Offshore wind power

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increase in number and geographical distribution of windfarms in the coming years, more effective measures are needed to cover security blind spots, including those below the waterline. Issues around intelligence sharing among various stakeholders and governing bodies will also need to be addressed. Furthermore, such infrastructure is vulnerable to greyzone/hybrid warfare, and this should be taken into account when developing and implementing security measures. Hostile actors have already been observed surveilling EU maritime infrastructure further indicating the potential for greyzone hybrid warfare, which could potentially trigger NATO article 5. Insufficient consideration has been given to addressing these threats through robust risk assessment and fit-for-purpose security protocols to counter the risk of serious threats. In addition, a large proportion of critical parts for constructing and maintaining maritime wind and solar infrastructure is manufactured outside of the EU/NATO states, which potentially represents a supply chain risk. Cybersecurity is another important area of concern; in 2022, the German wind turbine company Nordex SE was attacked using ransomware and in the same year, following a cyberattack on the Viasat Inc. KA-SAT satellite network, the German wind turbine manufacturer Enercon temporarily lost communication with 5,800 of its wind turbines.

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tower to gain access to the entire unit within minutes of arriving onsite. Similar access to offshore turbines involves driving to a dock or pier, loading necessary tools and supplies into boat, a voyage to the wind turbine(s), securing the boat to the turbine structure, transferring tools and supplies to and from boat to turbine and turbine to boat and performing the rest of the steps in reverse order. In addition to standard safety gear such as a hardhat, gloves and safety glasses, an offshore turbine technician may be required to wear a life vest, waterproof or water-resistant clothing and perhaps even a survival suit if working, sea and atmospheric conditions make rapid rescue in case of a fall into the water unlikely or impossible. Typically at least two technicians skilled and trained in operating and handling large power boats at sea are required for tasks that one technician with a driver's license can perform on land in a fraction of the time at a fraction of the cost.

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commonly used form of grid connections for offshore wind turbines. However, there are significant limitations that prevent HVAC from being practical, especially as the distance to offshore turbines increases. First, HVAC is limited by cable charging currents, which are a result of capacitance in the cables. Undersea AC cables have a much higher capacitance than overhead AC cables, so losses due to capacitance become much more significant, and the voltage magnitude at the receiving end of the transmission line can be significantly different from the magnitude at the generating end. In order to compensate for these losses, either more cables or reactive compensation must be added to the system. Both of these add costs to the system. Additionally, because HVAC cables have both

643: 1210: 936: 1020: 835: 415: 800:(up to 200 nautical miles off the baseline) is not part of the State's territory but is subject to the coastal State's exclusive jurisdiction and control for selected purposes, one of which is the production of energy from winds. This means that within this zone, the coastal State has the right to install and operate offshore wind farms and to establish safety zones around them that must be respected by all ships, as long as due notice of the installation has been given. Also, neither installations nor safety zones can interfere with sea lanes that are considered essential for international navigation. 1926: 606: 1130:“Offshore wind energy developers are starting to respond to the lack of WTIVs capable of installing offshore wind turbines of 12 MW and greater, but there is still uncertainty regarding the ability of the global fleet to handle planned installations of offshore wind capacity by the mid-2020s (Hartkopf-Mikkelsen 2020; Rystad Energy 2020). A Tufts University analysis of global supply chain impacts on the emerging U.S. offshore wind energy market indicates that the current global WTIV fleet is unprepared to install wind turbines of 12 MW and larger (Bocklet et al. 2021).” 843: 1406:

reality these issues have been replicated. It has become difficult to balance environmental considerations in the planning process with relevant stakeholders such as local residents. The marine spatial planning of offshore wind farms is incredibly political, with an array of agendas and actors that seek to influence the process. However, as marine spatial planning offers a common legal framework, it has been claimed to be an overall benefit for environmental considerations to be realised in relation to offshore wind developments.

868: 1144: 202: 807:. Within this zone the purpose of producing energy is not explicitly mentioned as a high seas freedom, and the legal status of offshore wind facilities is therefore unclear. In academia, it has been argued that the uncertainty of the legal status of offshore wind facilities on the high seas could become an object of interstate disputes over the rights of use. As a solution, it has been suggested that offshore wind facilities could be incorporated as a high seas freedom by being considered as ships or 2348: 2262: 2187: 1853: 1778: 1703: 1625: 1550: 2498: 2112: 2037: 1962: 999:

submerged in water. With one of the main reasons for interest in offshore wind power being the higher wind speeds, some of the loading differences will come from higher shearing forces between the top and bottom of the wind turbine due to differences in wind speeds. There should also be considerations for the buffeting loads that will be experienced by the waves around the base of the tower, which converges on the use of steel tubular towers for offshore wind applications.

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around 50 metres (160 ft) of sea depth. Beyond that, floating foundation turbines would be required, potentially allowing installation at depths of up to one kilometre (3,300 ft) based on currently proposed technologies. Based on an analysis of viable water depths and wind speeds over seven metres per second (23 ft/s), it has been estimated that there is over 17

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activities during periods of migration and reproduction can have disruptive impacts towards marine wildlife such as seabirds and fish. In addition, the installation of offshore wind infrastructure has been claimed to be a key impactor in the displacement of marine wildlife such as seabirds, however the available published work on this matter is limited.

634:(TW) of offshore wind technical potential in just the 50 countries studied, not including most OECD countries such as Australia, Japan, the United States or Western Europe. Well-endowed countries such as Argentina and China have almost 2 TW and 3 TW of potential respectively, illustrating the vast potential of offshore wind in such locations. 3977: 1011:. For cathodic protection, galvanized anodes are attached to the monopile and have enough of a potential difference with the steel to be preferentially corroded over the steel used in the monopile. Some coatings that have been applied to offshore wind turbines include hot dip zinc coatings and 2-3 epoxy coatings with a polyurethane topcoat. 1110:

connection helps transfer the loads experienced by the turbine tower to the more stable monopile foundation of the turbine. One technique for strengthening the grout used in the connections is to include weld beads known as shear keys along the length of the grout connection to prevent any sliding between the monopile and the tower.

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cable paths for the use of a minimal amount of cable materials. One way to reduce the cost of the cables used in these applications is to convert the copper conductors to aluminum conductors, however the suggested replacement brings up an issue of increased cable motion and potential damage since aluminum is less dense than copper.

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increased, a developing domain of academic research has continuously looked into a range of environmental side effects during the turbine life cycle phases of construction, operations and decommissioning. The various environmental consequences impact a range of marine species including seabirds, turtles, fish, seals, and whales.

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https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/resultList.jsf?dswid=4151&language=en&searchType=SIMPLE&query=joanne+moss&af=%5B%5D&aq=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aq2=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aqe=%5B%5D&noOfRows=50&sortOrder=author_sort_asc&sortOrder2=title_sort_asc&onlyFullText=false&sf=undergraduate

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The Netherlands announced on 11 February 2022 that the government increased its offshore wind target to 21 GW by 2030. That would meet approximately 75% of the countries electricity needs. With this, offshore wind energy makes an important contribution to achieving the increased climate target of 55%

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Most wind/solar infrastructure has historically not been monitored or had any concrete security measures in place; it is only in the aftermath of the Nord stream attack that companies are starting to monitor offshore wind farms using, for example, remote monitoring CCTV and drones. Given the expected

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In November 2020, the European Commission announced the European Union Strategy on Offshore Renewable Energy to aid the target of climate change neutrality by 2050. The core part of the strategy is to expand Europe's offshore wind industry by using its role to incentivise collaboration between member

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As the offshore wind industry has evolved and expanded on a rapid scale, a number of European Directives have been created concerning the necessary environmental considerations that must be taken into account by developers. In 2008, the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive was formed with its

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Using high-voltage direct current (HVDC) cables has been a proposed alternative to using HVAC cables. HVDC transmission cables are not affected by the cable charging currents and experience less power loss because HVDC does not transmit reactive power. With less losses, undersea HVDC lines can extend

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to drive a large hollow steel pile 25 metres (82 ft) deep into the seabed, through a 0.5-metre (20 in) layer of larger stone and gravel to minimize erosion around the pile. These piles can be four metres (13 ft) in diameter with approximately 50-millimetre (2.0 in) thick walls. A

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Since offshore wind turbines are constantly exposed to salt and water, the steel used for the monopile and turbine tower must be treated for corrosion resistance, especially at the base of the tower in the “splash zone” for waves breaking against the tower and in the monopile. Two techniques that can

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As a general rule, fixed foundation offshore wind turbines are considered technically viable in areas with water depth less than 50 metres (160 ft) and average wind speeds over 7 metres per second (23 ft/s). Floating offshore wind turbines are considered technically viable with water depths

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In 2010, the US Energy Information Agency said "offshore wind power is the most expensive energy generating technology being considered for large scale deployment". The 2010 state of offshore wind power presented economic challenges significantly greater than onshore systems, with prices in the range

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The cost of offshore has historically been higher than that of onshore, but costs decreased to $ 78/MWh in 2019. Offshore wind power in Europe became price-competitive with conventional power sources in 2017. Offshore wind generation grew at over 30 percent per year in the 2010s. As of 2020, offshore

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relationship between offshore wind and the environment. As well as the commonly regarded considerations of wind conditions and profitability in the planning phase, the specific placement of offshore wind farms can have substantial benefits for the marine environment without harming business capital.

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Evidence suggests from a study which was conducted surrounding noise offsets from offshore wind farms that the installation process can alter the physical and behavioural processes of animals such as porpoises and seals. The welfare of seabirds is at risk due to the potential for collisions with the

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The cost of the turbine represents just one third to one half of total costs in offshore projects today, the rest comes from infrastructure, maintenance, and oversight. Costs for foundations, installation, electrical connections and operation and maintenance (O&M) are a large share of the total

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The advantage of locating wind turbines offshore is that the wind is much stronger off the coasts, and unlike wind over land, offshore breezes can be strong in the afternoon, matching the time when people are using the most electricity. Offshore turbines can also be located close to the load centers

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Because of their remote nature, prognosis and health-monitoring systems on offshore wind turbines will become much more necessary. They would enable better planning just-in-time maintenance, thereby reducing the operations and maintenance costs. According to a report from a coalition of researchers

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In order to transport the energy from offshore wind turbines to onshore energy plants, cabling has to be placed along the ocean floor. The cabling has to be able to transfer large amounts of current efficiently which requires optimization of the materials used for the cabling as well as determining

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The technical exploitable resource potential for offshore wind is a factor of the average wind speed and water depth, as it is only possible to generate electricity from offshore wind resources where turbines can be anchored. Currently, fixed foundation offshore wind turbines can be installed up to

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A 2013 review of the engineering aspects of turbines like the sizes used onshore, including the electrical connections and converters, considered that the industry had in general been overoptimistic about the benefits-to-costs ratio and concluded that the "offshore wind market doesn’t look as if it

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Research conducted in Spain found that the visual presence of offshore wind farms can decrease the demand for recreational tourism, yielding negative national and local economic consequences for coastal communities that are home to a developing offshore wind industry. However, others have regarded

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It has been noted that all forms of underwater noise from offshore developments have the capacity to reduce the survival rate of marine animals. Since 2015, there has been a surge in whale deaths across the East coast of the United States of America. However, because construction of wind farms off

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A steel jacket structure comes from an adaptation to the offshore wind industry of concepts that have been in use in the oil and gas industry for decades. Their main advantage lies in the possibility of reaching higher depths (up to 80m). Their main limitations are due to the high construction and

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Offshore wind resources are by their nature both huge in scale and highly dispersed, considering the ratio of the planet's surface area that is covered by oceans and seas compared to land mass. Wind speeds offshore are known to be considerably higher than for the equivalent location onshore due to

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Maintenance of offshore wind farms is much more expensive than for onshore installations. For example, a single technician in a pickup truck can quickly, easily and safely access turbines on land in almost any weather conditions, exit his or her vehicle and simply walk over to and into the turbine

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As the offshore wind industry has developed, a range of environmental considerations have come to the fore concerning the spatial planning decision processes of the turbines. As demonstrated in the above section, a wide array of environmental concerns have been made in recent times concerning the

1247:(ICCP) is used to protect wind turbine monopiles and floating wind turbine platforms. ICCP systems are increasingly popular as a solution against corrosion, as they do not require on-site monitoring, and are more eco-friendly and cost-effective than traditional galvanic systems. While traditional 1159:

There are several different types of technologies that are being explored as viable options for integrating offshore wind power into the onshore grid. The most conventional method is through high-voltage alternating current (HVAC) transmission lines. HVAC transmission lines are currently the most

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Since offshore wind turbines are located in oceans and large lakes, the materials used for the turbines have to be modified from the materials used for land based wind turbines and optimized for corrosion resistance to salt water and the new loading forces experienced by the tower being partially

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Almost all currently operating offshore wind farms employ fixed foundation turbines, with the exception of a few pilot projects. Fixed foundation offshore wind turbines have fixed foundations underwater, and are installed in relatively shallow waters of up to 50 to 60 metres (160 to 200 ft).

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In 2011, Ørsted estimated that while offshore wind turbines were not yet competitive with fossil fuels, they would be in 15 years. Until then, state funding and pension funds would be needed. At the end of 2011, there were 53 European offshore wind farms in waters off Belgium, Denmark, Finland,

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had by far the largest capacity with 3,681 MW. Denmark was second with 1,271 MW installed and Belgium was third with 571 MW. Germany came fourth with 520 MW, followed by the Netherlands (247 MW), Sweden (212 MW), Finland (26 MW), Ireland (25 MW), Spain (5

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While the offshore wind industry has grown dramatically over the last several decades, there is still a great deal of uncertainty associated with how the construction and operation of these wind farms affect marine animals and the marine environment. However, as the capacity of offshore wind has

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have been used in recent years for economically constructing fixed-bottom offshore wind farms in shallow-water locations. Each uses a single, generally large-diameter, foundation structural element to support all the loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure. Other types are

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have been proposed for use in offshore installations. Thanks to the installation offshore and their lower center of gravity, these turbines can in principle be built bigger than horizontal axis turbines, with proposed designs of up to 20 MW capacity per turbine. This could improve the economy of

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Cost for installed offshore turbines fell 30% to $ 78/MWh in 2019, a more rapid drop than other types of renewable energy. It has been suggested that innovation at scale could deliver 25% cost reduction in offshore wind by 2020. Offshore wind power market plays an important role in achieving the

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process while incorporating strong environmental protections. Specifically, the Department of Interior approved “wind energy areas” off the coast where projects can move through the regulatory approval process more quickly. The first offshore wind farm in the USA is the 30-megawatt, 5 turbine

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A growing expectation is that the politics of spatial planning will become increasingly complex. As renewable energy targets need to be met, it has been claimed that the development of offshore wind was largely in part to solve the political issues that onshore wind infrastructures face, yet in

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A main investor for Europe has been the European Investment Bank. The EIB has been investing in offshore renewable energy, co-financing around 40% of all capacity in Europe. Since 2003, the EIB has sponsored 34 offshore wind projects in Europe, including facilities in Belgium, Denmark, Germany,

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One of the advancements that characterises the current development within the offshore industry are technologies that allow for offshore wind projects further off the shore where wind availability is higher. In particular, the adoption of floating foundation technologies has proved to be a

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There are also several proposed developments in North America. Projects are under development in the United States in wind-rich areas of the East Coast, Great Lakes, and Pacific coast. In January 2012, a "Smart for the Start" regulatory approach was introduced, designed to expedite the siting

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which mitigates against any adverse effects towards the marine environment by offshore wind infrastructures. The EIA was implemented as a means of preventing further disturbance towards aspects including marine organisms, the seabed and the ecosystem as a whole that are generated from critical

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Offshore wind farms tend to have larger turbines when compared to onshore installations, and the trend is towards a continued increase in size. Economics of offshore wind farms tend to favor larger turbines, as installation and grid connection costs decrease per unit energy produced. Moreover,

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The installation and deinstallation as well as the required maintenance of offshore wind structures have the potential to produce substantially negative environmental impacts towards the marine environment. The timing of such processes is key since it has been found that the presence of these

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At the end of 2015, 3,230 turbines at 84 offshore wind farms across 11 European countries had been installed and grid-connected, making a total capacity of 11,027 MW. The history of the development of wind farms in the North Sea, as regards the United Kingdom, indicates three phases: coastal,

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this link as overstated, with part of the public opinion claiming support for the physical visual presence of the turbines. This sub-issue represents how research surrounding offshore wind is still relatively novel as well as through the introduction of new claims remaining highly contested.

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For the ease of installing the towers and connecting them to the seabed, they are installed in two parts, the portion below the water surface and the portion above the water. The two portions of the tower are joined by a transition piece which is filled with a grouted connection. The grouted

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Locating wind turbines offshore exposes the units to high humidity, salt water and salt water spray which negatively affect service life, cause corrosion and oxidation, increase maintenance and repair costs and in general make every aspect of installation and operation much more difficult,

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By 2017, the installed offshore wind power capacity worldwide was 20 GW. In 2018, offshore wind provided just 0.3% of the global electricity supply. Nevertheless, just in 2018 an additional amount of 4.3 GW of offshore wind capacity was employed on a worldwide scale. In Denmark, 50% of the

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substructure system is a more recent concept developed to reach deeper waters than monopile systems, with depths up to 60 m possible. This technology consists of three monopiles linked together through a joint piece at the top. The main advantage of this solution is the simplicity of the

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The threat of invasive species has been noted as a significant environmental risk from offshore wind acting as a suitable home. The impacts can include the possible destabilisation of biodiversity due to the presence of alien species causing the extinction of other forms of marine life.

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in bodies of water, usually at sea. There are higher wind speeds offshore than on land, so offshore farms generate more electricity per amount of capacity installed. Offshore wind farms are also less controversial than those on land, as they have less impact on people and the landscape.

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Offshore wind projects in the United States cost US$ 4,000 per kilowatt to build in 2023, compared to US\$ 1,363 per kilowatt for onshore wind farms. The cost of offshore wind has increased by 36% since 2019, while the cost of onshore wind has increased by only 5% over the same period.

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infrastructure such as offshore wind installations. If the development of an offshore wind infrastructure fails to comply with the measures associated with an EIA, the operator is obliged to compensate the environment in another aspect in order to nullify the damage it may create.

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the absence of land mass obstacles and the lower surface roughness of water compared to land features such as forests and savannah, a fact that is illustrated by global wind speed maps that cover both onshore and offshore areas using the same input data and methodology. For the

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flowing through them, there can be additional losses. Because of these losses, underground HVAC lines are limited in how far they can extend. The maximum appropriate distance for HVAC transmission for offshore wind power is considered to be around 80 kilometres (50 mi).

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As private offshore wind developers have become increasingly aware of the environmental side-effects, a turn to more sustainable methods of construction have occurred. This can be seen through partnerships with charities and local communities. In 2022, it was announced that

282:(GWEC) anticipates a significant expansion, projecting an additional 380 GW by 2032 to reach a total of 447 GW. However, market challenges in Europe and the US could slow progress, with only a third of the anticipated capacity expected to be installed between 2023 and 2027. 1373:

turbines, as well as causing the birds to adjust their travel routes which can significantly impact their endurance as a migratory specie. Alongside this, the presence of offshore wind farms may cause seabirds to change their behaviour due to the visual and noise offsets.

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along the coasts, such as large cities, eliminating the need for new long-distance transmission lines. However, there are several disadvantages of offshore installations, related to more expensive installation, difficulty of access, and harsher conditions for the units.

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Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, with an operating capacity of 3,813 MW, while 5,603 MW was under construction. Offshore wind farms worth €8.5 billion ($ 11.4 billion) were under construction in European waters in 2011.

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has begun to incorporate environmental protections into its procedures. In 2022, the Scottish government published a study outlining a mathematical formula for its own collision risk model which calculated the potential for seabirds to collide into wind turbines.

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Beyond 2022 there is expected to be a shortage of offshore wind turbine installation vessels (WTIVs), especially those capable of installing 10 MW+ turbines, with demand for vessels capable of installing offshore wind turbines projected to outpace supply by 2024.

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Röckmann C., Lagerveld S., Stavenuiter J. (2017) Operation and Maintenance Costs of Offshore Wind Farms and Potential Multi-use Platforms in the Dutch North Sea. In: Buck B., Langan R. (eds) Aquaculture Perspective of Multi-Use Sites in the Open Ocean. Springer,

720:) platform motions and turbine motions, as well as the dynamic characterization of mooring lines for floating systems. Foundations and substructures make up a large fraction of offshore wind systems, and must take into account every single one of these factors. 1282:

As the first offshore wind farms reach their end of life, a demolition industry develops to recycle them at a cost of DKK 2-4 million ($ 300,000-600,000 USD) roughly per MW, to be guaranteed by the owner. The first offshore wind farm to be decommissioned was

782:(United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) which regulates the rights and responsibilities of the States in regard to the use of the oceans. The maritime zone in which the offshore wind turbines are located determines which regulatory rules apply. 715:

Because of the many factors involved, one of the biggest difficulties with offshore wind farms is the ability to predict loads. Analysis must account for the dynamic coupling between translational (surge, sway, and heave) and rotational (roll, pitch, and

505:, from $ 207/MWh to $ 64/MWh. These cost estimates are based on projections that anticipate a ninefold increase in global offshore wind energy deployment, supported by advancements in infrastructure such as supply chains, ports, and transmission systems. 763:, many of these phases have been deliberately streamlined by authorities in order to minimize hurdles, and this policy has been extended for coastal wind farms with a concept called ’one-stop-shop’. The United States introduced a similar model called 242:

is expected to become a major source of energy for countries in the region. According to the Marienborg Declaration, signed in 2022, all EU Baltic Sea states have announced their intentions to have 19.6 gigawatts of offshore wind in operation by 2030.

1369:. Such reefs can indirectly facilitate the diversification of marine organisms, thus a variety of species can thrive. However, offshore wind farms have the ability to harm marine habitats due to an interference with the sediment on top of the seabed. 551:

Operation and maintenance costs typically represent 53% of operational expenditures, and 25% - 30% of the total lifecycle costs for offshore wind farms. O&Ms are considered one of the major barriers for further development of this resource.

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Corrosion is also a serious problem and requires detailed design considerations. The prospect of remote monitoring of corrosion looks very promising, using expertise utilised by the offshore oil/gas industry and other large industrial plants.

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wind power had become a significant part of northern Europe power generation, though it remained less than 1 percent of overall world electricity generation. A big advantage of offshore wind power compared to onshore wind power is the higher

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the coast of New Jersey has not begun as of August 2023, it is unlikely that these whale deaths are linked to offshore wind; rather, vessel strikes and fishing net entanglements are the more likely culprit of these deaths according to NOAA.

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facilities have been specifically built in the regions with high concentration of offshore wind developments. For large offshore wind farm projects, offshore wind ports become strategic hubs of the supply chain for the installations.

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Outside of Europe, the Chinese government had set ambitious targets of 5 GW of installed offshore wind capacity by 2015 and 30 GW by 2020 that would eclipse capacity in other countries. However, in May 2014 the capacity of

1274:), making field data from these turbines available would be invaluable in validating complex analysis codes used for turbine design. Reducing this barrier would contribute to the education of engineers specializing in wind energy. 5038: 1331:

had developed a global partnership which aims to promote an increase in offshore wind infrastructure projects whilst also ensuring that beneficial impacts for biodiversity must be promoted and prioritised. Offshore wind provider

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France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and the United Kingdom, totaling more over €10 billion in loans. The EIB funded €3.7 billion in maritime renewable energy between 2019 and 2023 and has future plans for financing of wind farms.

756:(EU), different national standards are to be streamlined into more cohesive guidelines to lower costs. The standards require that a loads analysis is based on site-specific external conditions such as wind, wave and currents. 270:

6%. About 12 GW of offshore wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe, with 3,755 MW of that coming online during 2015. As of 2020 90% of the offshore global market was represented by European companies.

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Monopiles up to 11 metres (36 ft) diameter at 2,000 tonnes can be made, but the largest so far are 1,300 tons which is below the 1,500 tonnes limit of some crane vessels. The other turbine components are much smaller.

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By January 2014, 69 offshore wind farms had been constructed in Europe with an average annual rated capacity of 482 MW. The total installed capacity of offshore wind farms in European waters reached 6,562 MW. The

501:(NREL) forecast a reduction in offshore wind energy costs by 2035. They estimate that the levelized cost for fixed-bottom offshore wind will decrease from $ 75 per megawatt-hour (MWh) in 2021 to $ 53/MWh in 2035, and for 1070:) are used to install foundation and turbine. As of 2019 the next generation of vessels are being built, capable of lifting 3–5,000 tons to 160 metres (520 ft). The large components can be difficult to install, and 1241:. To limit the effects of corrosion on the blades of a wind turbine, a protective tape of elastomeric materials is applied, though the droplet erosion protection coatings provide better protection from the elements. 5596: 136:

meaning that an installation of given nameplate capacity will produce more electricity at a site with more consistent and stronger wind which is usually found offshore and only at very few specific points onshore.

708:(AUV), and remote satellite sensing, although these technologies should be assessed and refined, according to a report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by the 7711: 494:(IRENA). This rise contrasts with the declining trend observed in other renewable energy sources such as onshore wind and solar photovoltaics (PV), despite the upward trend in materials and equipment costs. 5278: 3975:

Moss, Joanne “Critical perspectives: North Sea offshore wind farms.: Oral histories, aesthetics and selected legal frameworks relating to the North Sea.” (2021, Master’s Thesis, Uppsala University, Sweden)

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Other limitations of offshore wind power are related to the still limited number of installations. The offshore wind industry is not yet fully industrialized, as supply bottlenecks still exist as of 2017.

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per unit of electricity generated, comparable to that of onshore wind farms. Offshore installations also have the advantage of limited impact of noise and on the landscape compared to land-based projects.

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includes inshore water areas such as lakes, fjords and sheltered coastal areas as well as deeper-water areas. Most offshore wind farms employ fixed-foundation wind turbines in relatively shallow water.

5296: 3589: 5986: 2644:(Facilitating Offshore Wind in India) to identify potential zones for development of off-shore wind power in India and to stimulate R & D activities in this area. In 2014 FOWIND commissioned 364:

Offshore windfarms, including floating windfarms, provide a small but growing fraction of total windfarm power generation. Such power generation capacity must grow substantially to help meet the

5525:"Renewable energy from the high seas: Geo-spatial modelling of resource potential and legal implications for developing offshore wind projects beyond the national jurisdiction of coastal States" 1254:

A maintenance organization performs maintenance and repairs of the components, spending almost all its resources on the turbines. The conventional way of inspecting the blades is for workers to

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The planning and permitting phase can cost more than $ 10 million, take 5–7 years and have an uncertain outcome. The industry is putting pressure on governments to improve the processes. In

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By 2050, the expectation is that the installed offshore wind power capacity will reach 1550 GW on a worldwide scale. Compared to the capacity of 2017 that corresponds to an 80-fold increase.

5634: 5840: 973:, commissioned in October 2017, is the first operational floating wind farm, with a capacity of 30 MW. Other kinds of floating turbines have been deployed, and more projects are planned. 6129: 1102:, cable ducts for sub-marine cables, turbine tower flange, etc.) is attached to the now deeply driven pile, the sand and water are removed from the centre of the pile and replaced with 6009: 5963: 814:

As of 2020, energy production from winds on the high seas is not yet technically feasible due to the difficulties that follow from deeper water. However, the advancing technology of

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much farther than HVAC. This makes HVDC preferable for siting wind turbines very far offshore. However, HVDC requires power converters in order to connect to the AC grid. Both

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Offshore wind turbine components are large. Transporting of components between manufacturing and assembling facilities before the installation is to be minimized. As a result,

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For locations with depths over about 60–80 m, fixed foundations are uneconomical or technically unfeasible, and floating wind turbines anchored to the ocean floor are needed.

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for offshore installations compared to onshore wind farms. The cost of installation and electrical connection also increases rapidly with distance from shore and water depth.

9072: 4504: 4261: 8471: 4947: 384:(OECD) predicted in 2016 that offshore wind power will grow to 8% of ocean economy by 2030, and that its industry will employ 435,000 people, adding $ 230 billion of value. 275:

electricity was supplied by wind energy in 2018 out of which 15% was offshore. The average size of turbines installed was 6.8 MW in 2018, 7.2 MW in 2019 and 8.2 MW in 2020.

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In 2022, the offshore wind industry marked its second-largest yearly growth, adding 8.8 GW and increasing global capacity to 64.3 GW—a 16% rise from the previous year. The

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Estimated technical potential for fixed and floating offshore wind in Vietnam in terms of installed power capacity in megawatts (MW) within 200 kilometers of the shoreline

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Operational expenditures for wind farms are split between Maintenance (38%), Port Activities (31%), Operation (15%), License Fees (12%), and Miscellaneous Costs (4%).

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have been considered for this. Although LCCs are a much more widespread technology and cheaper, VSCs have many more benefits, including independent active power and

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Torres-Olguin, Raymundo; Molinas, Marta; Undeland, Tore (October 2012). "Offshore Wind Farm Grid Integration by VSC Technology With LCC-Based HVDC Transmission".

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In 2022, the cost of electricity from new offshore wind projects increased from USD 0.079/kWh to USD 0.081/kWh compared to the previous year, as reported by the

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announced its two wind turbine pilot program that will be 27 miles offshore from Virginia Beach. The area is undergoing a survey that will last for 4–6 weeks.

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installation, which is done by installing the three monopiles and then adding the upper joint. The larger base also decreases the risk of getting overturned.

778:

The installation and operation of offshore wind turbines are regulated in both national and international law. The relevant international legal framework is

8371: 1715: 1197:, will give ships access to renewable energy while at sea. Connecting ships to electricity generated by offshore wind farms, the system is designed to cut 3713: 1258:

down the blade, taking a day per turbine. Some farms inspect the blades of three turbines per day by photographing them from the monopile through a 600mm

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provides an estimate of technical potential for that country for both fixed foundation and floating offshore wind turbines according to the water depth.

225:

is going to be big". In 2013, offshore wind power contributed to 1,567 MW of the total 11,159 MW of wind power capacity constructed that year.

4365: 5524: 5390: 4645: 8292: 4969: 2739: 891:. Offshore turbines require different types of bases for stability, according to the depth of water. To date a number of different solutions exist: 6832:

Bergström, Lena; Kautsky, Lena; Malm, Torleif; Rosenberg, Rutger; Wahlberg, Magnus; Capetillo, Nastassja Åstrand; Wilhelmsson, Dan (19 March 2014).

6404:"These floating charging points will let ships draw electricity from offshore wind farms – and could recharge battery-powered vessels of the future" 6403: 4064: 3990: 681:

Water depth, currents, seabed, migration, and wave action, all of which drive mechanical and structural loading on potential turbine configurations.

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offshore wind farms do not have the same restriction in size of onshore wind turbines, such as availability of land or transportation requirements.

5626: 3169: 1106:. An additional layer of even larger stone, up to 0.5 m diameter, is applied to the surface of the seabed for longer-term erosion protection. 8446: 7443: 7022:"The factors affecting stakeholders' acceptance of offshore wind farms along the western coast of Taiwan: Evidence from stakeholders' perceptions" 6603: 6255: 5387:"N.J. must make wind farm permitting process as quick and easy as possible | Commentary | NewJerseyNewsroom.com - Your State. Your News" 4535: 4222: 3949: 395:. The development of the full potential of Europe's offshore wind energy is one of the key actions in the Clean Energy section of the Green Deal. 8012: 4305: 1251:

cathodic protection (GACP) systems operate on the natural driving force between two metals, ICCP systems use a continuous external power source.

779: 5832: 4015: 2807: 1430: 8348: 6424: 6090: 4423: 3567: 3444: 895:

Most foundations are monopile (single column) base, six metres (20 ft) in diameter, is used in waters up to 30 metres (100 ft) deep.

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states, publish guidance surrounding the role of wind development in light of EU law as well as to support various private-public projects.

1237:

is more important than for an onshore turbine. Some wind farms located far from possible onshore bases have service teams living on site in

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the sealed nacelle. Sustained high-speed operation and generation also increases wear, maintenance and repair requirements proportionally.

8634: 7883: 6237: 6059: 6026: 7158: 4346: 6883:"Environmental impacts of offshore wind installation, operation and maintenance, and decommissioning activities: A case study of Brazil" 6219: 5809: 6881:

C, O. Mauricio Hernandez; Shadman, Milad; Amiri, Mojtaba Maali; Silva, Corbiniano; Estefen, Segen F.; La Rovere, Emilio (1 July 2021).

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approximately 20 km from shore and over 400 MW in capacity. Other Canadian projects include one on the Pacific west coast.

1336:

declared a fifteen million pound investment package into the local area of Norfolk in order to support climate change based projects.

221:

of an offshore wind turbine in Europe was about 3 MW, and the capacity of future turbines was expected to increase to 5 MW.

7651: 6518: 6146: 5282: 4280: 8087: 5742: 360: 7108: 5759: 4496: 3825: 1271: 709: 674:

It is necessary to obtain several types of information in order to plan the commissioning of an offshore wind farm. These include:

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India is looking at the potential of offshore wind power plants, with a 100 MW demonstration plant being planned off the coast of

8985: 1954: 1489: 8598: 5412: 5142: 4825: 770:

In the EU, the revised Renewable Energy Directive of 2018 has simplified the permitting process to help initiate wind projects.

8415: 8180: 6630:"Environmental impact assessment framework for offshore wind energy developments based on the marine Good Environmental Status" 4594: 2875: 2841: 2773: 17: 8498: 5341:"NYT Nordsø-samarbejde kan gøre Nordsøen til Silicon Valley for havvindmøller | Energi-, Forsynings- og Klimaministeriet" 4115: 3637: 8695: 8670: 8143: 5902: 5648: 4604: 3039: 1244: 491: 8258: 8117: 7843: 1181:. New research has been put into developing hybrid HVDC technologies that have a LCC connected to a VSC through a DC cable. 8768: 8620: 8205: 5326: 4723:

Sun, Xiaojing; Huang, Diangui; Wu, Guoqing (May 2012). "The current state of offshore wind energy technology development".

4460: 3546: 3005: 2705: 498: 248: 7133: 6936: 5116: 3612: 431:

time-consuming, more dangerous and far more expensive than sites on land. The humidity and temperature is controlled by

7237:"The impact of offshore wind farms on beach recreation demand:Policy intake from an economic study on the Catalan coast" 6294: 4686: 738:

Moreover, as power generation efficiency of wind farms downwind of offshore wind farms was found to decrease, strategic

9005: 8990: 5717: 4799: 4667: 4481:

Will Wade and Jennifer A Dlouhy. Bloomberg reporters. (7 September 2023). "US Offshore Wind Slammed by Runaway Costs".

1304: 1284: 898:

Conventional steel jacket structures, as used in the oil and gas industry, in water 20–80 metres (70–260 ft) deep.

597:

In September 2018 contracts were awarded for Vineyard Wind, Massachusetts, USA at a cost of between $ 65-$ 74 per MWh.

8318: 5429: 4325: 3467: 8228: 7333:"The case for offshore wind farms, artificial reefs and sustainable tourism in the French mediterranean[sic]" 7067:

Koschinski, S.; Culik, BM; Damsgaard Henriksen, O.; Tregenza, N.; Ellis, G.; Jansen, C.; Kathe, G. (1 January 2003).

6556: 6335: 5468: 1460: 655: 238:

off-coastal and deep offshore in the period 2004 through to 2021. Through the development of offshore wind power the

4517: 7444:"Over the Sea and Far Away? A Consideration of the Planning, Politics and Public Perception of Offshore Wind Farms" 5265: 4860: 4309: 4137: 1067: 251:

was only 565 MW. Offshore capacity in China increased by 832 MW in 2016, of which 636 MW were made in China.

6148:

Supply chain, port infrastructure and logistics study for offshore wind farm development in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu

5199:"Accelerating deployment of offshore wind energy alter wind climate and reduce future power generation potentials" 2648:

to undertake pre-feasibility studies in eight zones in Tamil Nadu which have been identified as having potential.

391:

expects that offshore wind energy will be of increasing importance in the future, as offshore wind is part of its

8823: 4551: 4482: 1341: 642: 51: 8062: 7069:"Behavioural reactions of free-ranging porpoises and seals to the noise of a simulated 2 MW windpower generator" 5463: 1365:

A significant positive environmental impact of offshore wind installations is the potential for the creation of

7861: 7828: 7669: 5492: 4531: 3724: 1209: 502: 8390:"America Is Finally Getting Its First Offshore Wind Farm. Conservatives Are Trying to Make Sure It's the Last" 935: 9082: 7476: 7292:"The Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms (OWFs) on Local Tourism and Recreation -- Evolving Lessons from Practice" 6789: 1019: 990:

scale of offshore wind farms. However, no large-scale demonstrations of this technology have been installed.

705: 626:/m of sea area, per year, delivered to grid. The energy per sea area is roughly independent of turbine size. 8545: 4991: 9244: 8933: 7501:"Wind power, landscape and strategic, spatial planning—The construction of 'acceptable locations' in Wales" 5089: 3417: 982: 348:

Some major U.S. projects have been stymied due to inflation even after subsidies became available from the

8723: 6491: 6174: 1170: 1043: 981:

Although the great majority of onshore and all large-scale offshore wind turbines currently installed are

529: 467: 9204: 9114: 9092: 8865: 3397: 2321: 2104: 2029: 1695: 1483: 1174: 1093:

The typical construction process for a wind turbine sub-sea monopile foundation in sand includes using a

667: 365: 334: 7548:"The politics of Estonia's offshore wind energy programme: Discourse, power and marine spatial planning" 6014:

On Kaskasi, Seaway 7 also utilised .. vibro pile driving technology to reduce underwater noise emissions

3497: 1161: 883:, tripod, and jacketed, with various foundations at the sea floor including monopile or multiple piles, 8938: 8870: 7209: 3654: 2637: 1328: 1288: 986: 728: 279: 210: 7596: 7500: 7371: 7332: 7236: 7021: 6882: 6696: 9139: 8888: 8389: 5746: 3550: 2415: 580: 338: 5197:

Akhtar, Naveed; Geyer, Beate; Rockel, Burkhardt; Sommer, Philipp S.; Schrum, Corinna (3 June 2021).

5097: 5042: 171: 9159: 8761: 8340: 4620: 4427: 3441: 2611: 1442: 1310: 1292: 1198: 1193:

An offshore electricity recharging system named Stillstrom, to be launched by Danish shipping firm

954: 685: 579:

3&4 due to government tender and size, and €49.90 per MWh (without transmission) at the 600 MW

8038:"Borssele 3 and 4 - Blauwwind - Under Construction Offshore Wind Farm - Netherlands | 4C Offshore" 9218: 4455: 2580: 1398: 1263: 1234: 1087: 884: 797: 651: 414: 349: 333:

Costs of offshore wind power are decreasing much faster than expected. By 2016, four contracts (

7685:"Maritime Security and the Wind. Threats and Risks to renewable energy infrastructures offshore" 6695:

Vaissière, Anne-Charlotte; Levrel, Harold; Pioch, Sylvain; Carlier, Antoine (1 September 2014).

5776: 9154: 9149: 8913: 7597:"Planners to the rescue: Spatial planning facilitating the development of offshore wind energy" 6089:

Tziavos, Nikolaos I.; Hemida, Hassan; Metje, Nicole; Baniotopoulos, Charalampos (8 June 2016).

6067: 6034: 2596: 1238: 1148: 1008: 793:

and therefore, the regulation of offshore wind turbines are fully under national jurisdiction.

7710:

Gupte, Eklavya; Elliott, Stuart; Edwardes-Evans, Henry; Griffin, Rosemary (20 February 2023).

7370:

Punt, Maarten J.; Groeneveld, Rolf A.; van Ierland, Ekko C.; Stel, Jan H. (15 November 2009).

6963:"Artificial reef effect in relation to offshore renewable energy conversion: state of the art" 4037: 3542: 8948: 8943: 8908: 8893: 8860: 8803: 8798: 7159:"Assessing the Impact of Underwater Sounds on Fishes and Other Forms of Marine Life | Tethys" 6578: 4760:"Is the supply chain ready for the green transformation? The case of offshore wind logistics" 3586:"After a decade of dithering, the US east coast went all in on offshore wind power this week" 3402: 2626: 2621:

Canadian wind power in the province of Ontario is pursuing several proposed locations in the

1530: 1438: 944: 888: 815: 121: 86: 47: 6579:"WWF and Ørsted in new global partnership to unite action on climate and ocean biodiversity" 6318:

Anaya-Lara, Olimpo; Campos-Gaona, David; Moreno-Goytia, Edgar; Adam, Grain (10 April 2014).

3879: 834: 8995: 8898: 8808: 8793: 8571: 7982: 7608: 7512: 7455: 7383: 7248: 7080: 7033: 6894: 6845: 6755: 6708: 6641: 6462: 6365: 6098:

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Engineering and Computational Mechanics

5931: 5682: 5539: 5449: 5210: 4771: 4732: 4240: 1770: 804: 605: 7793:"EU-NATO Task Force on the resilience of critical infrastructure: Final assessment report" 7712:"Dutch intelligence warns of Russian sabotage against its key maritime, energy facilities" 6526: 4913:"Tender design, output gains key to DONG's record-low Borssele 1&2 offshore bid price" 1225:

Turbines are much less accessible when offshore (requiring the use of a service vessel or

1214: 8: 9192: 9144: 9102: 8977: 8903: 8855: 8754: 7372:"Spatial planning of offshore wind farms: A windfall to marine environmental protection?" 5673:

Perez-Collazo, C (2 January 2015). "A review of combined wave and offshore wind energy".

5577: 4577: 4205: 4188: 1099: 1098:

transition piece (complete with pre-installed features such as boat-landing arrangement,

1082: 1078:

has also been used to keep the vibrating pile driver steady when installing foundations.

1075: 1004: 919: 904: 392: 388: 120:

was the world's largest offshore wind farm. Other projects in the planning stage include

7612: 7516: 7459: 7387: 7252: 7084: 7037: 6898: 6849: 6759: 6712: 6645: 6466: 6369: 5686: 5543: 5214: 4775: 4736: 3514: 2665:

List of countries by cumulative installed offshore wind power capacity at year end (MW)

1324: 300: 8928: 7855: 7822: 7663: 7577: 7481: 7313: 7272: 7235:

Voltaire, Louinord; Loureiro, Maria L.; Knudsen, Camilla; Nunes, Paulo A. L. D (2017).

6997: 6962: 6918: 6863: 6858: 6833: 6771: 6697:"Biodiversity offsets for offshore wind farm projects: The current situation in Europe" 6677: 6381: 6121: 5555: 5239: 5198: 3412: 1509: 1114: 842: 786: 255: 218: 93: 7291: 7210:"Researchers are looking for answers amid spike in beached whales at the Jersey Shore" 6293:

Daniel, John; Liu, Shu; Ibanez, Eduardo; Pennock, Ken; Reed, Gregory; Hanes, Spencer.

3679: 254:

The offshore wind construction market remains quite concentrated. By the end of 2015,

209:

Europe is the world leader in offshore wind power, with the first offshore wind farm (

9211: 9180: 8835: 7774: 7632: 7624: 7569: 7528: 7524: 7485: 7399: 7352: 7317: 7276: 7264: 7049: 7002: 6984: 6922: 6910: 6775: 6743: 6724: 6681: 6669: 6331: 6125: 6113: 5908: 5898: 5559: 5416: 5321: 5244: 5226: 5014:"First Large US Offshore Wind Project Sets Record-Low Price Starting at $ 74 per MWh" 4600: 4527: 3829: 2603:

and marine biologists believe the bases of the five, 6-megawatt wind turbines off of

1617: 1542: 808: 610: 369: 113: 8423: 7620: 7581: 7045: 6867: 6385: 789:(up to 12 nautical miles from the baseline of the coast) the coastal State has full 9024: 8495: 7764: 7692: 7616: 7559: 7520: 7471: 7463: 7395: 7391: 7344: 7303: 7256: 7088: 7041: 6992: 6974: 6902: 6853: 6834:"Effects of offshore wind farms on marine wildlife—a generalized impact assessment" 6763: 6716: 6659: 6649: 6470: 6373: 6323: 6105: 5698: 5690: 5547: 5234: 5218: 4779: 4740: 3899:"Wind in power 2013 European statistics" The European Wind Energy Association, 2014 3859: 2490: 2254: 1023:

Several foundation structures for offshore wind turbines in the port of Bremerhaven

659: 432: 8147: 7348: 7020:

Chen, Jyun-Long; Liu, Hsiang-Hsi; Chuang, Ching-Ta; Lu, Hsueh-Jung (1 June 2015).

5929:

Black, Anders Rosborg; Mathiesen, Troels; Hilbert, Lisbeth Rischel (12 May 2015).

5863: 2566: 1007:

and the use of coatings to reduce corrosion pitting, which is a common source for

594:

of £57.50 per MWh making the price cheaper than nuclear and competitive with gas.

167: 9134: 9129: 9087: 8502: 8262: 8212: 7260: 6720: 6475: 6450: 6431: 5724: 5627:"Offshore wind foundation shift hinges on serial build gains | New Energy Update" 5303: 5172: 5093: 5034: 4744: 4393: 4389: 4329: 4287: 3448: 2615: 2600: 2179: 1366: 1152: 970: 867: 739: 267: 133: 7729:

Monaghan, Sean; Svendsen, Otto; Darrah, Michael; Arnold, Ed (19 December 2023).

7696: 7684: 5551: 742:

may need to consider – cross-national – limits and potentials for optimization.

9109: 9097: 9046: 8013:"Ørsted fully commissions Borssele 1 & 2 offshore wind farm in Netherlands" 6906: 6654: 6629: 5728: 5694: 5444: 5222: 4784: 4759: 4368: 3864: 3847: 3407: 2353: 2267: 2192: 1858: 1783: 1708: 1682: 1630: 1555: 1259: 1248: 753: 717: 647: 587: 373: 319: 230: 117: 105: 80:

Unlike the typical use of the term "offshore" in the marine industry, offshore

7467: 7331:

Westerberg, Vanja; Jacobsen, Jette Bredahl; Lifran, Robert (1 February 2013).

6377: 6327: 5366: 4887:"Oil & Gas Giant to Build Dutch Borssele III & IV Offshore Wind Farms" 9238: 9223: 9077: 8918: 7778: 7769: 7752: 7628: 7573: 7564: 7547: 7532: 7403: 7356: 7268: 7134:"Displacement of seabirds by an offshore wind farm in the North Sea | Tethys" 7053: 6988: 6937:"Displacement of seabirds by an offshore wind farm in the North Sea | Tethys" 6914: 6728: 6673: 6273: 6117: 5912: 5307: 5230: 4522: 2610:

Another offshore wind farm that is in the planning phase is off the coast of

2526: 2512: 2451: 2437: 2376: 2362: 2290: 2276: 2215: 2201: 2140: 2126: 2065: 2051: 1990: 1976: 1881: 1867: 1806: 1792: 1731: 1717: 1653: 1639: 1578: 1564: 1333: 847: 623: 569: 112:(13%) account for more than 75% of the global installed capacity. The 1.4 GW 6496: 6295:"National Offshore Wind Energy Grid Interconnection Study Executive Summary" 5046: 4497:"Floating wind turbines could open up vast ocean tracts for renewable power" 4398: 3796:"Wind in our Sails, A report by the European Wind Energy Association - 2011" 3769: 3543:

Levelized Cost of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2011

1143: 9119: 8880: 8818: 8170:"London Array's own website announcement of commencement of offshore works" 7636: 7006: 6109: 5367:"Dynamics Modeling and Loads Analysis of an Offshore Floating Wind Turbine" 5248: 4322: 3926: 3752: 2604: 2340: 1845: 1218: 663: 591: 201: 43: 8236: 7308: 7066: 6979: 5297:"An international design standard for offshore wind turbines: IEC 61400-3" 4864: 1327:- a specialist provider in offshore wind and the environmentalist charity 258:

had installed 63% of the world's 11 GW offshore wind power capacity;

8960: 8519: 6435: 4223:"High-power offshore wind turbines need medium-voltage converter systems" 3452: 2622: 2503: 2117: 2042: 1967: 1094: 790: 692:

Existing hardware for measurements includes Light Detection and Ranging (

89:

for deeper waters are in an earlier phase of development and deployment.

39: 6664: 5703: 3824: 1031: 961:

is the world's first full-scale floating wind turbine, installed in the

901:

Gravity base structures, for use at exposed sites in water 20–80 m deep.

745:

Some of the guidelines for designing offshore wind farms are set out in

517: 455: 402:

promising technology for unlocking the wind potential on deeper waters.

9124: 8955: 8785: 8777: 8285:"The 600-MW Gemini offshore wind farm is successfully up & running" 7093: 7068: 6317: 5070: 4992:"A Stunningly Low Price for Offshore Wind: Massachusetts Moves Forward" 2584: 1230: 1226: 1221:, the western part of the Baltic Sea between Germany and Denmark (2010) 1063: 304: 239: 81: 69: 31: 30:"Offshore wind" redirects here. For the meteorological phenomenon, see 8447:"In Rhode Island, offshore wind farm emerging as popular fishing spot" 7931: 6451:"Droplet Erosion Protection Coatings for Offshore Wind Turbine Blades" 5262:"Wind turbines Part 3: Design requirements for offshore wind turbines" 4170:

Energy Transition Outlook 2019. A global and regional forecast to 2050

166:

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on

8965: 8847: 7957:"The Netherlands hits offshore wind target of 4.5 GW with Hollandse…" 7753:"Addressing Hybrid Threats: Priorities for the EU in 2020 and Beyond" 5897:. Ng, Chong, Ran, Li. Duxford, UK: Elsevier, WP Woodhead Publishing. 5718:"Classification and Certification of Floating Offshore Wind Turbines" 3914:

The European offshore wind industry - key trends and statistics 2013

2576: 1071: 962: 855:

from 50 to 1,000 metres (160 to 3,280 ft). The displayed map of

746: 619: 568:

Auctions in 2016 for future projects have reached costs of €54.5 per

73: 55: 6201: 5833:"Seawind steps up development of radical two-blade offshore turbine" 5430:

Streamline Renewable Energy Policy and make Australia a World Leader

4970:"Offshore wind cheaper than nuclear as auction smashes expectations" 4291: 3951:

The European offshore wind industry - key trends and statistics 2015

2591:

Most of the current projects are in European and East Asian waters.

9031: 8830: 7184:"NJ whale deaths: See the full list to learn how each of them died" 6767: 1514: 1103: 880: 826: 631: 576: 573: 422:

of offshore wind power compared to other sources in Germany in 2018

183: 97: 6238:"Offshore wind could see crunch of installation vessels from 2024" 5802:"Blue H Technologies Launches World's First Floating Wind Turbine" 4424:"Price diagram: Real and predicted prices for offshore wind power" 4306:

The European offshore wind industry key 2011 trends and statistics

9041: 9018: 9013: 8549: 7709: 6272:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

5979:"Load-orienting technology will make offshore installation safer" 5322:

Development of Offshore Wind Recommended Practice for U.S. Waters

2633: 2428: 856: 760: 292: 263: 214: 109: 9175: 8572:"MOU Signed for First Ever Offshore Wind Power Project in India" 7876:"DONG Tables Hornsea Project One Offshore Construction Schedule" 5597:"Challenges in design of foundations for offshore wind turbines" 4646:"Studie: Stromgestehungskosten erneuerbare Energien - März 2018" 993: 9056: 9051: 9036: 8923: 8578:. Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 1 October 2014 7844:"Satellite cyber attack paralyzes 11GW of German wind turbines" 6088: 5086: 2641: 2325: 1255: 1194: 966: 296: 259: 125: 8372:"Offshore Wind One Step Closer to Reality in the Mid-Atlantic" 6628:

Abramic, A.; Cordero-Penin, V.; Haroun, R. (1 November 2022).

1388: 1270:

from universities, industry, and government (supported by the

830:

Progression of expected wind turbine evolution to deeper water

818:

is a step towards the realization of deepwater wind projects.

803:

Beyond the exclusive economic zones are the high seas, or the

341:) were already below the lowest of the predicted 2050 prices. 8746: 8596: 7369: 6831: 5956:

Paulsson, Lars; Hodges, Jeremy; Martin, Chris (13 May 2019).

5895:

Offshore wind farms : technologies, design and operation

5082: 5062: 4266: 4168: 1931: 957:, installed the world's first floating wind turbine in 2007. 724: 701: 697: 693: 299:

were turbine suppliers for 90% of offshore wind power, while

101: 7731:"NATO's Role in Protecting Critical Undersea Infrastructure" 7728: 7234: 6397: 6395: 6355: 4411:

Real prices have moved to half of what the experts predicted

565:

renewable target in most of the countries around the world.

205:

An illustration of a hypothetical offshore wind farm in 1977

27:

Wind turbines in marine locations for electricity production

8472:"Offshore wind energy heading to waters off Virginia Beach" 8088:"Seajacks, Van Oord to Install East Anglia ONE Foundations" 6815:"Environmental Effects of Wind and Marine renewable Energy" 6814: 6694: 5371: 5146: 4826:"A Driving FORCE for Projecting Offshore Wind Energy Costs" 4690: 4016:"Detailed appraisal of the offshore wind industry in China" 419: 308: 193: 189: 8635:"Offshore wind in Europe – key trends and statistics 2020" 7650:

Gronholt pedersen, Jacob; Kate, Abnett (26 October 2023).

6627: 6549:"Aldrende havmølleparker åbner marked for klog nedrivning" 6002:"Kaskasi breaks ground with new ways to install monopiles" 5330:, April 2013. Accessed: 20 November 2013. OSTI ID: 1078076 4366:"Largest Offshore Wind Farm Generates First Power in U.K." 4116:"Global Wind Industry Hits Record 62 GW Installed In 2015" 4091:"World's Biggest Windmills Now Make Jumboi Jets Look Tiny" 2646:

Center for Study of Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP)

8063:"Borssele III and IV Offshore Wind Farm, the Netherlands" 7906:"World's Largest Offshore Wind Farm Fully Up and Running" 6392: 6202:"Net Zero newsletter (September 2022) from Trivium China" 6091:"Grouted connections on offshore wind turbines: a review" 5959:"Offshore Wind Will Need Bigger Boats. Much Bigger Boats" 5320:

Musial, W. D.; Sheppard, R. E.; Dolan, D.; Naughton, B. "

4065:"A U.S. State Has Key to $ 10 Billion Offshore Wind Boom" 1233:

for heavy service such as gearbox replacement), and thus

939:

Blue H Technologies - World's First Floating Wind Turbine

910:

Tripod suction caisson structures, in water 20–80 m deep.

749:-3, but in the US several other standards are necessary. 124:

in the United Kingdom at 4.8 GW, and Greater Changhua in

7330: 6173:

Elkinton, C.; Blatiak, A.; Ameen, H. (16 October 2013).

5085:. 2020. "Offshore Wind Technical Potential by Country": 4347:"Wind Energy Markets: Experts See Solid Offshore Growth" 3568:"Offshore wind power price plunges by a third in a year" 7290:

Glasson, John; Durning, Bridget; Welch, Kellie (2022).

6744:"The habitat-creation potential of offshore wind farms" 5760:

Japan: Experimental Offshore Floating Wind Farm Project

5196: 3991:"A Sea of Change: Energy Security in the Baltic region" 1495:

Offshore wind farms with a capacity of at least 600 MW

727:

between tower and foundation may stress the grout, and

322:

estimated that energy from offshore wind turbines cost

6320:

Grid Integration of Offshore Wind Farms – Case Studies

4940:"Vattenfall wins Kriegers Flak with record €49.90/MWh" 846:

Tripods foundation for offshore wind farms in 2008 in

382:

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

7649: 7546:

Tafon, Ralph; Howarth, David; Griggs, Steven (2019).

5928: 5649:"Installation Vessels: Reaching the Limit and Beyond" 4262:

The installation and servicing of offshore wind farms

3660:. Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC). 10 February 2016 6172: 5955: 4323:

17 EU countries planning massive offshore wind power

3801:. European Wind Energy Association. 2011. p. 11 3604: 871:

Most common types of fixed offshore wind foundations

92:

As of 2022, the total worldwide offshore wind power

8597:R. Srikanth; Sangeetha Kandavel (29 January 2015). 7378:. The DPSIR framework for Biodiversity Assessment. 7289: 6448: 6220:"Tight months (and years) ahead in the C/SOV space" 5067:

Global: Expanding Offshore Wind to Emerging Markets

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International Energy Agency. p. 15. 3902: 3561: 3559: 3436: 3434: 3432: 1445:, or create a new section, as appropriate. 1409: 731:are used in several British sea turbines. 637: 600: 8416:"Block Island Wind Farm - Deepwater Wind" 7768: 7750: 7563: 7475: 7307: 7092: 6996: 6978: 6960: 6857: 6663: 6653: 6474: 6351: 6349: 6347: 5855: 5702: 5283:International Electrotechnical Commission 5238: 5173:"Are wind farms slowing each other down?" 5117:"University Collaboration on Wind Energy" 5050:, 13 March 2015. Accessed: 13 March 2015. 4783: 4625:European Commission - European Commission 4256: 4254: 3988: 3929:. European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) 3927:"Wind in Power: 2014 European statistics" 3863: 1461:Learn how and when to remove this message 1352: 8517: 7418:"4 Background: Collision risk modelling" 6887:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 6807: 5830: 5675:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 5384: 5028: 4764:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 4388: 4363: 4313:, January 2012. Accessed: 26 March 2012. 4298: 3880:"The offshore wind energy nano-industry" 3848:"The offshore wind energy nano-industry" 3826:Environmental and Energy Study Institute 3813: 3788: 3759: 3742: 3697: 3630: 3578: 3465: 2575: 1287:in Sweden in November 2015, followed by 1272:Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future 1208: 1142: 1121: 1018: 934: 866: 841: 833: 825: 764: 710:Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future 684:Marine growth, salinity, icing, and the 641: 622:, wind turbine energy is around 30 604: 413: 359: 291:of 2.5-3.0 million Euro/MW. That year, 200: 38: 8489: 8444: 8289:Windpower Engineering & Development 8218:, 8 March 2011. Accessed: 8 March 2011. 7841: 7808: 7441: 6401: 6358:IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy 6279: 6154:. Global Wind Energy Council. June 2016 6139: 5999: 5976: 5945:from the original on 26 September 2021. 5586: 5413:"Subtask 1: Critical Deployment Issues" 5389:. NewJerseyNewsroom.com. Archived from 5375:November 2007. Retrieved: 25 June 2012. 5286:, August 2005. Accessed: 12 March 2011. 5110: 5108: 5106: 4709: 4338: 4273: 4220: 3556: 3429: 1490:Lists of offshore wind farms by country 1298: 1262:, avoiding to go up. 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CORROSION 2015, Dallas, Texas. 5843:from the original on 21 June 2020 5469:Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 4685:Prinds, Karsten (20 April 2011). 4345:Tildy Bayar (30 September 2011). 3486: 2638:Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) 1171:line commutated converters (LCCs) 1068:wind turbine installation vessels 559: 9210: 9198: 9187: 9186: 9174: 8716: 8688: 8652: 8627: 8613: 8590: 8564: 8538: 8511: 8464: 8438: 8408: 8382: 8363: 8333: 8307: 8277: 8251: 8221: 8162: 8136: 8110: 8080: 8055: 8030: 8005: 7975: 7949: 7924: 7898: 7868: 7842:Willuhn, Marian (1 March 2022). 7835: 7802: 7785: 7744: 7722: 7703: 7676: 7643: 7588: 7539: 7525:10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.01.006 7499:Cowell, Richard (1 April 2010). 7492: 7435: 7410: 7363: 7324: 7283: 7228: 7207: 7201: 7176: 7151: 7126: 7101: 7060: 7013: 6954: 6929: 6874: 6825: 6782: 6735: 6688: 6621: 6596: 6571: 6541: 6511: 6483: 6442: 6267: 6248: 6230: 6212: 6194: 6166: 6082: 5993: 5970: 5949: 5864:"Floating wind turbine launched" 5601:The E&T Energy and Power Hub 5311:, 2005. Accessed: 12 March 2011. 5266:Austrian Standards International 5153:from the original on 12 May 2016 4310:European Wind Energy Association 2496: 2421: 2346: 2260: 2185: 2152:Borssele III & IV (731.5 MW) 2110: 2035: 1960: 1924: 1851: 1776: 1701: 1623: 1548: 1418: 1329:World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 1175:voltage source converters (VSCs) 1074:can improve handling precision. 1030: 1009:hydrogen induced stress cracking 976: 811:, installations and structures. 696:), Sonic Detection and Ranging ( 516: 454: 157: 8370:Kit Kennedy (2 February 2012). 7621:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.11.010 7046:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.02.012 5831:de Vries, Eize (1 April 2020). 5752: 5735: 5711: 5641: 5603:. 9 August 2017. 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In 2009, the average 52:Alpha Ventus Offshore Wind Farm 8776: 8546:"Naikun Wind Development, Inc" 7961:Crosswind Hollandse Kust Noord 7396:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.07.013 7073:Marine Ecology Progress Series 7026:Ocean & Coastal Management 6838:Environmental Research Letters 5862:Madslien, Jorn (5 June 2009). 4042:reNEWS - Renewable Energy News 3519:reNEWS - Renewable Energy News 3507: 3459: 2660:Offshore wind power by country 2019:Siemens Gamesa SG 11.0-200 DD 1213:Offshore wind turbines of the 1204: 706:autonomous underwater vehicles 13: 1: 9083:Blade element momentum theory 7932:"Seagreen Wind Energy - Home" 7595:Jay, Stephen (1 April 2010). 7349:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.04.008 6000:Foxwell, David (6 May 2022). 5472:. Accessed: 20 November 2013. 3655:"Global Wind Statistics 2015" 3611:Reed, Stanley (4 June 2020). 3515:"Orsted clears Taiwan hurdle" 3423: 2002:Hollandse Kust Noord (759 MW) 1665:Hornsea Project One (1218 MW) 1607:Siemens Gamesa SG 8.0-167 DD 1590:Hornsea Project Two (1368 MW) 1133: 678:Offshore wind characteristics 420:levelized cost of electricity 9073:2020s in wind power research 8229:"London Array - The Project" 7320:– via Lidsen Journals. 7261:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.03.019 6859:10.1088/1748-9326/9/3/034012 6721:10.1016/j.marpol.2014.03.023 6490:Bjørn Godske (2 June 2016). 6476:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.430 5631:analysis.newenergyupdate.com 5269:. Retrieved: 16 August 2012. 4745:10.1016/j.energy.2012.02.054 4599:. European Investment Bank. 4550:European Commission (2020). 4485:Retrieved 14 September 2023. 4018:. The Carbon Trust. May 2014 3418:Unconventional wind turbines 2077:Borssele I & II (752 MW) 1318:Environmental considerations 1239:offshore accommodation units 409: 249:offshore wind power in China 7: 9093:Energy return on investment 8599:"Tapping the offshore wind" 7697:10.13140/RG.2.2.23647.64167 6519:"3 Ways to Inspect a Blade" 5552:10.1016/j.enpol.2019.01.064 4861:"Offshore Wind Accelerator" 4449:Ryan, Carol (8 July 2023). 4138:"Onshore and offshore wind" 3398:List of offshore wind farms 3391: 2571: 2480:Siemens Gamesa SWT-8.4-167 2244:Siemens Gamesa SWT-7.0-154 1484:List of offshore wind farms 1478:Largest offshore wind farms 1441:, discuss the issue on the 987:vertical-axis wind turbines 930: 145: 10: 9261: 7860:: CS1 maint: url-status ( 7827:: CS1 maint: url-status ( 7668:: CS1 maint: url-status ( 6961:Langhamer, Olivia (2012). 6907:10.1016/j.rser.2021.110994 6655:10.1016/j.eiar.2022.106862 5893:Chong, Ng (3 March 2016). 5695:10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.032 5579:Offshore Wind Outlook 2019 5223:10.1038/s41598-021-91283-3 5100:. Accessed: 30 April 2020. 4785:10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.181 4579:Offshore Wind Outlook 2019 4394:"Midt i en disruptionstid" 4245:Global Wind Energy Council 4207:Offshore Wind Outlook 2019 4190:Offshore Wind Outlook 2019 3865:10.4024/N04PL13A.ntp.09.02 3852:Nanotechnology Perceptions 3774:Global Wind Energy Council 2625:, including the suspended 2405:Siemens Gamesa SWT-3.6-120 1487: 1481: 1340:core element involving an 1302: 1229:for routine access, and a 942: 372:by 2050 pathway to combat 303:(then named DONG Energy), 280:Global Wind Energy Council 140: 29: 9168: 9140:Variable renewable energy 9065: 9004: 8976: 8879: 8846: 8784: 7601:Marine Pollution Bulletin 7468:10.1080/15239080802242787 6967:TheScientificWorldJournal 6378:10.1109/TSTE.2012.2200511 6328:10.1002/9781118701638.ch5 6263:U.S. Department of Energy 5747:The Sydney Morning Herald 5385:Jamie D. (11 June 2009). 5073:. 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Garrad Hassan America 5723:3 December 2013 at the 4552:"A European Green Deal" 4456:The Wall Street Journal 4328:26 January 2020 at the 1910:MHI Vestas V164-9.5 MW 1835:MHI Vestas V164-9.5 MW 1410:Security considerations 1399:marine spatial planning 1162:real and reactive power 905:Tripod piled structures 798:exclusive economic zone 638:Planning and permitting 601:Offshore wind resources 350:Inflation Reduction Act 266:came third with 8% and 9155:Wind profile power law 9150:Wind power forecasting 8501:9 January 2012 at the 8376:Renewable Energy World 7507:. Forest transitions. 6425:Accommodation Platform 6110:10.1680/jencm.16.00004 5941:. NACE International. 5781:Floating Wind Turbines 4648:. Fraunhofer ISE. 2018 4351:Renewable Energy World 4173:. DNV GL. p. 124. 3989:Trakimavicius, Lukas. 3830:"Offshore Wind Energy" 3755:. GWEC. 19 March 2019. 3680:"OFFSHORE WIND | GWEC" 2597:Block Island Wind Farm 2588: 2555:Siemens Gamesa SWT-4.0 2527:54.036000°N 5.963000°E 2463:Kriegers Flak (605 MW) 2377:51.643889°N 1.553611°E 2291:54.044000°N 3.522000°W 2169:MHI Vestas V164 9.5MW 2141:51.707000°N 2.912389°E 1991:52.715111°N 4.251000°E 1812:58.1670806; -2.6985194 1760:MHI Vestas V164-10 MW 1579:53.910000°N 1.551806°E 1353:Environmental concerns 1222: 1179:reactive power control 1156: 1149:HVDC converter station 1024: 940: 872: 851: 839: 831: 816:floating wind turbines 765:"Smart from the Start" 671: 614: 503:floating offshore wind 423: 377: 206: 87:Floating wind turbines 58: 18:Offshore wind industry 9181:Wind power portal 7309:10.21926/jept.2204037 7113:datazone.birdlife.org 4483:Yahoo Finance website 4304:Justin Wilkes et al. 3403:Floating wind turbine 2627:Trillium Power Wind 1 2579: 2452:55.06278°N 13.00472°E 2388:London Array (630 MW) 2105:Borssele III & IV 1893:Triton Knoll (857 MW) 1212: 1195:Maersk Supply Service 1146: 1122:Installation capacity 1022: 945:Floating wind turbine 938: 870: 845: 837: 829: 723:Load transfer in the 670:until September 2018. 666:. The latter was the 645: 608: 417: 363: 213:) being installed in 204: 48:electrical substation 42: 8986:Consulting companies 8794:Airborne wind energy 8506:Alberta Oil Magazine 7376:Ecological Economics 7109:"BirdLife Data Zone" 6559:on 24 September 2018 6430:19 July 2011 at the 5741:Elaine Kurtenbach. " 5464:Smart from the Start 5450:Danish Energy Agency 5302:21 July 2011 at the 5122:. Cornell University 5092:10 June 2020 at the 4392:(21 December 2016). 3592:on 29 September 2018 3447:30 June 2011 at the 2614:. On 3 August 2018, 2296:54.044000; -3.522000 2216:52.66583°N 2.29556°E 2066:51.70278°N 3.07611°E 1955:Hollandse Kust Noord 1732:56.58806°N 1.74111°W 1654:53.88500°N 1.79111°E 1439:improve this section 1429:may not represent a 1299:Environmental impact 1086:tripods (steel) and 1083:monopile foundations 927:installation costs. 805:international waters 729:elastomeric bearings 668:largest in the world 66:offshore wind energy 9245:Offshore wind farms 9215:Additional portals: 9145:Virtual power plant 8978:Wind power industry 8856:Lists of wind farms 8451:Energy News Network 8239:on 21 February 2014 8150:on 6 September 2018 8144:"About the project" 7613:2010MarPB..60..493J 7517:2010LUPol..27..222C 7460:2008JEPP...10..289H 7388:2009EcoEc..69...93P 7253:2017MarPo..81..116V 7085:2003MEPS..265..263K 7038:2015OCM...109...40C 6980:10.1100/2012/386713 6899:2021RSERv.14410994C 6850:2014ERL.....9c4012B 6760:2009WiEn...12..203W 6713:2014MarPo..48..172V 6646:2022EIARv..9706862A 6467:2015EnPro..80..263V 6370:2012ITSE....3..899T 6226:. 17 February 2022. 6037:on 28 February 2010 5687:2015RSERv..42..141P 5544:2019EnPol.128..919E 5215:2021NatSR..1111826A 5069:". Washington, DC: 5043:Original, in Danish 4994:. 26 September 2018 4972:. 11 September 2017 4776:2017RSERv..73..758P 4737:2012Ene....41..298S 4556:European Commission 4463:on 8 September 2023 4142:European Commission 3948:Ho, Andrew (2015). 3846:Platt, Jim (2013). 3468:"Energia per tutti" 2666: 2532:54.036000; 5.963000 2522: / 2447: / 2382:51.643889; 1.553611 2372: / 2330:Siemens Gamesa 7 MW 2286: / 2211: / 2146:51.707000; 2.912389 2136: / 2094:Siemens Gamesa 8MW 2061: / 2030:Borssele I & II 1996:52.715111; 4.251000 1986: / 1877: / 1818:Moray East (950 MW) 1802: / 1727: / 1649: / 1584:53.910000; 1.551806 1574: / 1496: 1201:from idling ships. 1100:cathodic protection 1076:Dynamic positioning 1005:cathodic protection 951:Blue H Technologies 497:Researchers at the 389:European Commission 114:Hornsea Project Two 62:Offshore wind power 8321:on 21 January 2019 8295:on 21 January 2019 8211:2011-03-09 at the 8042:www.4coffshore.com 7983:"Borssele 1&2" 7936:SeagreenWindEnergy 7337:Tourism Management 7094:10.3354/meps265263 6244:. 7 February 2022. 5607:on 7 December 2017 5419:on 28 August 2009. 5203:Scientific Reports 4915:. 17 August 2016. 4893:. 12 December 2016 4674:. 27 January 2002. 4430:on 26 January 2020 4122:. 3 February 2016. 4044:. 22 February 2017 3617:The New York Times 3413:Offshore wind port 2664: 2589: 2457:55.06278; 13.00472 1743:Seagreen (1075 MW) 1737:56.58806; -1.74111 1494: 1223: 1157: 1115:offshore wind port 1081:A large number of 1042:. You can help by 1025: 941: 873: 852: 840: 832: 809:artificial islands 787:territorial waters 672: 615: 528:. You can help by 466:. You can help by 424: 418:Comparison of the 378: 356:Future development 256:Siemens Wind Power 219:nameplate capacity 207: 94:nameplate capacity 59: 9232: 9231: 8824:on public display 7912:. 30 January 2020 7188:Asbury Park Press 6794:eur-lex.europa.eu 6208:. September 2022. 6064:Horns Rev project 5904:978-0-08-100780-8 5837:Windpower Monthly 4606:978-92-861-5754-7 4526:, 27 April 2016. 4247:. 28 August 2023. 3521:. 6 December 2017 3389: 3388: 2564: 2563: 2221:52.66583; 2.29556 2071:51.70278; 3.07611 1659:53.88500; 1.79111 1506:Site coordinates 1471: 1470: 1463: 1215:Rødsand Wind Farm 1060: 1059: 611:Global Wind Atlas 572:(MWh) at the 700 546: 545: 484: 483: 179: 178: 16:(Redirected from 9252: 9219:Renewable energy 9214: 9202: 9201: 9190: 9189: 9179: 9178: 9025:GE Offshore Wind 8771: 8764: 8757: 8748: 8747: 8742: 8741: 8739: 8737: 8728: 8720: 8714: 8713: 8711: 8709: 8700: 8692: 8686: 8685: 8683: 8681: 8675: 8669:. Archived from 8664: 8656: 8650: 8649: 8647: 8645: 8631: 8625: 8624: 8617: 8611: 8610: 8608: 8606: 8594: 8588: 8587: 8585: 8583: 8568: 8562: 8561: 8559: 8557: 8548:. Archived from 8542: 8536: 8535: 8533: 8531: 8515: 8509: 8493: 8487: 8486: 8484: 8482: 8468: 8462: 8461: 8459: 8457: 8442: 8436: 8435: 8433: 8431: 8426:on 29 April 2015 8422:. Archived from 8412: 8406: 8405: 8403: 8401: 8386: 8380: 8379: 8367: 8361: 8360: 8358: 8356: 8337: 8331: 8330: 8328: 8326: 8317:. Archived from 8311: 8305: 8304: 8302: 8300: 8291:. Archived from 8281: 8275: 8274: 8272: 8270: 8265:on 10 April 2018 8261:. Archived from 8255: 8249: 8248: 8246: 8244: 8235:. Archived from 8225: 8219: 8206:First foundation 8204:Wittrup, Sanne. 8202: 8196: 8195: 8193: 8191: 8185: 8179:. Archived from 8174: 8166: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8155: 8146:. Archived from 8140: 8134: 8133: 8131: 8129: 8114: 8108: 8107: 8105: 8103: 8084: 8078: 8077: 8075: 8073: 8059: 8053: 8052: 8050: 8048: 8034: 8028: 8027: 8025: 8023: 8009: 8003: 8002: 8000: 7998: 7979: 7973: 7972: 7970: 7968: 7953: 7947: 7946: 7944: 7942: 7928: 7922: 7921: 7919: 7917: 7902: 7896: 7895: 7893: 7891: 7886:on 20 April 2018 7882:. Archived from 7872: 7866: 7865: 7859: 7851: 7839: 7833: 7832: 7826: 7818: 7806: 7800: 7799: 7797: 7789: 7783: 7782: 7772: 7748: 7742: 7741: 7735: 7726: 7720: 7719: 7707: 7701: 7700: 7680: 7674: 7673: 7667: 7659: 7647: 7641: 7640: 7592: 7586: 7585: 7567: 7543: 7537: 7536: 7496: 7490: 7489: 7479: 7439: 7433: 7432: 7430: 7428: 7414: 7408: 7407: 7367: 7361: 7360: 7328: 7322: 7321: 7311: 7287: 7281: 7280: 7232: 7226: 7225: 7223: 7221: 7205: 7199: 7198: 7196: 7194: 7180: 7174: 7173: 7171: 7169: 7155: 7149: 7148: 7146: 7144: 7130: 7124: 7123: 7121: 7119: 7105: 7099: 7098: 7096: 7064: 7058: 7057: 7017: 7011: 7010: 7000: 6982: 6958: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6947: 6933: 6927: 6926: 6878: 6872: 6871: 6861: 6829: 6823: 6822: 6811: 6805: 6804: 6802: 6800: 6786: 6780: 6779: 6739: 6733: 6732: 6692: 6686: 6685: 6667: 6657: 6625: 6619: 6618: 6616: 6614: 6600: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6589: 6575: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6564: 6545: 6539: 6538: 6536: 6534: 6525:. Archived from 6515: 6509: 6508: 6506: 6504: 6487: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6446: 6440: 6422: 6416: 6415: 6408:Business Insider 6399: 6390: 6389: 6353: 6342: 6341: 6315: 6309: 6308: 6306: 6304: 6299: 6290: 6277: 6271: 6270: 6266: 6260: 6252: 6246: 6245: 6234: 6228: 6227: 6216: 6210: 6209: 6198: 6192: 6191: 6189: 6187: 6181: 6170: 6164: 6163: 6161: 6159: 6153: 6143: 6137: 6136: 6134: 6095: 6086: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6075: 6066:. Archived from 6056: 6047: 6046: 6044: 6042: 6031:OffshoreWind.net 6023: 6017: 6016: 5997: 5991: 5990: 5974: 5968: 5967: 5961: 5953: 5947: 5946: 5936: 5926: 5917: 5916: 5890: 5879: 5878: 5876: 5874: 5859: 5853: 5852: 5850: 5848: 5828: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5817: 5808:. Archived from 5798: 5792: 5791: 5789: 5787: 5773: 5767: 5756: 5750: 5739: 5733: 5715: 5709: 5708: 5706: 5670: 5661: 5660: 5658: 5656: 5645: 5639: 5638: 5623: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5593: 5584: 5583: 5573: 5564: 5563: 5529: 5520: 5511: 5510: 5508: 5506: 5497: 5488: 5473: 5460: 5454: 5442: 5436: 5427: 5421: 5420: 5415:. Archived from 5409: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5398: 5382: 5376: 5363: 5357: 5356: 5354: 5352: 5347:on 9 August 2016 5343:. Archived from 5337: 5331: 5318: 5312: 5293: 5287: 5276: 5270: 5259: 5253: 5252: 5242: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5169: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5158: 5138: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5127: 5121: 5112: 5101: 5080: 5074: 5060: 5051: 5035:Stiesdal, Henrik 5032: 5026: 5025: 5023: 5021: 5010: 5004: 5003: 5001: 4999: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4979: 4977: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4955: 4935: 4929: 4928: 4926: 4924: 4909: 4903: 4902: 4900: 4898: 4883: 4877: 4876: 4874: 4872: 4857: 4851: 4847: 4841: 4840: 4838: 4836: 4822: 4816: 4815: 4813: 4811: 4806:. 29 August 2023 4796: 4790: 4789: 4787: 4755: 4749: 4748: 4720: 4707: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4682: 4676: 4675: 4664: 4658: 4657: 4655: 4653: 4642: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4617: 4611: 4610: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4573: 4567: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4547: 4538: 4515: 4509: 4508: 4492: 4486: 4479: 4473: 4472: 4470: 4468: 4459:. Archived from 4446: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4426:. Archived from 4420: 4414: 4413: 4408: 4406: 4390:Stiesdal, Henrik 4386: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4375: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4342: 4336: 4320: 4314: 4302: 4296: 4277: 4271: 4258: 4249: 4248: 4237: 4231: 4230: 4218: 4212: 4211: 4201: 4195: 4194: 4184: 4175: 4174: 4164: 4153: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4133: 4124: 4123: 4112: 4106: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4077: 4075: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4051: 4049: 4034: 4028: 4027: 4025: 4023: 4012: 4006: 4005: 4003: 4001: 3986: 3980: 3973: 3967: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3956: 3945: 3939: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3900: 3897: 3891: 3890: 3888: 3886: 3876: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3834: 3828:(October 2010). 3822: 3811: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3800: 3792: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3766: 3757: 3756: 3749: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3729: 3718: 3710: 3695: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3659: 3651: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3608: 3602: 3601: 3599: 3597: 3588:. Archived from 3582: 3576: 3575: 3563: 3554: 3540: 3531: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3502: 3493: 3484: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3463: 3457: 3438: 2667: 2663: 2640:started project 2546: 2545: 2543: 2542: 2541: 2539: 2534: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2520: 2519: 2518: 2515: 2502: 2500: 2499: 2491:Gemini Wind Farm 2471: 2470: 2468: 2467: 2466: 2464: 2459: 2458: 2453: 2448: 2445: 2444: 2443: 2440: 2427: 2425: 2424: 2396: 2395: 2393: 2392: 2391: 2389: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2370: 2369: 2368: 2365: 2352: 2350: 2349: 2318: 2310: 2309: 2307: 2306: 2305: 2303: 2298: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2284: 2283: 2282: 2279: 2266: 2264: 2263: 2255:Walney Extension 2235: 2234: 2232: 2231: 2230: 2228: 2223: 2222: 2217: 2212: 2209: 2208: 2207: 2204: 2191: 2189: 2188: 2160: 2159: 2157: 2156: 2155: 2153: 2148: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2134: 2133: 2132: 2129: 2116: 2114: 2113: 2085: 2084: 2082: 2081: 2080: 2078: 2073: 2072: 2067: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2057: 2054: 2041: 2039: 2038: 2010: 2009: 2007: 2006: 2005: 2003: 1998: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1984: 1983: 1982: 1979: 1966: 1964: 1963: 1930: 1928: 1927: 1901: 1900: 1898: 1897: 1896: 1894: 1889: 1888: 1883: 1882:53.400°N 0.900°E 1878: 1875: 1874: 1873: 1870: 1857: 1855: 1854: 1826: 1825: 1823: 1822: 1821: 1819: 1814: 1813: 1808: 1803: 1800: 1799: 1798: 1795: 1782: 1780: 1779: 1751: 1750: 1748: 1747: 1746: 1744: 1739: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1725: 1724: 1723: 1720: 1707: 1705: 1704: 1673: 1672: 1670: 1669: 1668: 1666: 1661: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1647: 1646: 1645: 1642: 1629: 1627: 1626: 1598: 1597: 1595: 1594: 1593: 1591: 1586: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1572: 1571: 1570: 1567: 1554: 1552: 1551: 1497: 1493: 1466: 1459: 1455: 1452: 1446: 1422: 1421: 1414: 1367:artificial reefs 1055: 1052: 1034: 1027: 1003:be used include 863:Fixed foundation 541: 538: 520: 513: 479: 476: 458: 451: 447:Investment costs 433:air conditioning 329: 325: 192:(2011–2020) and 161: 160: 153: 21: 9260: 9259: 9255: 9254: 9253: 9251: 9250: 9249: 9235: 9234: 9233: 9228: 9173: 9164: 9135:Tip-speed ratio 9130:Net energy gain 9088:Capacity factor 9061: 9000: 8972: 8875: 8861:Community-owned 8842: 8780: 8775: 8745: 8735: 8733: 8726: 8722: 8721: 8717: 8707: 8705: 8698: 8694: 8693: 8689: 8679: 8677: 8676:on 28 June 2022 8673: 8662: 8658: 8657: 8653: 8643: 8641: 8633: 8632: 8628: 8619: 8618: 8614: 8604: 8602: 8595: 8591: 8581: 8579: 8570: 8569: 8565: 8555: 8553: 8544: 8543: 8539: 8529: 8527: 8516: 8512: 8503:Wayback Machine 8494: 8490: 8480: 8478: 8470: 8469: 8465: 8455: 8453: 8443: 8439: 8429: 8427: 8414: 8413: 8409: 8399: 8397: 8388: 8387: 8383: 8368: 8364: 8354: 8352: 8339: 8338: 8334: 8324: 8322: 8313: 8312: 8308: 8298: 8296: 8283: 8282: 8278: 8268: 8266: 8257: 8256: 8252: 8242: 8240: 8233:londonarray.com 8227: 8226: 8222: 8213:Wayback Machine 8203: 8199: 8189: 8187: 8186:on 22 July 2011 8183: 8177:londonarray.com 8172: 8168: 8167: 8163: 8153: 8151: 8142: 8141: 8137: 8127: 8125: 8116: 8115: 8111: 8101: 8099: 8086: 8085: 8081: 8071: 8069: 8061: 8060: 8056: 8046: 8044: 8036: 8035: 8031: 8021: 8019: 8011: 8010: 8006: 7996: 7994: 7981: 7980: 7976: 7966: 7964: 7955: 7954: 7950: 7940: 7938: 7930: 7929: 7925: 7915: 7913: 7904: 7903: 7899: 7889: 7887: 7874: 7873: 7869: 7853: 7852: 7840: 7836: 7820: 7819: 7807: 7803: 7798:. 29 June 2023. 7795: 7791: 7790: 7786: 7749: 7745: 7733: 7727: 7723: 7708: 7704: 7681: 7677: 7661: 7660: 7648: 7644: 7593: 7589: 7544: 7540: 7505:Land Use Policy 7497: 7493: 7440: 7436: 7426: 7424: 7416: 7415: 7411: 7368: 7364: 7329: 7325: 7288: 7284: 7233: 7229: 7219: 7217: 7206: 7202: 7192: 7190: 7182: 7181: 7177: 7167: 7165: 7163:tethys.pnnl.gov 7157: 7156: 7152: 7142: 7140: 7138:tethys.pnnl.gov 7132: 7131: 7127: 7117: 7115: 7107: 7106: 7102: 7065: 7061: 7018: 7014: 6959: 6955: 6945: 6943: 6941:tethys.pnnl.gov 6935: 6934: 6930: 6879: 6875: 6830: 6826: 6813: 6812: 6808: 6798: 6796: 6788: 6787: 6783: 6740: 6736: 6693: 6689: 6626: 6622: 6612: 6610: 6602: 6601: 6597: 6587: 6585: 6577: 6576: 6572: 6562: 6560: 6547: 6546: 6542: 6532: 6530: 6529:on 1 April 2020 6517: 6516: 6512: 6502: 6500: 6488: 6484: 6455:Energy Procedia 6447: 6443: 6432:Wayback Machine 6423: 6419: 6400: 6393: 6354: 6345: 6338: 6316: 6312: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6291: 6280: 6268: 6258: 6254: 6253: 6249: 6236: 6235: 6231: 6218: 6217: 6213: 6200: 6199: 6195: 6185: 6183: 6179: 6171: 6167: 6157: 6155: 6151: 6145: 6144: 6140: 6132: 6093: 6087: 6083: 6073: 6071: 6058: 6057: 6050: 6040: 6038: 6025: 6024: 6020: 5998: 5994: 5975: 5971: 5954: 5950: 5927: 5920: 5905: 5891: 5882: 5872: 5870: 5860: 5856: 5846: 5844: 5829: 5825: 5815: 5813: 5812:on 21 July 2020 5800: 5799: 5795: 5785: 5783: 5775: 5774: 5770: 5757: 5753: 5740: 5736: 5725:Wayback Machine 5716: 5712: 5671: 5664: 5654: 5652: 5651:. 27 March 2017 5647: 5646: 5642: 5633:. 15 May 2019. 5625: 5624: 5620: 5610: 5608: 5595: 5594: 5587: 5574: 5567: 5527: 5521: 5514: 5504: 5502: 5495: 5489: 5476: 5461: 5457: 5443: 5439: 5428: 5424: 5411: 5410: 5406: 5396: 5394: 5383: 5379: 5364: 5360: 5350: 5348: 5339: 5338: 5334: 5319: 5315: 5304:Wayback Machine 5294: 5290: 5277: 5273: 5260: 5256: 5195: 5191: 5181: 5179: 5171: 5170: 5166: 5156: 5154: 5139: 5135: 5125: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5104: 5094:Wayback Machine 5081: 5077: 5061: 5054: 5033: 5029: 5019: 5017: 5012: 5011: 5007: 4997: 4995: 4990: 4989: 4985: 4975: 4973: 4968: 4967: 4963: 4953: 4951: 4936: 4932: 4922: 4920: 4911: 4910: 4906: 4896: 4894: 4885: 4884: 4880: 4870: 4868: 4859: 4858: 4854: 4848: 4844: 4834: 4832: 4824: 4823: 4819: 4809: 4807: 4798: 4797: 4793: 4756: 4752: 4721: 4710: 4700: 4698: 4683: 4679: 4666: 4665: 4661: 4651: 4649: 4644: 4643: 4639: 4629: 4627: 4619: 4618: 4614: 4607: 4591: 4587: 4574: 4570: 4560: 4558: 4548: 4541: 4516: 4512: 4493: 4489: 4480: 4476: 4466: 4464: 4447: 4443: 4433: 4431: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4404: 4402: 4387: 4383: 4373: 4371: 4362: 4358: 4343: 4339: 4330:Wayback Machine 4321: 4317: 4303: 4299: 4288:Wayback Machine 4278: 4274: 4259: 4252: 4239: 4238: 4234: 4219: 4215: 4202: 4198: 4185: 4178: 4167:DNV GL (2019). 4165: 4156: 4146: 4144: 4134: 4127: 4114: 4113: 4109: 4099: 4097: 4087: 4083: 4073: 4071: 4061: 4057: 4047: 4045: 4036: 4035: 4031: 4021: 4019: 4014: 4013: 4009: 3999: 3997: 3987: 3983: 3974: 3970: 3960: 3958: 3954: 3946: 3942: 3932: 3930: 3925: 3924: 3920: 3912: 3903: 3898: 3894: 3884: 3882: 3878: 3877: 3873: 3844: 3840: 3832: 3823: 3814: 3804: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3793: 3789: 3779: 3777: 3776:. 24 March 2021 3768: 3767: 3760: 3751: 3750: 3743: 3733: 3731: 3730:on 25 July 2019 3727: 3716: 3712: 3711: 3698: 3688: 3686: 3678: 3677: 3673: 3663: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3652: 3648: 3640: 3636: 3635: 3631: 3621: 3619: 3609: 3605: 3595: 3593: 3584: 3583: 3579: 3564: 3557: 3541: 3534: 3524: 3522: 3513: 3512: 3508: 3500: 3494: 3487: 3477: 3475: 3464: 3460: 3449:Wayback Machine 3439: 3430: 3426: 3394: 2662: 2655: 2616:Dominion Energy 2574: 2537: 2535: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2524: 2521: 2516: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2508: 2497: 2495: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2454: 2450: 2449: 2446: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2433: 2422: 2420: 2387: 2385: 2381: 2379: 2375: 2374: 2371: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2358: 2347: 2345: 2329: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2293: 2289: 2288: 2285: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2272: 2261: 2259: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2218: 2214: 2213: 2210: 2205: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2197: 2186: 2184: 2180:East Anglia ONE 2151: 2149: 2145: 2143: 2139: 2138: 2135: 2130: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2122: 2111: 2109: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2068: 2064: 2063: 2060: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2048: 2047: 2036: 2034: 2001: 1999: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1988: 1985: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1972: 1961: 1959: 1925: 1923: 1920:Jiangsu Qidong 1892: 1890: 1886: 1884: 1880: 1879: 1876: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1863: 1852: 1850: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1809: 1805: 1804: 1801: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1789: 1788: 1777: 1775: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1734: 1730: 1729: 1726: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1713: 1702: 1700: 1664: 1662: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1651: 1648: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1636: 1635: 1624: 1622: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1576: 1573: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1561: 1560: 1549: 1547: 1532: 1526: 1521: 1512: 1492: 1486: 1480: 1467: 1456: 1450: 1447: 1436: 1423: 1419: 1412: 1391: 1355: 1320: 1307: 1301: 1285:Yttre Stengrund 1280: 1278:Decommissioning 1207: 1191: 1153:heavy-lift ship 1141: 1139:Grid connection 1136: 1124: 1056: 1050: 1047: 1040:needs expansion 1017: 996: 983:horizontal-axis 979: 971:Hywind Scotland 947: 933: 865: 824: 776: 774:Legal framework 740:decision-making 640: 603: 562: 542: 536: 533: 526:needs expansion 511: 509:Operating costs 480: 474: 471: 464:needs expansion 449: 412: 358: 327: 323: 288: 199: 198: 197: 187: 180: 175: 162: 158: 148: 143: 134:capacity factor 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9258: 9248: 9247: 9230: 9229: 9227: 9226: 9221: 9216: 9208: 9196: 9184: 9169: 9166: 9165: 9163: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9127: 9122: 9117: 9112: 9110:Energy subsidy 9107: 9106: 9105: 9098:Energy storage 9095: 9090: 9085: 9080: 9075: 9069: 9067: 9063: 9062: 9060: 9059: 9054: 9049: 9047:Siemens Gamesa 9044: 9039: 9034: 9029: 9028: 9027: 9016: 9010: 9008: 9002: 9001: 8999: 8998: 8993: 8988: 8982: 8980: 8974: 8973: 8971: 8970: 8969: 8968: 8963: 8953: 8952: 8951: 8946: 8936: 8934:Unconventional 8931: 8926: 8921: 8916: 8911: 8906: 8901: 8899:Crosswind kite 8896: 8891: 8885: 8883: 8877: 8876: 8874: 8873: 8868: 8866:Offshore farms 8863: 8858: 8852: 8850: 8844: 8843: 8841: 8840: 8839: 8838: 8828: 8827: 8826: 8816: 8811: 8806: 8801: 8796: 8790: 8788: 8782: 8781: 8774: 8773: 8766: 8759: 8751: 8744: 8743: 8715: 8687: 8651: 8626: 8612: 8589: 8576:www.pib.nic.in 8563: 8552:on 16 May 2008 8537: 8510: 8488: 8463: 8437: 8420:Deepwater Wind 8407: 8381: 8362: 8345:4coffshore.com 8332: 8306: 8276: 8250: 8220: 8197: 8161: 8135: 8109: 8079: 8054: 8029: 8004: 7974: 7948: 7923: 7897: 7867: 7834: 7815:Renewables Now 7801: 7784: 7743: 7721: 7716:S&P Global 7702: 7675: 7642: 7607:(4): 493–499. 7587: 7558:(1): 157–176. 7538: 7511:(2): 222–232. 7491: 7454:(3): 289–306. 7434: 7409: 7362: 7323: 7282: 7247:(1): 116–123. 7227: 7200: 7175: 7150: 7125: 7100: 7059: 7012: 6953: 6928: 6873: 6824: 6806: 6781: 6768:10.1002/we.324 6754:(2): 203–212. 6734: 6687: 6620: 6595: 6570: 6540: 6523:E.ON energized 6510: 6482: 6441: 6417: 6391: 6343: 6336: 6310: 6278: 6265:. August 2021. 6247: 6242:Renewables Now 6229: 6211: 6193: 6165: 6138: 6104:(4): 183–195. 6081: 6070:on 21 May 2011 6048: 6018: 5992: 5969: 5948: 5918: 5903: 5880: 5854: 5823: 5793: 5768: 5751: 5734: 5729:Bureau Veritas 5710: 5662: 5640: 5618: 5585: 5565: 5512: 5500:United Nations 5474: 5455: 5437: 5433:Energy Matters 5422: 5404: 5393:on 31 May 2012 5377: 5365:Jonkman, J.M. 5358: 5332: 5313: 5295:Quarton, D.C. 5288: 5271: 5254: 5189: 5177:techxplore.com 5164: 5133: 5102: 5075: 5052: 5027: 5005: 4983: 4961: 4930: 4904: 4878: 4867:on 15 May 2016 4852: 4842: 4817: 4791: 4750: 4731:(1): 298–312. 4708: 4677: 4672:New York Times 4659: 4637: 4621:"Press corner" 4612: 4605: 4585: 4568: 4539: 4520:, pp.205-212. 4510: 4487: 4474: 4441: 4415: 4381: 4356: 4337: 4315: 4297: 4279:Nymark, Jens. 4272: 4260:Lindvig, Kaj. 4250: 4232: 4213: 4196: 4176: 4154: 4125: 4107: 4081: 4055: 4029: 4007: 3981: 3968: 3940: 3918: 3901: 3892: 3871: 3838: 3812: 3787: 3758: 3741: 3696: 3671: 3646: 3629: 3603: 3577: 3555: 3532: 3506: 3485: 3472:Internazionale 3458: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3421: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3408:Floating solar 3405: 3400: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3386: 3383: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3359: 3356: 3355: 3352: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3340: 3337: 3334: 3331: 3328: 3325: 3324: 3321: 3318: 3315: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3300: 3297: 3293: 3292: 3289: 3286: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3268: 3265: 3261: 3260: 3257: 3254: 3251: 3248: 3245: 3242: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3229: 3228: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3207: 3204: 3201: 3197: 3196: 3193: 3190: 3187: 3184: 3181: 3178: 3175: 3172: 3167: 3163: 3162: 3159: 3156: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3144: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3131: 3130: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3115: 3112: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3099: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3089: 3086: 3083: 3080: 3077: 3074: 3071: 3067: 3066: 3063: 3060: 3057: 3054: 3051: 3048: 3045: 3042: 3037: 3033: 3032: 3029: 3026: 3023: 3020: 3017: 3014: 3011: 3008: 3003: 2999: 2998: 2995: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2948: 2945: 2942: 2939: 2935: 2934: 2931: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2919: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2907: 2903: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2893: 2890: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2873: 2869: 2868: 2865: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2844: 2839: 2835: 2834: 2831: 2828: 2825: 2822: 2819: 2816: 2813: 2810: 2805: 2801: 2800: 2797: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2776: 2771: 2767: 2766: 2763: 2760: 2757: 2754: 2751: 2748: 2745: 2742: 2740:United Kingdom 2737: 2733: 2732: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2717: 2714: 2711: 2708: 2703: 2699: 2698: 2695: 2692: 2689: 2686: 2683: 2680: 2677: 2674: 2671: 2661: 2658: 2653: 2612:Virginia Beach 2601:sportfishermen 2573: 2570: 2562: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2506: 2493: 2487: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2478: 2475: 2472: 2431: 2418: 2412: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2403: 2400: 2397: 2356: 2354:United Kingdom 2343: 2337: 2336: 2334: 2331: 2319: 2314: 2311: 2270: 2268:United Kingdom 2257: 2251: 2250: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2236: 2195: 2193:United Kingdom 2182: 2176: 2175: 2173: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2161: 2120: 2107: 2101: 2100: 2098: 2095: 2092: 2089: 2086: 2045: 2032: 2026: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2017: 2014: 2011: 1970: 1957: 1951: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1921: 1917: 1916: 1914: 1911: 1908: 1905: 1902: 1861: 1859:United Kingdom 1848: 1842: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1786: 1784:United Kingdom 1773: 1767: 1766: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1711: 1709:United Kingdom 1698: 1692: 1691: 1689: 1686: 1683:Siemens Gamesa 1680: 1677: 1674: 1633: 1631:United Kingdom 1620: 1614: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1558: 1556:United Kingdom 1545: 1539: 1538: 1535: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1482:Main article: 1479: 1476: 1469: 1468: 1433:of the subject 1431:worldwide view 1426: 1424: 1417: 1411: 1408: 1390: 1387: 1354: 1351: 1319: 1316: 1303:Main article: 1300: 1297: 1279: 1276: 1260:telephoto lens 1249:galvanic anode 1206: 1203: 1190: 1187: 1140: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1123: 1120: 1058: 1057: 1037: 1035: 1016: 1013: 995: 992: 978: 975: 943:Main article: 932: 929: 912: 911: 908: 902: 899: 896: 864: 861: 823: 820: 775: 772: 754:European Union 690: 689: 682: 679: 656:Gunfleet Sands 648:Thames Estuary 639: 636: 602: 599: 588:United Kingdom 561: 560:Cost of energy 558: 544: 543: 523: 521: 510: 507: 482: 481: 461: 459: 448: 445: 411: 408: 374:climate change 357: 354: 287: 284: 231:United Kingdom 181: 177: 176: 165: 163: 156: 151: 150: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 118:United Kingdom 106:United Kingdom 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9257: 9246: 9243: 9242: 9240: 9225: 9222: 9220: 9217: 9213: 9209: 9207: 9206: 9197: 9195: 9194: 9185: 9183: 9182: 9177: 9171: 9170: 9167: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9108: 9104: 9101: 9100: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9076: 9074: 9071: 9070: 9068: 9064: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9026: 9022: 9021: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9011: 9009: 9007: 9006:Manufacturers 9003: 8997: 8994: 8992: 8991:Manufacturers 8989: 8987: 8984: 8983: 8981: 8979: 8975: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8959: 8958: 8957: 8954: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8941: 8940: 8939:Vertical-axis 8937: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8919:Pitch bearing 8917: 8915: 8912: 8910: 8907: 8905: 8902: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8890: 8887: 8886: 8884: 8882: 8881:Wind turbines 8878: 8872: 8871:Onshore farms 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8853: 8851: 8849: 8845: 8837: 8834: 8833: 8832: 8829: 8825: 8822: 8821: 8820: 8817: 8815: 8812: 8810: 8809:Land vehicles 8807: 8805: 8802: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8791: 8789: 8787: 8783: 8779: 8772: 8767: 8765: 8760: 8758: 8753: 8752: 8749: 8732: 8725: 8719: 8704: 8697: 8691: 8672: 8668: 8661: 8655: 8640: 8636: 8630: 8622: 8616: 8600: 8593: 8577: 8573: 8567: 8551: 8547: 8541: 8525: 8521: 8514: 8507: 8504: 8500: 8497: 8492: 8477: 8473: 8467: 8452: 8448: 8441: 8425: 8421: 8417: 8411: 8396:. 14 May 2015 8395: 8391: 8385: 8377: 8373: 8366: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8336: 8320: 8316: 8310: 8294: 8290: 8286: 8280: 8264: 8260: 8254: 8238: 8234: 8230: 8224: 8217: 8214: 8210: 8207: 8201: 8182: 8178: 8171: 8165: 8149: 8145: 8139: 8124:. 3 July 2020 8123: 8122:Offshore Wind 8119: 8113: 8097: 8093: 8092:Offshore Wind 8089: 8083: 8068: 8064: 8058: 8043: 8039: 8033: 8018: 8014: 8008: 7992: 7988: 7984: 7978: 7962: 7958: 7952: 7937: 7933: 7927: 7911: 7910:Offshore Wind 7907: 7901: 7885: 7881: 7880:Offshore Wind 7877: 7871: 7863: 7857: 7849: 7848:energy cental 7845: 7838: 7830: 7824: 7816: 7812: 7805: 7794: 7788: 7780: 7776: 7771: 7766: 7762: 7758: 7757:European View 7754: 7747: 7739: 7732: 7725: 7717: 7713: 7706: 7698: 7694: 7690: 7686: 7679: 7671: 7665: 7657: 7653: 7646: 7638: 7634: 7630: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7598: 7591: 7583: 7579: 7575: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7542: 7534: 7530: 7526: 7522: 7518: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7495: 7487: 7483: 7478: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7438: 7423: 7419: 7413: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7382:(1): 93–103. 7381: 7377: 7373: 7366: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7327: 7319: 7315: 7310: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7286: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7241:Marine Policy 7238: 7231: 7216:. PBS and NPR 7215: 7211: 7204: 7189: 7185: 7179: 7164: 7160: 7154: 7139: 7135: 7129: 7114: 7110: 7104: 7095: 7090: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7063: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7016: 7008: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6957: 6942: 6938: 6932: 6924: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6877: 6869: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6851: 6847: 6844:(3): 034012. 6843: 6839: 6835: 6828: 6820: 6816: 6810: 6795: 6791: 6785: 6777: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6738: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6701:Marine Policy 6698: 6691: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6624: 6609: 6605: 6599: 6584: 6580: 6574: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6544: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6514: 6499: 6498: 6493: 6486: 6477: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6445: 6438: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6426: 6421: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6398: 6396: 6387: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6352: 6350: 6348: 6339: 6337:9781118701638 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6314: 6296: 6289: 6287: 6285: 6283: 6275: 6274:public domain 6264: 6257: 6251: 6243: 6239: 6233: 6225: 6221: 6215: 6207: 6206:Trivium China 6203: 6197: 6178: 6177: 6169: 6150: 6149: 6142: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6092: 6085: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6055: 6053: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6022: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5996: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5973: 5965: 5962:. Bloomberg. 5960: 5952: 5944: 5940: 5935: 5934: 5925: 5923: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5900: 5896: 5889: 5887: 5885: 5869: 5865: 5858: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5827: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5797: 5782: 5778: 5772: 5765: 5761: 5755: 5748: 5744: 5738: 5731: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5719: 5714: 5705: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5669: 5667: 5650: 5644: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5622: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5592: 5590: 5581: 5580: 5572: 5570: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5532:Energy Policy 5526: 5519: 5517: 5501: 5494: 5487: 5485: 5483: 5481: 5479: 5471: 5470: 5465: 5459: 5452: 5451: 5447:(in Danish). 5446: 5441: 5434: 5431: 5426: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5392: 5388: 5381: 5374: 5373: 5368: 5362: 5346: 5342: 5336: 5329: 5328: 5323: 5317: 5310: 5309: 5308:Garrad Hassan 5305: 5301: 5298: 5292: 5285: 5284: 5280: 5275: 5268: 5267: 5263: 5258: 5250: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5193: 5178: 5174: 5168: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5137: 5118: 5111: 5109: 5107: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5088: 5084: 5079: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5059: 5057: 5049: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5031: 5016:. August 2018 5015: 5009: 4993: 4987: 4971: 4965: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4934: 4918: 4914: 4908: 4892: 4891:Offshore Wind 4888: 4882: 4866: 4862: 4856: 4846: 4831: 4827: 4821: 4805: 4804:www.irena.org 4801: 4795: 4786: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4754: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4719: 4717: 4715: 4713: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4681: 4673: 4669: 4663: 4647: 4641: 4626: 4622: 4616: 4608: 4602: 4598: 4597: 4589: 4581: 4580: 4572: 4557: 4553: 4546: 4544: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4524: 4523:OECD iLibrary 4519: 4514: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4491: 4484: 4478: 4462: 4458: 4457: 4452: 4445: 4429: 4425: 4419: 4412: 4401: 4400: 4395: 4391: 4385: 4370: 4367: 4360: 4352: 4348: 4341: 4334: 4331: 4327: 4324: 4319: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4301: 4294: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4282: 4276: 4269: 4268: 4263: 4257: 4255: 4246: 4242: 4236: 4228: 4224: 4217: 4209: 4208: 4200: 4192: 4191: 4183: 4181: 4172: 4171: 4163: 4161: 4159: 4143: 4139: 4132: 4130: 4121: 4120:CleanTechnica 4117: 4111: 4096: 4095:Bloomberg.com 4092: 4085: 4070: 4069:Bloomberg.com 4066: 4059: 4043: 4039: 4033: 4017: 4011: 3996: 3992: 3985: 3979: 3972: 3953: 3952: 3944: 3928: 3922: 3915: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3896: 3881: 3875: 3866: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3842: 3831: 3827: 3821: 3819: 3817: 3797: 3791: 3775: 3771: 3765: 3763: 3754: 3748: 3746: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3685: 3681: 3675: 3656: 3650: 3639: 3633: 3618: 3614: 3607: 3591: 3587: 3581: 3573: 3569: 3562: 3560: 3552: 3549:(EIA) of the 3548: 3544: 3539: 3537: 3520: 3516: 3510: 3499: 3492: 3490: 3473: 3469: 3462: 3455: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3443: 3437: 3435: 3433: 3428: 3419: 3416: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3396: 3395: 3384: 3381: 3378: 3375: 3372: 3369: 3366: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3357: 3353: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3341: 3338: 3335: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3326: 3322: 3319: 3316: 3313: 3310: 3307: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3295: 3294: 3290: 3287: 3284: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3272: 3269: 3266: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3255: 3252: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3240: 3237: 3234: 3231: 3230: 3226: 3223: 3220: 3217: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3205: 3202: 3199: 3198: 3194: 3191: 3188: 3185: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3170:United States 3168: 3165: 3164: 3160: 3157: 3154: 3151: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3132: 3128: 3125: 3122: 3119: 3116: 3113: 3110: 3107: 3104: 3101: 3100: 3096: 3093: 3090: 3087: 3084: 3081: 3078: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3068: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3055: 3052: 3049: 3046: 3043: 3041: 3038: 3035: 3034: 3030: 3027: 3024: 3021: 3018: 3015: 3012: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3001: 3000: 2996: 2993: 2990: 2987: 2984: 2981: 2978: 2975: 2972: 2969: 2968: 2964: 2961: 2958: 2955: 2952: 2949: 2946: 2943: 2940: 2937: 2936: 2932: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2904: 2900: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2888: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2877: 2874: 2871: 2870: 2866: 2863: 2860: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2848: 2845: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2836: 2832: 2829: 2826: 2823: 2820: 2817: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2795: 2792: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2769: 2768: 2764: 2761: 2758: 2755: 2752: 2749: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2734: 2730: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2718: 2715: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2704: 2701: 2700: 2696: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2684: 2681: 2678: 2675: 2672: 2669: 2668: 2657: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2582: 2581:Middelgrunden 2578: 2569: 2568: 2560: 2557: 2554: 2551: 2548: 2544: 2507: 2505: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2488: 2485: 2482: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2432: 2430: 2419: 2417: 2416:Kriegers Flak 2414: 2413: 2410: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2398: 2394: 2357: 2355: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2338: 2335: 2332: 2327: 2323: 2320: 2315: 2312: 2308: 2271: 2269: 2258: 2256: 2253: 2252: 2249: 2246: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2233: 2196: 2194: 2183: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2158: 2121: 2119: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2087: 2083: 2046: 2044: 2033: 2031: 2028: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2018: 2015: 2012: 2008: 1971: 1969: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1922: 1919: 1918: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1906: 1903: 1899: 1887:53.400; 0.900 1862: 1860: 1849: 1847: 1844: 1843: 1840: 1837: 1834: 1831: 1828: 1824: 1787: 1785: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1712: 1710: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1681: 1678: 1675: 1671: 1634: 1632: 1621: 1619: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1596: 1559: 1557: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1536: 1534: 1531:Commissioning 1529: 1524: 1519: 1516: 1511: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1498: 1491: 1485: 1475: 1465: 1462: 1454: 1444: 1440: 1434: 1432: 1425: 1416: 1415: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1395: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1350: 1346: 1343: 1337: 1335: 1330: 1326: 1315: 1312: 1306: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1275: 1273: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1252: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1220: 1216: 1211: 1202: 1200: 1196: 1186: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1166: 1163: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1131: 1128: 1119: 1116: 1111: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1054: 1045: 1041: 1038:This section 1036: 1033: 1029: 1028: 1021: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1000: 991: 988: 984: 977:Vertical-axis 974: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 946: 937: 928: 924: 921: 916: 909: 906: 903: 900: 897: 894: 893: 892: 890: 886: 882: 877: 869: 860: 858: 849: 848:Wilhelmshaven 844: 836: 828: 819: 817: 812: 810: 806: 801: 799: 794: 792: 788: 783: 781: 771: 768: 766: 762: 757: 755: 750: 748: 743: 741: 736: 732: 730: 726: 721: 719: 713: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 687: 683: 680: 677: 676: 675: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 652:Kentish Flats 649: 644: 635: 633: 627: 625: 621: 612: 607: 598: 595: 593: 589: 584: 582: 581:Kriegers Flak 578: 575: 571: 570:megawatt hour 566: 557: 553: 549: 540: 531: 527: 524:This section 522: 519: 515: 514: 506: 504: 500: 495: 493: 488: 478: 469: 465: 462:This section 460: 457: 453: 452: 444: 440: 436: 434: 428: 421: 416: 407: 403: 399: 396: 394: 390: 385: 383: 375: 371: 367: 362: 353: 351: 346: 342: 340: 336: 331: 321: 316: 312: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 283: 281: 276: 272: 269: 265: 261: 257: 252: 250: 244: 241: 235: 232: 226: 222: 220: 216: 212: 203: 195: 191: 185: 173: 172:MediaWiki.org 169: 164: 155: 154: 138: 135: 129: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 90: 88: 83: 78: 75: 71: 67: 63: 57: 53: 49: 45: 44:Wind turbines 41: 37: 33: 19: 9203: 9191: 9172: 9120:Hybrid power 8889:Aerodynamics 8813: 8734:. 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