferior turbinate classification system
130:Illustration of upper respiratory system
125:
1606:. London: Academic Press. p. 363.
1310:
1308:
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739:1 : Concha nasalis dorsalis
14:
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44:Lateral wall of nasal cavity, showing
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661:, turbinate surgery may be required.
540:
529:The conchae are also responsible for
482:and decongestion, in response to the
220:, is a long, narrow, curled shelf of
1601:
1595:
1492:
1305:
1094:
1091:Gray, Henry (1918) The Nasal Cavity.
899:
549:that covers the erectile tissue (or
232:, which gave them their name (Latin
2355:Pharyngeal opening of auditory tube
1692:10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.000441
1062:
803:ancestors) to survive in the harsh
767:turbinates are found in all living
593:. The turbinates also increase the
501:The nasopulmonary and nasothoracic
172:
24:
1281:
1038:10.1016/b978-0-12-804254-0.00011-9
1001:10.1016/b978-0-12-811837-5.00010-1
925:Normal Nose CT Front cross section
367:. They insert anteriorly into the
25:
2424:
1908:Journal of Larynology and Otology
1457:Ruben, J.A.; Jones, T.D. (2000).
937:Coronal section of nasal cavities
745:3 : Concha nasalis ventralis
458:The conchae comprise most of the
1512:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00226.x
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942:
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466:and are required for functional
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1875:10.1159/isbn.978-3-318-01866-0
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1127:
1032:. Elsevier. pp. 303–319.
995:. Elsevier. pp. 109–121.
633:
13:
1:
2032:
1791:10.1126/science.273.5279.1204
1735:10.1126/science.278.5341.1267
1140:American Journal of Rhinology
444:There is sometimes a pair of
395:), and the vertical segment (
712:and can result in recurrent
642:, exposure to environmental
492:venous plexus of the conchae
290:
212:for 'shell'), also called a
7:
2047:Columbia University Press.
1971:10.1126/science.149.3679.86
1680:Annual Review of Physiology
1293:From the Sinus Info Center.
913:Nasal conchae: Blocked/free
887:
818:away from the flow of air.
453:
405:anterior and middle ethmoid
10:
2429:
1152:10.1177/194589240602000212
949:Right nasal airway passage
891:
794:(turbinates positioned on
698:middle turbinates include
668:
664:
2341:
2308:
2286:
2265:
2181:
2155:
2146:
2096:
2090:Anatomy of the human nose
1920:10.1017/S0022215100049707
1649:10.1017/S0094837300012197
1317:"The Importance of Noses"
1081:Anatomy of the Human Body
561:is partially composed of
375:and posteriorly into the
108:
96:
84:
72:
67:
62:
53:
37:
32:
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496:pterygopalatine ganglion
295:Conchae are composed of
110:Anatomical terms of bone
2360:Salpingopharyngeal fold
2019:Palaeontologia Polonica
1585:Palaeontologia Africana
1550:10.1126/science.1062681
754:. These are lined with
684:radiofrequency ablation
2247:Ethmoidal infundibulum
2232:Sphenoethmoidal recess
894:anatomical terminology
747:
559:respiratory epithelium
547:respiratory epithelium
307:respiratory epithelium
131:
33:Nasal concha/turbinate
2365:Salpingopalatine fold
2208:Inferior nasal concha
2198:Superior nasal concha
1341:Physiological Zoology
727:
629:Clinical significance
129:
2193:Supreme nasal concha
1476:10.1093/icb/40.4.585
587:olfactory epithelium
494:is regulated by the
2203:Middle nasal concha
1963:1965Sci...149...86C
1783:1996Sci...273.1204R
1777:(5279): 1204–1207.
1727:1997Sci...278.1267R
1721:(5341): 1267–1270.
1641:1992Pbio...18...17H
1602:Kemp, T.S. (1982).
1493:Kemp, T.S. (2006).
1315:Zimmer, C. (1994).
1121:S.S. Reddy, et al.
813:and more primitive
700:empty nose syndrome
680:inferior turbinates
676:Turbinate reduction
617:receptors, via the
520:intercostal muscles
476:fifth cranial nerve
377:perpendicular plate
2323:Sphenoidal sinuses
1463:American Zoologist
1398:Wang (2008) p. 87.
1386:Wang (2008) p. 88.
1259:10.1002/lary.24923
1117:2006-06-22 at the
1087:2013-01-21 at the
892:This article uses
748:
646:, or a persistent
541:Immunological role
132:
2390:
2389:
2382:Pharyngeal recess
2377:Pharyngeal tonsil
2310:Paranasal sinuses
2304:
2303:
2278:Vomeronasal organ
1884:978-3-8055-1193-3
1840:10.1159/000142884
1613:978-0-12-404120-2
1534:(5531): 850–853.
1047:978-0-12-804254-0
1010:978-0-12-811837-5
900:Additional images
868:Procellariiformes
508:breathing centres
124:
123:
119:
16:(Redirected from
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2296:Olfactory mucosa
2257:Maxillary hiatus
2252:Semilunar hiatus
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2110:nasal cartilages
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756:mucous membranes
619:trigeminal nerve
603:cribriform plate
575:lymphatic system
537:) and filtered.
535:water saturation
480:nasal congestion
472:trigeminal nerve
434:inferior conchae
421:inferior conchae
361:cribriform plate
340:superior conchae
331:superior conchae
297:pseudostratified
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2337:
2318:Maxillary sinus
2300:
2282:
2261:
2177:
2163:Nasal vestibule
2142:
2092:
2087:
2035:
2030:
2012:
2008:
1992:
1991:
1957:(3679): 86–88.
1947:
1943:
1904:
1900:
1885:
1859:
1855:
1824:
1820:
1804:
1803:
1766:
1760:
1756:
1740:
1739:
1711:
1707:
1676:
1672:
1625:
1621:
1614:
1600:
1596:
1577:
1573:
1541:10.1.1.629.1744
1524:
1520:
1491:
1484:
1455:
1448:
1425:10.2307/2410089
1409:
1402:
1397:
1390:
1385:
1376:
1336:
1332:
1313:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1289:
1282:
1242:
1238:
1187:
1183:
1132:
1128:
1119:Wayback Machine
1110:
1095:
1089:Wayback Machine
1078:
1063:
1048:
1026:
1022:
1011:
989:
985:
981:
974:
971:
962:
959:
950:
947:
938:
935:
926:
923:
914:
911:
902:
897:
890:
746:
743:
740:
737:
722:
686:(also known as
673:
667:
659:deviated septum
636:
631:
621:(or, the fifth
583:
543:
456:
447:supreme conchae
369:frontal process
313:, and erectile
293:
214:nasal turbinate
184:
180:
147:
143:
120:
79:conchae nasales
49:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2426:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2373:
2372:
2370:Torus tubarius
2367:
2362:
2351:
2349:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2314:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2298:
2292:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2269:
2267:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2185:
2183:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2159:
2157:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2106:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2093:
2086:
2085:
2078:
2071:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2039:Wang, Xiaoming
2034:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2006:
1941:
1914:(5): 308–317.
1898:
1883:
1863:Acta Anatomica
1853:
1834:(1): 391–415.
1828:Acta Anatomica
1818:
1754:
1705:
1670:
1619:
1612:
1594:
1571:
1518:
1505:(4): 473–488.
1482:
1469:(4): 585–596.
1446:
1419:(2): 207–229.
1400:
1388:
1374:
1353:10.1086/515997
1347:(6): 712–719.
1330:
1304:
1295:
1280:
1253:(2): 296–302.
1236:
1201:(6): 493–496.
1181:
1146:(2): 180–181.
1126:
1093:
1061:
1046:
1030:The Human Body
1020:
1009:
982:
980:
977:
976:
975:
972:
965:
963:
960:
953:
951:
948:
941:
939:
936:
929:
927:
924:
917:
915:
912:
905:
901:
898:
889:
886:
763:of the lungs.
744:
741:
738:
721:
718:
706:Concha bullosa
692:electrocautery
669:Main article:
666:
663:
635:
632:
630:
627:
582:
579:
551:lamina propria
542:
539:
462:tissue of the
455:
452:
397:sagittal plane
356:middle conchae
348:sphenoid sinus
342:attach to the
336:olfactory bulb
309:with a thick,
292:
289:
246:nasal passages
122:
121:
112:
106:
105:
100:
94:
93:
88:
82:
81:
76:
70:
69:
65:
64:
60:
59:
51:
50:
43:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2425:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2334:
2333:Ethmoid sinus
2331:
2329:
2328:Frontal sinus
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2264:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2237:Ethmoid bulla
2235:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2190:
2189:Nasal conchae
2187:
2186:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2145:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2121:Lateral nasal
2119:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2097:External nose
2095:
2091:
2084:
2079:
2077:
2072:
2070:
2065:
2064:
2061:
2054:
2053:9780231509435
2050:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2015:Maryańska, T.
2010:
2002:
1996:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1902:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1857:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1822:
1814:
1808:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1765:
1758:
1750:
1744:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1709:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1623:
1615:
1609:
1605:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1575:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1522:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1487:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1451:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1407:
1405:
1395:
1393:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1334:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1311:
1309:
1299:
1292:
1287:
1285:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1024:
1017:
1012:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
987:
983:
969:
964:
961:Nasal conchae
957:
952:
945:
940:
933:
928:
921:
916:
909:
904:
903:
895:
885:
883:
882:
877:
873:
872:Falconiformes
869:
865:
860:
856:
855:
850:
849:
844:
838:
836:
832:
828:
827:cartilaginous
823:
822:
816:
812:
808:
806:
802:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
776:
774:
770:
766:
762:
757:
753:
735:
731:
726:
720:Other animals
717:
715:
711:
707:
703:
701:
695:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
672:
662:
660:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
626:
624:
623:cranial nerve
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
599:
596:
592:
588:
578:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
557:defense. The
556:
555:immunological
552:
548:
538:
536:
532:
527:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
504:
499:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
451:
449:
448:
442:
440:
436:
435:
429:
427:
423:
422:
416:
414:
413:little finger
410:
409:middle meatus
406:
402:
398:
394:
393:coronal plane
390:
389:basal lamella
386:
382:
381:palatine bone
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
357:
351:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
332:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
305:
301:
298:
288:
286:
282:
278:
272:
270:
266:
262:
258:
253:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
205:
178:
168:
141:
137:
128:
117:
111:
107:
104:
101:
99:
95:
92:
89:
87:
83:
80:
77:
75:
71:
66:
61:
57:
52:
47:
41:
36:
31:
19:
18:Nasal conchae
2288:Nasal mucosa
2273:Nasal septum
2215:Nasal meatus
2188:
2182:Lateral wall
2148:Nasal cavity
2116:Septal nasal
2108:
2043:
2022:
2018:
2009:
1995:cite journal
1954:
1950:
1944:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1866:
1862:
1856:
1831:
1827:
1821:
1807:cite journal
1774:
1770:
1757:
1743:cite journal
1718:
1714:
1708:
1683:
1679:
1673:
1635:(1): 17–29.
1632:
1629:Paleobiology
1628:
1622:
1603:
1597:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1574:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1502:
1498:
1466:
1462:
1416:
1412:
1344:
1340:
1333:
1324:
1320:
1298:
1250:
1246:
1239:
1198:
1194:
1184:
1143:
1139:
1129:
1122:
1080:
1029:
1023:
1014:
992:
986:
973:Nasal concha
879:
876:ankylosaurid
852:
846:
839:
834:
819:
809:
777:
752:nasal cavity
749:
704:
696:
674:
671:Turbinectomy
656:
652:nasal septum
648:inflammation
637:
600:
595:surface area
584:
567:goblet cells
544:
528:
500:
457:
445:
443:
438:
432:
430:
426:index finger
419:
417:
365:ethmoid bone
354:
352:
344:ethmoid bone
329:
327:
294:
277:brain freeze
273:
261:nasal mucosa
257:surface area
254:
237:
233:
217:
213:
176:
140:nasal concha
139:
133:
78:
46:ethmoid bone
2266:Medial wall
2136:Vomeronasal
2104:Ala of nose
848:Thrinaxodon
835:Glanosuchus
821:Glanosuchus
773:respiratory
761:desiccation
710:sinus ostia
688:somnoplasty
634:Dysfunction
615:temperature
571:micrometers
565:-producing
488:nasal cycle
474:route, the
468:respiration
385:axial plane
287:can occur.
250:vertebrates
236:from Greek
68:Identifiers
2397:Categories
2242:Agger nasi
2217:: (Supreme
2131:Minor alar
2126:Major alar
2033:References
1581:Diademodon
859:John Ruben
854:Diademodon
845:, such as
831:epithelium
786:and other
728:The horse
607:innervated
531:filtration
522:, and the
2408:Olfaction
2226:inferior)
2025:: 85–151.
1686:: 69–95.
1536:CiteSeerX
1413:Evolution
1215:0897-3806
1160:1050-6586
881:Saichania
878:dinosaur
843:cynodonts
815:synapsids
801:gray wolf
769:tetrapods
765:Olfactory
714:sinusitis
644:irritants
640:Allergies
524:diaphragm
512:brainstem
401:maxillary
315:glandular
291:Structure
285:nosebleed
281:ice cream
2220:superior
2156:Openings
1987:38947951
1979:17737801
1936:32082759
1928:13163588
1869:: 1–76.
1799:84693210
1665:89393753
1558:11486085
1441:28568303
1369:39880287
1321:Discover
1275:34156218
1267:25215619
1223:16258979
1176:20061049
1168:16686384
1115:Archived
1085:Archived
1056:79294211
888:See also
811:Reptiles
732:through
730:breathes
503:reflexes
454:Function
319:medially
311:vascular
304:ciliated
300:columnar
265:ciliated
230:seashell
218:turbinal
2347:pharynx
2168:Nostril
2041:(2008)
1959:Bibcode
1951:Science
1893:5133493
1848:5965973
1779:Bibcode
1771:Science
1723:Bibcode
1715:Science
1700:7778882
1657:2400978
1637:Bibcode
1591:: 3–39.
1566:7328047
1528:Science
1433:2410089
1361:9798259
1231:5720770
1016:concha.
864:ratites
796:maxilla
665:Surgery
591:anosmia
516:bronchi
510:in the
484:weather
460:mucosal
387:), the
379:of the
373:maxilla
371:of the
363:of the
338:. The
263:. As a
244:of the
177:conchae
136:anatomy
91:D014420
63:Details
2223:middle
2173:Choana
2051:
1985:
1977:
1934:
1926:
1891:
1881:
1865:. 79.
1846:
1797:
1698:
1663:
1655:
1610:
1564:
1556:
1538:
1439:
1431:
1367:
1359:
1273:
1265:
1229:
1221:
1213:
1174:
1166:
1158:
1054:
1044:
1007:
805:Arctic
788:canids
771:, and
518:, the
323:septum
234:concha
1983:S2CID
1932:S2CID
1795:S2CID
1767:(PDF)
1661:S2CID
1653:JSTOR
1562:S2CID
1429:JSTOR
1365:S2CID
1271:S2CID
1227:S2CID
1172:S2CID
1052:S2CID
979:Notes
734:nares
581:Smell
563:mucus
269:lungs
242:bones
238:κόγχη
210:Latin
114:[
103:57456
74:Latin
2343:Naso
2049:ISBN
2001:link
1975:PMID
1924:PMID
1889:PMID
1879:ISBN
1844:PMID
1813:link
1749:link
1696:PMID
1608:ISBN
1554:PMID
1437:PMID
1357:PMID
1327:(8).
1263:PMID
1219:PMID
1211:ISSN
1164:PMID
1156:ISSN
1042:ISBN
1005:ISBN
870:and
851:and
784:Dogs
613:and
611:pain
545:The
464:nose
431:The
418:The
403:and
353:The
328:The
226:nose
222:bone
138:, a
86:MeSH
1967:doi
1955:149
1916:doi
1871:doi
1836:doi
1787:doi
1775:273
1731:doi
1719:278
1688:doi
1645:doi
1583:".
1546:doi
1532:293
1507:doi
1503:147
1471:doi
1421:doi
1349:doi
1255:doi
1251:125
1203:doi
1148:doi
1034:doi
997:doi
780:emu
690:),
259:of
248:in
216:or
173:pl.
134:In
98:FMA
2399::
2191::
2023:37
2021:.
1997:}}
1993:{{
1981:.
1973:.
1965:.
1953:.
1930:.
1922:.
1912:68
1910:.
1887:.
1877:.
1867:79
1842:.
1832:65
1830:.
1809:}}
1805:{{
1793:.
1785:.
1773:.
1769:.
1745:}}
1741:{{
1729:.
1717:.
1694:.
1684:57
1682:.
1659:.
1651:.
1643:.
1633:18
1631:.
1587:.
1560:.
1552:.
1544:.
1530:.
1501:.
1497:.
1485:^
1467:40
1465:.
1461:.
1449:^
1435:.
1427:.
1417:48
1415:.
1403:^
1391:^
1377:^
1363:.
1355:.
1345:71
1343:.
1325:15
1323:.
1319:.
1307:^
1283:^
1269:.
1261:.
1249:.
1225:.
1217:.
1209:.
1199:19
1197:.
1193:.
1170:.
1162:.
1154:.
1144:20
1142:.
1138:.
1096:^
1064:^
1050:.
1040:.
1013:.
1003:.
884:.
866:,
526:.
415:.
325:.
302:,
271:.
252:.
208:;
201:iː
179:;
175::
171:;
2345:-
2082:e
2075:t
2068:v
2055:.
2003:)
1989:.
1969::
1961::
1938:.
1918::
1895:.
1873::
1850:.
1838::
1815:)
1801:.
1789::
1781::
1751:)
1737:.
1733::
1725::
1702:.
1690::
1667:.
1647::
1639::
1616:.
1589:3
1568:.
1548::
1515:.
1509::
1479:.
1473::
1443:.
1423::
1371:.
1351::
1277:.
1257::
1233:.
1205::
1178:.
1150::
1058:.
1036::
999::
896:.
391:(
275:"
204:/
198:k
195:n
192:ɒ
189:k
186:ˈ
183:/
167:/
164:ə
161:k
158:n
155:ɒ
152:k
149:ˈ
146:/
142:(
118:]
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
