44:
49:
1061:
economic criteria. Formal and discrete social divisions were consequently imposed upon ambiguous biological distinctions. To some extent, the permeability of these categories in the intervening decades helped to reify the biological distinctions, generating a taller elite and a shorter underclass, but with little relation to the gene pools that had existed a few centuries ago. The social categories are thus real, but there is little if any detectable genetic differentiation between Hutu and Tutsi.
54:
782:
263:
3258:
885:
delinked the arrival of Tutsi from the development of pastoralism and the beginning of the period of state building. It appears clear that pastoralism was practiced in Rwanda prior to the fifteenth century immigration, while the dates of state formation and pastoralist influx do not entirely match. This argument thus attempts to downplay the importance of the pastoralist migrations.
894:
Studies that approach the subject of racial purity are among the most controversial. These studies point out that the pastoralist migrants and pre-migration
Rwandans lived side by side for centuries and practiced extensive intermarriage. The notion that current Rwandans can claim exclusively Tutsi or Hutu bloodlines is thus questioned.
893:
Still other studies point out that cultural transmission can occur without actual human migration. This raises the question of how much of the changes around the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was the result of an influx of people as opposed to the existing population being exposed to new ideas.
768:
There is disagreement as to when and how each group appeared in Rwanda. Some suggest the three groups diverged from each other while others suggest each group arriving in separate migration waves, first Twa, then Hutu, and finally Tutsi. In the separate arrival story, there is dispute in where the
1060:
obliterated whatever clear-cut physical distinctions may have once existed between these two Bantu peoples – renowned to be height, body build, and facial features. With a spectrum of physical variation in the peoples, Belgian authorities legally mandated ethnic affiliation in the 1920s, based on
760:
When
Europeans arrived in Rwanda to begin documenting traditions, Rwandan society consisted of three ethnicities that also serve as social castes. The largest group is the Hutu, consisting mostly of farmers. The second largest group is the Tutsi, mostly pastoralists, warriors and aristocrats. The
988:
According to data from 1969, the Tutsi and Hima groups possessed the enzyme of milk sugar lactose tolerance, which is highly prevalent in
European populations, but the Bantu tribes were lactose deficient, similar results and conclusions were reached by the geneticist Sarah A. Tishkoff in 2007.
884:
One school of thought noted that the influx of pastoralists around the fifteenth century may have taken place over an extended period of time and been gradual and peaceful, rather than sudden and violent. The key distinction made was that migration was not the same as conquest. Other scholars
1601:
Tishkoff, Sarah A.; Reed, Floyd A.; Ranciaro, Alessia; Voight, Benjamin F.; Babbitt, Courtney C.; Silverman, Jesse S.; Powell, Kweli; Mortensen, Holly M.; Hirbo, Jibril B.; Osman, Maha; Ibrahim, Muntaser; Omar, Sabah A.; Lema, Godfrey; Nyambo, Thomas B.; Ghori, Jilur (2007-01-01).
905:
and consequently developed into separate ethnic groups with their own languages. A mismatch in language between patron and client could later occur from population displacements. The short stature of the "forest people" could have developed in the millennia since the
949:
Another study concluded that, while the sickle cell trait among the
Rwandan Hutu was comparable to that of neighboring people, it was almost non-existent among Rwandan Tutsi. Presence of the sickle cell trait is evidence of survival in the presence of
872:
in northern
Tanzania, Hiernaux argues that while there was a migration, it was not as dramatic as some sources have proposed. He explicitly attacks the Hamitic theory that migrants from Ethiopia brought civilization to other Africans.
966:
of eastern Congo can. Among Hutu, one in three adults has a high capacity for lactose digestion, a surprisingly high number for an agrarian people, which
Mamdani suggests may be the result of centuries of intermarriage with Tutsi.
910:, as happened also with Bantu domestic animals in the rainforest. Perhaps there was additional selective pressure from farmers removing the tallest women from the pygmy population by taking them back to their villages as wives.
864:, based on studies of blood factors and archeology. Noting the fossil record of a tall people with narrow facial features several thousand years ago in East Africa, including locations such as Gambles Cave in the
880:
harbor little to no
Northeastern African genetic influence on their paternal line. On the other hand, there is currently no mtDNA data available for the Tutsi, which might help shed light on their background.
698:. The relationship among the three modern populations is thus, in many ways, derived from the perceived origins and claim to "Rwandan-ness". The largest conflicts related to this question were the
985:(2004) in a more general study on bi-allelic markers in many African countries found a statistically significant genetic difference between Tutsi and Hutu, the overall difference were not large.
1052:. It is unclear whether this similarity is primarily due to extensive genetic exchanges between these communities through intermarriage or whether it ultimately stems from common origins.
852:
Supporters of the migration theory also support the idea that Tutsi came from the Horn of Africa, a later theory proposed that the Tutsi had instead migrated from nearby interior
1661:"Phylogeographic refinement and large scale genotyping of human Y chromosome haplogroup E provide new insights into the dispersal of early pastoralists in the African continent"
1362:
1029:), and are ascribed to assimilated southern Cushites. However, the Tutsi have considerably more haplogroup B paternal lineages (14.9% B) than do the Hutu (4.3% B).
1036:(2015) found 22.2% of E1b1b in a sample of Tutsis from Burundi, but no bearers of the haplogroup among the local Hutu and Twa populations. The subclade was of the
876:
However, in light of recent genetic studies, Hiernaux's theory on the origin of Tutsis in East Africa appears doubtful. It has also been demonstrated that the
962:
for millennia. Three quarters of the adult Tutsi of Rwanda and
Burundi have a high ability to digest lactose, while only 5% of the adults of the neighboring
3221:
3086:
958:
are also supportive. The ability to digest lactose among
African adults is widespread only among desert-dwelling nomadic groups that have depended upon
1069:(2009) found their mixed Hutu and Tutsi samples from Rwanda to be predominately of Bantu origin, with the Tutsi having only minor gene flow from
861:
761:
smallest group is the Twa, which is a group of pygmy that hunt game to trade for agricultural products from the farmers. All three groups speak
1289:
1094:
1288:
Luis, J. R.; Rowold, D.J.; Regueiro, M.; Caeiro, B.; Cinnioğlu, C.; Roseman, C.; Underhill, P.A.; Cavalli-Sforza, L.L.; Herrera, R.J. (2004).
1344:
816:
had several sons, including
Gatutsi and Gahutu, ancestors of the Tutsi and Hutu who are therefore brothers. The Hutu origin myth holds that
725:
identifies at least four distinct foundations for studies that support the "distinct difference between Hutu and Tutsi" school of thought:
661:
3314:
2734:
238:
2967:
2849:
1411:
429:
3023:
2809:
2357:
769:
groups came from, when and how they arrived, and whether the arrival of some groups brought with them certain social development.
589:
530:
487:
409:
2960:
1850:
817:
1950:
2236:
1163:
1381:
419:
3206:
3018:
1911:
1785:"African Genetic Diversity: Implications for Human Demographic History, Modern Human Origins, and Complex Disease Mapping"
2089:
1458:
1203:
1040:
variety, which suggests that the ancestors of Tutsis in this area may have been remnants of South Cushitic pastoralists.
354:
3196:
2979:
2955:
2878:
2750:
1452:
1297:
3304:
3241:
3168:
2950:
2945:
1197:
1048:
In general, the Tutsi appear to share a close genetic kinship with neighboring Nilotic populations, particularly the
793:
2315:
1863:
654:
625:
578:
509:
459:
449:
3040:
2991:
2935:
707:
498:
231:
1361:
Blench, Roger (1999), "Are the African Pygmies an Ethnographic Fiction?", in Biesbrouck; Elders; Rossel (eds.),
3216:
3052:
2940:
1375:
1236:
154:
3126:
2677:
981:
says that the number of pastoralists in Rwanda increased sharply around the fifteenth century. Although Luis
635:
3231:
3201:
3186:
3136:
2802:
2350:
2155:
2094:
2077:
1984:
600:
346:
1252:
Brace, C. L.; Tracer, David P.; Yaroch, Lucia Allen; Robb, John; Brandt, Kari; Nelson, A. Russell (1993).
3299:
3141:
3121:
2866:
2844:
2574:
2221:
2040:
1999:
1879:
1843:
647:
620:
204:
48:
1153:
3294:
3158:
3074:
2859:
2760:
2179:
2084:
364:
224:
23:
43:
3131:
3003:
2930:
2910:
2724:
2284:
2206:
2057:
1224:
1332:
1135:
53:
3181:
3176:
3151:
3028:
2996:
2631:
2104:
2099:
1994:
1979:
1026:
1006:
520:
3262:
3163:
3146:
3057:
3033:
3013:
2984:
2873:
2795:
2343:
2201:
2130:
1989:
1894:
1341:
1014:
943:
1290:"The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations"
1254:"Clines and clusters versus 'Race:' a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile"
1095:"The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations"
3309:
3062:
3045:
3008:
2898:
2226:
2191:
2045:
2030:
1836:
1070:
813:
3116:
2883:
2520:
2150:
2050:
954:
over many centuries, suggesting differing origins. Regional studies of the ability to digest
749:
1406:
1364:
Challenging Elusiveness: Central African Hunter-Gatherers in a Multidisciplinary Perspective
1037:
3079:
2854:
2837:
2697:
2692:
2500:
2216:
2067:
2062:
1721:
1010:
860:
in an arid climate over millennia. Among the most detailed theories was one put forward by
262:
1800:
8:
3103:
2903:
2587:
2505:
2264:
2196:
2165:
2035:
1967:
927:
695:
479:
1725:
2776:
2366:
2269:
2231:
2018:
2004:
1923:
1901:
1809:
1784:
1744:
1710:"Y-chromosomal evidence of a pastoralist migration through Tanzania to southern Africa"
1709:
1685:
1660:
1636:
1603:
1583:
1536:
1501:
1405:
Excoffier, Laurent; Pellegrini, B.; Sanchez-Mazas, A.; Simon, C.; Langaney, A. (1987).
1319:
1122:
939:
833:
691:
299:
291:
254:
111:
75:
2492:
832:
The colonial scholars who found complex societies in sub-Saharan Africa developed the
3091:
3067:
2972:
2893:
2888:
2755:
2525:
2308:
2246:
2160:
2118:
1940:
1935:
1916:
1889:
1871:
1814:
1749:
1690:
1641:
1623:
1575:
1448:
1371:
1324:
1232:
1193:
1159:
1127:
923:
865:
857:
687:
323:
164:
144:
65:
32:
2394:
2211:
2145:
1957:
1945:
1928:
1804:
1796:
1766:
1739:
1729:
1680:
1672:
1631:
1615:
1567:
1528:
1493:
1420:
1314:
1306:
1265:
1117:
1109:
745:
715:
699:
566:
194:
174:
121:
2920:
2554:
2537:
2324:
2289:
2279:
2274:
2254:
2072:
1442:
1348:
907:
722:
711:
184:
85:
3289:
2818:
2510:
2454:
2386:
2259:
1018:
918:
More recent studies have de-emphasized physical appearance, such as height and
841:
630:
540:
1189:
When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda
1187:
375:
3284:
3278:
2714:
2709:
2478:
2469:
2464:
2135:
1906:
1627:
1579:
1049:
1002:
978:
869:
311:
96:
1734:
1425:
1270:
1253:
938:, despite being surrounded by Bantu populations, are "closer genetically to
844:, and subsequently conquered Rwanda and brought civilization to the region.
2832:
2682:
1818:
1753:
1694:
1645:
1328:
1131:
1022:
998:
963:
837:
2704:
2644:
2549:
2543:
2515:
2381:
1676:
1604:"Convergent adaptation of human lactase persistence in Africa and Europe"
935:
853:
762:
738:
2402:
1158:. Internet Archive. Madison, Wis. : University of Wisconsin Press.
781:
1587:
1555:
1540:
1520:
1505:
1481:
919:
902:
734:
2729:
2598:
824:
and the first Tutsi) fell from the sky on an earth inhabited by Hutu.
2592:
2580:
2486:
2449:
2335:
1404:
1057:
726:
2434:
1571:
1532:
1497:
2656:
2559:
2425:
1619:
1556:"Lactase Deficiency: A Probable Ethnological Marker in East Africa"
1482:"Lactase Deficiency: A Probable Ethnological Marker in East Africa"
1310:
1113:
730:
2639:
1828:
2787:
2687:
2661:
2649:
2617:
2611:
2459:
2418:
1773:, Volume 2, Dakar-Hydrology, Charles Scribner's Sons (publisher).
1001:
generally indicate that the Tutsi, like the Hutu, are largely of
955:
951:
821:
395:
2603:
2531:
922:
width, in favor of examining blood factors, the presence of the
1859:
971:
748:
paternal haplogroup which is common among Bantu and most other
131:
2624:
2442:
2411:
898:
877:
703:
679:
439:
275:
836:. The now rejected hypothesis posits that the Tutsi were of
686:
peoples is a major issue of controversy in the histories of
2567:
1783:
Campbell, Michael C.; Tishkoff, Sarah A. (September 2008).
959:
675:
1600:
683:
1287:
856:, and that the physical differences were the result of
847:
1283:
1281:
1251:
930:
in adults, and other genotype expressions. Excoffier
827:
812:
Starkly contrasted, the Tutsi origin myth holds that
1231:. Princeton University Press. pp. 171 and 183.
1278:
1043:
1017:). Paternal genetic influences associated with the
897:Roger Blench has proposed that Twa originated as a
3276:
1782:
1714:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1652:
1223:
2803:
2351:
1844:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
655:
232:
1789:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
1407:"Genetics and History of Sub-Saharan Africa"
733:, cultural memory of inhabitants of Rwanda,
2735:Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
1701:
2810:
2796:
2358:
2344:
1851:
1837:
1172:
662:
648:
239:
225:
1808:
1743:
1733:
1684:
1658:
1635:
1424:
1318:
1269:
1121:
1229:The History and Geography of Human Genes
1518:
1370:, Universiteit Leiden, pp. 41–60,
1185:
1151:
3277:
2365:
1434:
1360:
1088:
1086:
2791:
2339:
1832:
1801:10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164258
1354:
744:Most Tutsis and Hutus both carry the
1707:
1553:
1479:
1440:
1092:
848:Migration hypothesis of Tutsi origin
776:
1858:
1083:
992:
888:
13:
3315:Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
2879:Blood type distribution by country
2817:
1659:Trombetta, B; et al. (2015).
1298:American Journal of Human Genetics
1102:American Journal of Human Genetics
997:Modern-day genetic studies of the
934:(1987) claimed that the Tutsi and
913:
901:like they are today, which became
828:Hamitic hypothesis of Tutsi origin
261:
14:
3326:
1521:"Lactose Malabsorption in Africa"
1412:Yearbook of Physical Anthropology
1258:Yearbook of Physical Anthropology
1093:Luis, J. R.; et al. (2004).
3257:
3256:
1044:Autosomal DNA (overall ancestry)
780:
52:
47:
42:
1776:
1760:
1594:
1547:
1512:
1473:
1461:from the original on 2015-02-02
1206:from the original on 2015-09-06
772:
2720:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa
1885:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa
1519:Simoons, Frederick J. (1978).
1398:
1245:
1217:
1192:. Princeton University Press.
1145:
765:, which is a Bantu language.
365:Prince Rwagasore assassination
1:
2678:Cherokee freedmen controversy
1708:Henn, B; et al. (2008).
1076:
1665:Genome Biology and Evolution
696:Great Lakes region of Africa
499:Genocidal killings of Tutsis
7:
2237:Water supply and sanitation
755:
281:Hutu, Tutsi and Twa origins
10:
3331:
2860:Neanderthal genome project
2751:Contemporary ethnic groups
1771:New Encyclopedia of Africa
1447:. Routledge. p. 120.
1225:Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca
702:, the Burundian genocide (
3252:
3102:
2919:
2825:
2769:
2743:
2670:
2374:
2302:
2245:
2187:
2178:
2126:
2117:
2026:
2017:
1975:
1966:
1870:
1441:Fage, John (2013-10-23).
1186:Mamdani, Mahmood (2001).
1155:Oral tradition as history
840:whom originated from the
820:(patrilineal ancestor of
3305:Historiography of Rwanda
2997:Caucasus hunter-gatherer
1525:African Economic History
521:Titanic Express massacre
3058:Ancient Northeast Asian
3034:Eastern hunter-gatherer
3014:Western hunter-gatherer
2985:Early Anatolian farmers
1735:10.1073/pnas.0801184105
1426:10.1002/ajpa.1330300510
1271:10.1002/ajpa.1330360603
1025:are few (less than 10%
752:-speaking populations.
3063:Ancient Paleo-Siberian
3046:Ancient North Eurasian
3009:Early European Farmers
1063:
355:Parliamentary election
267:
2884:Genealogical DNA test
2845:Evolutionary genetics
1152:Vansina, Jan (1985).
1054:
265:
155:Coup d'état of 5 July
2855:Neanderthal genetics
2838:Human Genome Project
2698:Interracial marriage
2693:Interethnic marriage
2521:Eurasian Singaporean
1554:Cook, G. C. (1969).
1480:Cook, G. C. (1969).
347:Road to independence
3238:Sub-Saharan Africa
3207:Tamils (Sri Lankan)
3104:Population genetics
2911:Genetic enhancement
2904:Surname DNA project
2078:Chamber of Deputies
1726:2008PNAS..10510693H
1444:A History of Africa
1387:on January 26, 2012
1056:... generations of
928:lactose intolerance
674:The origins of the
480:Burundian Civil War
3300:Politics of Rwanda
2777:Race of the future
2761:luk khrueng people
2156:Telecommunications
1924:Rwandan Revolution
1912:Colonial residents
1902:German East Africa
1677:10.1093/gbe/evv118
1347:2012-02-16 at the
834:Hamitic hypothesis
792:. You can help by
300:German East Africa
292:Kingdom of Burundi
276:Urewe civilisation
268:
255:History of Burundi
132:Republic of Rwanda
76:German East Africa
3295:History of Rwanda
3272:
3271:
3092:Ancient Beringian
2894:Race and genetics
2889:Genetic genealogy
2874:Genetic variation
2785:
2784:
2333:
2332:
2298:
2297:
2222:Human trafficking
2174:
2173:
2113:
2112:
2090:Political parties
2041:Foreign relations
2013:
2012:
1941:Rwandan Civil War
1936:Bugesera invasion
1917:Ruzagayura famine
1890:Kingdom of Rwanda
1165:978-0-299-10213-5
924:sickle cell trait
866:Kenya Rift Valley
858:natural selection
810:
809:
716:Second Congo Wars
694:, as well as the
672:
671:
601:COVID-19 pandemic
590:Army coup attempt
531:Army coup attempt
488:Army coup attempt
410:Army coup attempt
324:Ruzagayura famine
266:Emblem of Burundi
249:
248:
216:
215:
205:COVID-19 pandemic
145:Bugesera invasion
3322:
3260:
3259:
2961:African diaspora
2951:Eastern Africa
2899:Recent evolution
2850:Human-chimp MRCA
2812:
2805:
2798:
2789:
2788:
2526:Filipino Mestizo
2360:
2353:
2346:
2337:
2336:
2318:
2311:
2185:
2184:
2139:
2124:
2123:
2085:Decentralization
2024:
2023:
1973:
1972:
1958:Second Congo War
1946:Rwandan genocide
1929:Coup of Gitarama
1853:
1846:
1839:
1830:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1812:
1780:
1774:
1767:Joseph C. Miller
1764:
1758:
1757:
1747:
1737:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1688:
1671:(7): 1940–1950.
1656:
1650:
1649:
1639:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1438:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1386:
1380:, archived from
1369:
1358:
1352:
1339:
1337:
1331:. Archived from
1322:
1294:
1285:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1211:
1183:
1170:
1169:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1140:
1134:. Archived from
1125:
1099:
1090:
1005:extraction (80%
993:Y-DNA (paternal)
889:Local divergence
805:
802:
784:
777:
746:Haplogroup E1b1a
721:Ugandan scholar
700:Rwandan genocide
664:
657:
650:
607:
595:
585:
579:Burundian unrest
573:
567:Second Congo War
546:
536:
526:
516:
505:
493:
466:
455:
445:
435:
425:
415:
403:
382:
370:
360:
329:
318:
305:
251:
250:
241:
234:
227:
212:
195:Second Congo War
139:
122:Coup of Gitarama
101:
62:
61:
56:
51:
46:
36:
18:
17:
3330:
3329:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3275:
3274:
3273:
3268:
3248:
3228:Southeast Asia
3106:
3098:
2956:Southern Africa
2923:
2921:Genetic history
2915:
2821:
2816:
2786:
2781:
2765:
2739:
2666:
2370:
2364:
2334:
2329:
2321:
2314:
2307:
2294:
2285:Public holidays
2241:
2207:Gender equality
2170:
2137:
2109:
2058:Law enforcement
2009:
1962:
1866:
1857:
1827:
1826:
1781:
1777:
1765:
1761:
1720:(31): 10693–8.
1706:
1702:
1657:
1653:
1608:Nature Genetics
1599:
1595:
1572:10.2307/2799573
1552:
1548:
1533:10.2307/3601438
1517:
1513:
1498:10.2307/2799573
1478:
1474:
1464:
1462:
1455:
1439:
1435:
1419:(S8): 151–194.
1403:
1399:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1378:
1367:
1359:
1355:
1349:Wayback Machine
1335:
1292:
1286:
1279:
1250:
1246:
1239:
1222:
1218:
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1207:
1200:
1184:
1173:
1166:
1150:
1146:
1138:
1097:
1091:
1084:
1079:
1046:
995:
975:General History
916:
914:Genetic studies
908:Bantu expansion
891:
850:
830:
806:
800:
797:
790:needs expansion
775:
758:
723:Mahmoud Mamdani
668:
613:
612:
611:
608:
605:
596:
593:
586:
583:
574:
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560:
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380:
371:
368:
361:
358:
349:
339:
338:
337:
334:
333:
330:
327:
319:
316:
306:
303:
294:
245:
210:
185:First Congo War
137:
103:
100:(Ruanda-Urundi)
99:
98:
97:Belgian mandate
86:Rumanura famine
34:
27:
12:
11:
5:
3328:
3318:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3253:
3250:
3249:
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3209:
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3199:
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3171:
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3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3110:
3108:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3075:Southeast Asia
3072:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3038:
3037:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2946:Central Africa
2943:
2938:
2927:
2925:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2864:
2863:
2862:
2852:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2819:Human genetics
2815:
2814:
2807:
2800:
2792:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2766:
2764:
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2758:
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2727:
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2621:
2609:
2595:
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2584:
2583:
2571:
2564:
2563:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2540:
2535:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2481:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2455:Cape Coloureds
2447:
2440:
2439:
2438:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2422:
2408:
2407:
2406:
2389:
2387:Amazonian Jews
2384:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2371:
2363:
2362:
2355:
2348:
2340:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2327:
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2296:
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2282:
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2257:
2251:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2188:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2151:Stock Exchange
2148:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2105:Prime Minister
2102:
2100:Vice President
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1995:National parks
1992:
1987:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1951:Initial events
1943:
1938:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1921:
1920:
1919:
1914:
1904:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1887:
1882:
1876:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1856:
1855:
1848:
1841:
1833:
1825:
1824:
1775:
1759:
1700:
1651:
1620:10.1038/ng1946
1593:
1566:(2): 265–267.
1546:
1511:
1492:(2): 265–267.
1472:
1454:978-1317797272
1453:
1433:
1397:
1376:
1353:
1338:on 2012-02-16.
1311:10.1086/382286
1305:(3): 532–544.
1277:
1244:
1237:
1216:
1198:
1171:
1164:
1144:
1141:on 2012-02-16.
1114:10.1086/382286
1108:(3): 532–544.
1081:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1045:
1042:
1019:Horn of Africa
994:
991:
915:
912:
890:
887:
849:
846:
842:Horn of Africa
829:
826:
808:
807:
787:
785:
774:
771:
757:
754:
670:
669:
667:
666:
659:
652:
644:
641:
640:
639:
638:
633:
628:
623:
615:
614:
610:
609:
604:
597:
592:
587:
582:
575:
570:
562:
561:
558:
557:
554:
553:
549:
548:
543:
541:Itaba massacre
538:
533:
528:
523:
518:
513:
507:
502:
495:
490:
484:
483:
478:
477:
474:
473:
469:
468:
463:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
430:Micombero coup
427:
422:
417:
412:
406:
405:
394:
393:
390:
389:
385:
384:
379:
372:
367:
362:
357:
351:
350:
345:
344:
341:
340:
336:
335:
332:
331:
326:
320:
315:
309:
307:
302:
296:
295:
290:
289:
286:
285:
284:
283:
278:
270:
269:
258:
257:
247:
246:
244:
243:
236:
229:
221:
218:
217:
214:
213:
207:
201:
200:
197:
191:
190:
187:
181:
180:
177:
171:
170:
167:
161:
160:
157:
151:
150:
147:
141:
140:
134:
128:
127:
124:
118:
117:
114:
108:
107:
104:
95:
92:
91:
88:
82:
81:
78:
72:
71:
68:
58:
57:
39:
38:
29:
28:
21:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3327:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3310:Ruanda-Urundi
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3265:
3264:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3093:
3090:
3089:
3088:
3085:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3076:
3073:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3054:
3051:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3039:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3019:British Isles
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3002:
2998:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2990:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2941:West Africa
2939:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2929:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2912:
2909:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2868:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2846:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2813:
2808:
2806:
2801:
2799:
2794:
2793:
2790:
2778:
2775:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2742:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2715:One-drop rule
2713:
2711:
2710:Miscegenation
2708:
2706:
2703:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2669:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2627:
2626:
2622:
2620:
2619:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2610:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2501:Anglo-Burmese
2499:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2404:
2400:
2399:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2361:
2356:
2354:
2349:
2347:
2342:
2341:
2338:
2326:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2306:
2305:
2301:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2202:Ethnic groups
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2131:National Bank
2129:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2016:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1907:Ruanda-Urundi
1905:
1903:
1900:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1849:
1847:
1842:
1840:
1835:
1834:
1831:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1779:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1515:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1476:
1460:
1456:
1450:
1446:
1445:
1437:
1427:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1408:
1401:
1383:
1379:
1373:
1366:
1365:
1357:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1299:
1291:
1284:
1282:
1272:
1267:
1264:(S17): 1–31.
1263:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1240:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1220:
1205:
1201:
1199:9781400851720
1195:
1191:
1190:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1167:
1161:
1157:
1156:
1148:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1096:
1089:
1087:
1082:
1074:
1073:communities.
1072:
1068:
1062:
1059:
1053:
1051:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
990:
986:
984:
980:
979:Bethwell Ogot
976:
973:
968:
965:
961:
957:
953:
947:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
911:
909:
904:
900:
895:
886:
882:
879:
874:
871:
870:Olduvai Gorge
867:
863:
862:Jean Hiernaux
859:
855:
845:
843:
839:
838:Hamitic stock
835:
825:
823:
819:
815:
804:
795:
791:
788:This section
786:
783:
779:
778:
770:
766:
764:
753:
751:
747:
742:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
719:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
665:
660:
658:
653:
651:
646:
645:
643:
642:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
618:
617:
616:
603:
602:
598:
591:
588:
581:
580:
576:
569:
568:
564:
563:
556:
555:
542:
539:
532:
529:
522:
519:
511:
508:
501:
500:
496:
489:
486:
485:
481:
476:
475:
461:
458:
451:
448:
441:
438:
431:
428:
421:
418:
411:
408:
407:
402:
397:
392:
391:
378:
377:
373:
366:
363:
356:
353:
352:
348:
343:
342:
325:
322:
321:
314:
313:
312:Ruanda-Urundi
308:
301:
298:
297:
293:
288:
287:
282:
279:
277:
274:
273:
272:
271:
264:
260:
259:
256:
253:
252:
242:
237:
235:
230:
228:
223:
222:
220:
219:
208:
206:
203:
202:
198:
196:
193:
192:
188:
186:
183:
182:
178:
176:
173:
172:
168:
166:
163:
162:
158:
156:
153:
152:
148:
146:
143:
142:
135:
133:
130:
129:
125:
123:
120:
119:
115:
113:
110:
109:
105:
102:
94:
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55:
50:
45:
41:
40:
37:
31:
30:
25:
20:
19:
16:
3261:
3159:Azerbaijanis
3041:Central Asia
2936:North Africa
2833:Human genome
2719:
2683:Ethnogenesis
2650:
2630:
2623:
2616:
2604:
2597:
2573:
2566:
2542:
2530:
2506:Anglo-Indian
2491:
2443:
2433:
2424:
2417:
2410:
2401:
2395:
2227:Prostitution
2192:Demographics
2046:Human rights
2031:Constitution
1884:
1792:
1788:
1778:
1770:
1762:
1717:
1713:
1703:
1668:
1664:
1654:
1614:(1): 31–40.
1611:
1607:
1596:
1563:
1559:
1549:
1527:(5): 16–34.
1524:
1514:
1489:
1485:
1475:
1463:. Retrieved
1443:
1436:
1416:
1410:
1400:
1389:, retrieved
1382:the original
1363:
1356:
1333:the original
1302:
1296:
1261:
1257:
1247:
1228:
1219:
1208:. Retrieved
1188:
1154:
1147:
1136:the original
1105:
1101:
1071:Afro-Asiatic
1066:
1064:
1055:
1047:
1033:
1031:
1023:North Africa
999:Y-chromosome
996:
987:
982:
974:
970:In the 1988
969:
948:
944:Ethiosemites
931:
917:
896:
892:
883:
875:
851:
831:
811:
798:
794:adding to it
789:
773:Origin myths
767:
759:
743:
720:
673:
606:2020–present
599:
577:
565:
497:
420:Ndizeye coup
400:
376:Independence
374:
310:
280:
70: ?–1962
15:
3217:Han Chinese
3193:South Asia
2980:Middle East
2705:Melting pot
2645:Mixed-blood
2550:Luso-Asians
2544:Luk khrueng
2391:Brazilians
2367:Multiracial
2051:LGBT rights
1795:: 403–433.
1391:October 26,
854:East Africa
814:Kanyarwanda
801:August 2024
763:Kinyarwanda
750:Niger-Congo
739:linguistics
710:), and the
510:Buyoya coup
460:Buyoya coup
450:Bagaza coup
33:History of
3279:Categories
3242:Hutu/Tutsi
3213:East Asia
3127:Bulgarians
2968:South Asia
2826:Sub-topics
2516:Dutch Indo
2483:Eurasians
2382:Afro-Asian
2270:Literature
2217:Healthcare
2138:(currency)
2068:Parliament
1985:Ecoregions
1431:Quoted in
1377:9057890186
1238:0691087504
1210:2015-08-25
1077:References
1032:Trombetta
964:Shi people
903:endogamous
735:archeology
112:Revolution
3232:Filipinos
3202:Sinhalese
3197:Gujaratis
3187:Moroccans
3182:Egyptians
3137:Romanians
3053:East Asia
2924:by region
2756:Diasporas
2593:Melungeon
2575:Hùnxuě'ér
2487:Amerasian
2450:Coloureds
2265:Languages
2197:Education
2166:Transport
2095:President
2036:Elections
2000:Volcanoes
1968:Geography
1628:1546-1718
1580:0025-1496
1465:8 January
1065:Tishkoff
1058:gene flow
727:phenotype
584:2015–2018
572:1998–2003
328:1943–1944
317:1922–1962
304:1891–1919
199:1998–2003
189:1996–1997
179:1993–1994
169:1990–1994
165:Civil War
116:1959–1962
106:1922–1962
90:1916–1918
80:1885–1919
3263:Category
3222:Japanese
3142:Russians
3122:Bosniaks
3107:by group
3080:Thailand
2992:Caucasus
2867:Timeline
2770:See also
2657:Quadroon
2581:Chindian
2560:Topasses
2555:Macanese
2538:Kristang
2426:mameluco
2403:caiçaras
2325:Category
2232:Religion
2063:Military
2019:Politics
2005:Wildlife
1880:Timeline
1864:articles
1819:18593304
1754:18678889
1695:26108492
1646:17159977
1459:Archived
1345:Archived
1329:14973781
1227:(1994).
1204:Archived
1132:14973781
940:Cushites
756:Overview
731:genotype
636:Timeline
621:Category
434:Nov 1966
424:Jul 1966
175:Genocide
24:a series
22:Part of
3117:Basques
3113:Europe
3087:America
2730:Plaçage
2725:Passing
2688:Exogamy
2671:History
2662:Sacatra
2651:mulatos
2618:castizo
2612:Mestizo
2599:mestiço
2588:Marabou
2511:Burgher
2493:Bụi đời
2465:Griquas
2460:Basters
2419:caboclo
2396:juçaras
2309:Outline
2255:Cuisine
2247:Culture
2180:Society
2161:Tourism
2119:Economy
1872:History
1810:2953791
1769:(ed.),
1745:2504844
1722:Bibcode
1686:4524485
1637:2672153
1588:2799573
1541:3601438
1506:2799573
1320:1182266
1123:1182266
956:lactose
952:malaria
822:Ruhanga
692:Burundi
626:Commons
559:Current
401:present
396:Burundi
211:present
138:present
66:Kingdom
3132:Croats
3024:Iberia
3004:Europe
2931:Africa
2632:coyote
2605:ainoko
2479:Dougla
2470:Oorlam
2444:cafuzo
2435:sarará
2369:topics
2212:Health
2146:Mining
2136:Franc
2073:Senate
1980:Cities
1862:
1860:Rwanda
1817:
1807:
1752:
1742:
1693:
1683:
1644:
1634:
1626:
1586:
1578:
1539:
1504:
1451:
1374:
1342:Errata
1327:
1317:
1235:
1196:
1162:
1130:
1120:
1067:et al.
1050:Maasai
1038:E-M293
1034:et al.
1009:, 10%
983:et al.
972:UNESCO
932:et al.
878:Tutsis
737:, and
688:Rwanda
631:Portal
35:Rwanda
26:on the
3290:Tutsi
3177:Arabs
3173:MENA
3169:Turks
3152:Serbs
3068:China
3029:Italy
2973:India
2744:Lists
2640:Métis
2625:cholo
2412:pardo
2375:Terms
2316:Index
2290:Sport
2280:Music
2275:Media
1990:Lakes
1895:kings
1584:JSTOR
1537:JSTOR
1502:JSTOR
1385:(PDF)
1368:(PDF)
1336:(PDF)
1293:(PDF)
1139:(PDF)
1098:(PDF)
1027:E1b1b
1013:, 4%
1007:E1b1a
1003:Bantu
899:caste
818:Kigwa
712:First
708:Tutsi
680:Tutsi
512:, 2nd
462:, 1st
440:Ikiza
399:1962–
209:2020–
136:1962–
3285:Hutu
3164:Jews
3147:Sami
2568:Hapa
2532:Hāfu
2260:Flag
1815:PMID
1750:PMID
1691:PMID
1642:PMID
1624:ISSN
1576:ISSN
1467:2015
1449:ISBN
1393:2011
1372:ISBN
1325:PMID
1233:ISBN
1194:ISBN
1160:ISBN
1128:PMID
1021:and
960:milk
942:and
936:Hima
920:nose
868:and
729:and
714:and
706:and
704:Hutu
690:and
682:and
676:Hutu
594:2015
545:2002
535:2001
525:2000
515:1996
504:1993
492:1993
465:1987
454:1976
444:1972
414:1965
381:1962
369:1961
359:1961
159:1973
149:1963
126:1961
1805:PMC
1797:doi
1740:PMC
1730:doi
1718:105
1681:PMC
1673:doi
1632:PMC
1616:doi
1568:doi
1560:Man
1529:doi
1494:doi
1486:Man
1421:doi
1315:PMC
1307:doi
1266:doi
1118:PMC
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