Rwandan Revolution

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independent kingdom, Logiest pushed the country firmly towards a Hutu republic. He did this with Harroy's support, by installing Hutu in senior administrative positions; more than half the country's Tutsi chiefs (and many sub-chiefs) were replaced with Hutu, most from the PARMEHUTU party. Logiest labelled the appointments "temporary", promising that elections would follow. Although many UNAR members were tried and convicted for crimes committed during the Tutsi counter-revolution, their Hutu compatriots from PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA who were guilty of inciting the Hutu arson escaped without charge. In December Logiest was appointed to the new post of special civil resident, replacing more-conservative Preud'homme. The Belgian government empowered him to depose the King and veto his decisions, which meant Kigeli became a

402: 1226:. UNAR immediately began a campaign promoting Rwandan nationalism, vowing to replace European history in schools with the study of Rwabugiri's conquests and calling for the removal of whites and missionaries. This rhetoric prompted the Catholic Church (and many of its Rwandan students, who credited the church with raising them from poverty) to call UNAR anti-Catholic. Gitera, in turn, used the church's anti-UNAR stance to falsely claim its support for APROSOMA. The colonial government moved to limit UNAR's power, attempting to depose three chiefs who were prominent in the party and opening fire on protesters at a rally. Kayibanda registered the MSM as an official party, renaming it the 1593:

favour of the revolution on democratic grounds; he saw it as the opportunity for the "oppressed" Hutu peasants to rise up against the Tutsi ruling class. He later wrote in his memoirs: "Some among my assistants thought that I was wrong in being so partial against the Tutsi and that I was leading Rwanda on a road towards democratisation whose end was distant and uncertain"; but he defended his actions, saying "it was probably the desire to put down the morgue and expose the duplicity of a basically oppressive and unjust aristocracy". After Kigeli and UNAR's retaliation against the Hutu, Logiest and his troops prioritised the protection of Hutu leaders (including Gitera).

1333:, close to Astrida, aiming to reach Gitera's home and capture the APROSOMA leader. Gitera responded by assembling his own forces to defend the hill. The King's forces lacked the military expertise to win this battle, and eventually the Belgian authorities intervened in Save to prevent bloodshed, leading to Gitera's escape. Although Kigeli and UNAR remained more powerful and better equipped than the Hutu parties, they knew that the Belgians now strongly supported the latter; given enough time, the Hutu would gain the upper hand. Therefore, UNAR sought to ostracise Belgium from power and gain independence as soon as possible. 368:, succeeded him and eventually became Rwanda's first Christian king. During the 1930s the Belgians introduced large-scale projects in education, health, public works and agricultural supervision, including new crops and agricultural techniques to improve food supply. Though Rwanda was modernised the Tutsis remained in power, leaving the Hutu disenfranchised and subject to large-scale forced labour. In 1935 Belgium introduced identity cards, labelling an individual as Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. Although wealthy Hutu had previously been able to become honorary Tutsi, the identity cards ended further social mobility. 1694: 160: 1277:. The attackers were nine members of UNAR's youth wing, exacting retribution for Mbonyumutwa's refusal to sign a UNAR protest letter, condemning the Belgian removal of the three Tutsi chiefs. The attackers initially engaged Mbonyumutwa in conversation regarding his increasing influence as a sub-chief, before punching him. Mbonyumutwa fought off the attackers and both he and his wife were able to return safely home, but rumours began to spread that he had been killed; according to American theology professor James Jay Carney, Mbonyumutwa may have started the rumours himself. 1638: 1792: 1207:, Burundi. Many Rwandans believed that Rudahigwa was lethally injected by the Belgians; although an autopsy was never performed because of objections from the queen mother, an evaluation by independent doctors confirmed the original diagnosis of haemorrhage. There was also speculation in government spheres that he had committed a ritualistic suicide at the behest of his court historians. The Tutsi elite, believing that Rudahigwa was murdered by the church with the help of the Belgians, immediately began a campaign against both. Rudahigwa's brother 1367: 1372: 1614:

authoritarian Tutsi rule was fuelling the anti-Tutsi sentiment among the Hutu. PARMEHUTU's ascendancy was further enhanced following the November violence, when Guy Logiest appointed interim leaders primarily from that party, allowing them to set the agenda and control the administration of the forthcoming elections. Despite this, PARMEHUTU claimed it still needed more time for the Hutu people to become "sufficiently emancipated to defend their rights effectively", and successfully lobbied the Belgians to postpone the

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the traditional chiefs; many implemented feudal policies similar to that of the Tutsi elite, but favouring Hutu rather than Tutsi. Although after the elections Guy Logiest announced that "the revolution is over", tensions remained high and local massacres of Tutsi continued throughout 1960 and 1961. King Kigeli, living under virtual arrest in southern Rwanda, fled the country in July 1960 and lived for several decades in locations across East Africa before settling in the United States.

312: 1250: 987: 31: 5939: 1690:. The exiles, unlike the ethnic Rwandans who migrated during the pre-colonial and colonial eras, were seen as refugees by their host countries and began almost immediately to agitate for a return to Rwanda. Their aims differed; some sought reconciliation with Kayibanda and the new regime, some affiliated with the exiled King Kigeli and others wished to oust the new PARMEHUTU regime from power and establish a socialist republic. 1112:(APROSOMA) party. Religious historians Ian and Jane Linden described him as "more passionate and perhaps compassionate" than Kayibanda and other Hutu ex-seminarians, but "often erratic and sometimes fanatical". Unlike Kayibanda, Gitera called for forceful action against the "oppression" of the monarchy as early as 1957; however, his rhetoric focussed less on the Hutu-Tutsi divide than on the emancipation of the poor. 4446: 1308:, beginning what would become a mass exodus by the end of the revolution. The arsonists recruited local peasants to their ranks, ensuring the rapid spread of the revolt. Many Hutu still believed that the King was superhuman, and claimed that they carried out the attacks on his behalf. By 9 November violence had spread across the country, except for Gitera's home province of Astrida ( 350:. Although Belgium initially continued the German method of government through the monarchy, in 1926, it began a policy of direct colonial rule in line with the norm in the Congo. Reforms included simplifying the complex three-chieftain system, so one chief (usually Tutsi) instead of three (typically split between Tutsi and Hutu) ruled a local area. Belgian reforms also extended 1589:, and had already been asked, before the start of the revolution, to come to Rwanda to evaluate Belgium's military options in the colony. Following the outbreak of violence, Logiest accelerated his departure from the Congo, arriving in Rwanda on 4 November. Logiest arrived with a number of soldiers and paratroopers and was tasked with re-establishing civil order. 1289:, the Tutsi chief who was Mbonyumutwa's direct superior. The protest ended peacefully that day, but on 3 November a larger protest took place in the same location, which turned violent. Hutu vigilantes, declaring themselves "for God, the Church, and Rwanda", killed two Tutsi officials and drove Gashagaza into hiding. Mbonyumutwa was named as his replacement. 364:). This was encouraged by the Belgian government, since the priests knew the country well and facilitated its administration. Many Rwandans (including elite Tutsi) converted, since Catholicism was an increasing prerequisite for social advancement. King Musinga refused to convert, and in 1931 he was deposed by the Belgian administration; his eldest son, 354:(forced labour by Hutus for Tutsi chiefs) to individuals, not just communities, and to regions not previously covered by the system. Tutsi chiefs began a process of land reform with Belgian support; grazing areas traditionally controlled by Hutu collectives were seized by Tutsi and privatised with minimal compensation. 1660:

control of the legislature in September 1961; Kayibanda assumed the presidency, and Rwanda became fully independent on 1 July 1962. The official rhetoric of the government during the independence celebrations placed emphasis on the accomplishments of the revolution, rather than commemorating the end of colonial rule.

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in 1972 in response to a Hutu uprising, with the participation of some Rwandan Tutsi refugees. Refugees in the Congo, Uganda and Tanzania were less able to organise military operations because of local conditions; exiles in Tanzania were treated well by local authorities and many settled permanently,

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Rwanda settled into the new reality of Hutu dominance after the 1960 elections; Belgium and Logiest supported PARMEHUTU, and Tutsi influence dwindled. The United Nations Trusteeship Commission, dominated by countries allied with Communist ones and favouring the anti-Belgian, Tutsi UNAR party, lobbied

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and other Congolese and Burundian newspapers with a series of other articles detailing the history of relations between the groups and the king's status. King Rudahigwa and the Tutsi elite dismissed the claims, retorting that no ethnic impediment to social mobility existed and that the Hutu and Tutsi

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or "cockroaches" by the Hutu government) launched attacks into Rwanda from neighbouring countries, with mixed success. The Tutsis in Burundi, supported by that country's newly installed, independent Tutsi republic, caused some disruption in southern Rwanda. The events in Rwanda dramatically worsened

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1579 and 1580, calling for elections and a referendum on the monarchy; Logiest dismissed the efforts as "perfectly useless", and made little effort to implement them. A National Reconciliation Conference was held in Belgium in January 1961, which ended in failure. Logiest and Kayibanda then convened

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of the Hutu, Tutsi and Twa, calling the King's policies inconsistent with them. The articles did not immediately challenge the King's authority over the Hutu peasants, but their exposure of Rudahigwa's outburst led to a permanent schism between him, the Hutu counter-elite and Belgian authorities. In

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Despite the UN suggestion to postpone the elections, Belgian authorities pressed ahead and they were held in June and July. The result was an overwhelming victory for PARMEHUTU, which took 160 of 229 seats; Tutsi parties controlled only 19. The communal authorities immediately took local power from

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A devout Catholic, and politically social democratic, Logiest decided early on to favour the Hutu in his decision making in the country. This was partly for security reasons, as Logiest claimed that the Hutu would continue the violence as long as the Tutsi remained in power, but he also strongly in

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working in the country, described the Belgian forces as "a few jeeps speeding along the road". Some arsonists were arrested, but the Belgians could not contain the spread of the uprising, and were forced to call in reinforcements from the neighbouring Congo. King Kigeli requested permission to form

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Before 1956, the monarchy and prominent Tutsi had been relaxed about the timeline of independence, convinced that full power would be transferred to them from the Belgians in due course. Alarmed at the growing influence of the Hutu and the tensions between the groups, they began campaigning in late

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of the country's local leaders, at which a "sovereign democratic Republic of Rwanda" was proclaimed with Dominique Mbonyumutwa its interim president. The UN published a report that an "oppressive system has been replaced by another one", but its ability to influence events had ended. PARMEHUTU won

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On 12 November, after Harroy's declaration of a state of emergency, Logiest was appointed Special Military Resident with a mandate to re-establish order in Rwanda. Sensing that independence was imminent, and that UNAR and the Tutsi leadership had the capability of swiftly forcing a Tutsi-dominated

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under universal male suffrage in September 1956. The populace were permitted to vote for the sub-chiefs, and 66% of those elected were Hutu. Higher positions in the traditional and colonial hierarchies were still appointed rather than elected, and these remained overwhelmingly Tutsi. The imbalance

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Belgians and sympathised with the plight of the Hutu. Economic conditions and the seminary education provided by the church gave the Hutu a social mobility not previously possible, allowing the development of an elite group of Hutu leaders and intellectuals. This group, consisting of Hutu from the

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successively controlled Rwanda through the early 20th century, with both European nations ruling through the kings and perpetuating a pro-Tutsi policy. After 1945, a Hutu counter-elite developed, leading to the deterioration of relations between the groups. The Tutsi leadership agitated for speedy

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and advancing to positions near Kigali. The ill-equipped and poorly-organised invaders were easily defeated by the government, whose response to the attack was the largest killing of Tutsi to date: an estimated 10,000 in December 1963 and January 1964, including all Tutsi politicians still in the

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and the development of a middle class. It was the first document referring to the Tutsi and Hutu as separate races, labelling the Tutsi as "Hamites" and accusing them of establishing a "racist monopoly". The manifesto called for a transfer of power from the Tutsi to the Hutu based on "statistical

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justified by the mantra of "demographic majority and democracy". The regime did not tolerate dissent, ruling in a top-down manner similar to the pre-revolution feudal monarchy and promoting a deeply Catholic, virtuous ethos. By the early 1970s this policy had isolated Rwanda from the rest of the

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As the revolution progressed, many Tutsi left Rwanda to escape Hutu purges. The exodus, which began during the November 1959 arson attacks, continued steadily throughout the revolution. An official, late-1964 total of 336,000 Tutsi settled primarily in the four neighbouring countries of Burundi,

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elections scheduled for January 1960. The elections were rescheduled for June of that year. In March 1960, a United Nations delegation visited Rwanda to assess the country's progress towards independence. The major political parties encouraged street demonstrations, which deteriorated into fresh

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The revolution caused at least 336,000 Tutsi to flee to neighbouring countries, where they lived as refugees. Although the exiles agitated for an immediate return to Rwanda, they were split between those seeking negotiation and those wishing to overthrow the new regime. Some exiles formed armed

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The November 1959 uprising and the subsequent fighting between Hutu and Tutsi began the revolution, but according to Carney it was the Belgian response which ensured that it would result in a permanent reversal in the role of the two groups, with the Hutu emerging in power. The single biggest

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Despite this refusal, Kigeli launched a counterattack against the rioters on 7 November, Mobilising thousands of loyal militia, Kigeli ordered the arrest or killing of a number of prominent Hutu leaders in the hope of quashing the peasant revolt; Joseph Gitera's brother, a prominent member of

1613:

The period following Rudahigwa's death in July 1959, and the subsequent Tutsi "coup" against the Belgians, saw PARMEHUTU gain a decisive lead in popularity over Joseph Gitera's APROSOMA, as well as the Tutsi UNAR. APROSOMA favoured an inclusive approach to Rwandan nationalism, at a time when

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outbreaks of violence, during the UN visit. Tutsi homes were burnt in view of the delegation, leading them to declare in April that Belgian plans for June elections were unworkable. Instead, they proposed a roundtable discussion involving all four political parties to end the violence.

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The Hutu counter-elite enjoyed reasonable relations with the King and the Tutsi elite in the early 1950s, as the quest for democracy dominated political life. Young Tutsi and Hutu who had been educated in Catholic seminaries or worked in international commerce, came together as

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law". The release of these competing visions for the country's future brought attention from Belgian politicians and the public to Rwanda's social problems which, up until that point, had only been the concern of sociologists and sections of the colonial administration.

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APROSOMA, was among the dead. Many of those arrested were brought to the King's palace at Nyanza, where they were tortured by UNAR officials. Gregoire Kayibanda was in hiding at the time, so was not captured. On 9 and 10 November, Kigeli's troops attacked the hill at

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origin. An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating into (rather than conquering) the existing society. In this theory the Hutu-Tutsi distinction arose later as a class distinction, rather than a racial one.

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In early 1959, Belgium convened a parliamentary commission to examine options for democratisation and eventual independence, scheduling elections for the end of the year. With the Belgians and most clergy on his side, Gitera began a campaign targeting

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to figurehead status; Kigeli later fled the country. Despite continued anti-Tutsi violence, Belgium organized local elections in mid-1960. Hutu parties gained control of nearly all communes, effectively ending the revolution. Logiest and Hutu leader

1155:. The Hutu counter-elite responded swiftly to this development, denouncing it as a plot by the Tutsi to cement Tutsi preeminence in post-independence Rwanda. Kayibanda, with eight other Hutu leaders, began work on an alternative work known as the 1184:

1958 the Belgian colonial ministry tried to strip Rudahigwa of his power, reducing him to a figurehead, but his popularity with the regional chiefs and the Tutsi (who feared the growing Hutu movement) sparked a series of strikes and protests.

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The initial Belgian response to the violence was muted; the colonial government had just 300 troops in Rwanda in early November, despite the threat of civil war that had escalated through the preceding months. Alphonse van Hoof, a Catholic

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restarted their offensive and methodically regained Rwanda, controlling the whole country by mid-July. As of 2023 Kagame and the RPF remain in control, restoring growth in Rwanda's economy, its number of tourists and the country's

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The attack on Mbonyumutwa proved to be the catalyst that set off the anticipated violent conflict between Hutu and Tutsi, following the previous months of tension. On 2 November, the day after the attack, a Hutu protest occurred in

304:, who emerged as king after a succession crisis following the death of his father Rwabugiri and a struggle with Belgian troops, welcomed the Germans and used them to consolidate his power. The territory became the western border of 109:, who was brought in by the colonial governor. Logiest reestablished law and order, beginning a programme to promote and protect the Hutu elite. The Belgians then replaced many Tutsi chiefs and sub-chiefs with Hutu, consigning King 1723:

country. The international community did little in response, and President Kayibanda's domestic power was reinforced. Infighting and the defeat put an end to the Tutsi rebels, who were of no further threat to Rwanda after 1964.

1706:

Tutsi-Hutu relations in Burundi, and from that point onward the country's Tutsi-led regimes sought to avoid a similar revolution in their own territory. Fear of such a development strongly motivated the Burundian government to

105:, by Tutsi extremists. Violence quickly spread throughout the country. The King and Tutsi politicians attempted a counterattack to seize power and ostracise the Hutu and the Belgians but were thwarted by Belgian colonel 1711:

giving up aspirations to return to Rwanda. The rebel attacks themselves propelled more refugees across the borders, since the government often responded with further attacks on the Tutsi still living in Rwanda.

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and the coffee and sugar plantations of Uganda. There was a simultaneous shift in the Catholic Church; prominent figures in the early Rwandan church, who were from a wealthy and conservative background (such as

1755:. Although neither side gained a decisive advantage in the war, by 1992 Habyarimana's authority had weakened; mass demonstrations forced him into a coalition with the domestic opposition and to sign the 1993 1771:, which began a few hours later. In about 100 days, 500,000 to 1,000,000 Tutsi and politically-moderate Hutu were killed in well-planned attacks ordered by the interim government. The Tutsi RPF under 192:

groups migrated into Rwanda and began clearing forests for agriculture. After losing much of their habitat, the forest-dwelling Twa moved to the mountains. Historians have several theories about the

1159:. The authors were assisted in writing this document by young Belgian clergymen sympathetic to the Hutu cause. The Bahutu Manifesto criticised indirect Belgian rule, calling for the abolition of 1300:, a product widely available in Rwanda for use in lamps. Made homeless, many Tutsi sought refuge in Catholic Church missions and with the Belgian authorities, while others crossed into 1236:

described the situation in late 1959 as a "simmering cauldron"; by late October, with the parliamentary report due and elections approaching, tensions had reached the breaking point.

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published a detailed report of Rudahigwa's treatment of Gitera, refuting his semi-divine image and accusing him of pro-Tutsi racism. The magazine also published stories citing the

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rather than killing, except in cases where the Tutsi tried to fight back. First in Ndiza and then across the country, Hutu burned Tutsi homes to the ground primarily by igniting

3904: 1760: 1199:: the royal drum, one of the monarchy's most potent symbols. Rudahigwa became increasingly fearful, smuggling the drum out of the country and drinking heavily. He died of a 134:. The government fought back, defeating the rebels and killing thousands of the remaining Tutsi in Rwanda. No further threat was posed by the refugees until the 1990s, when 1171:. Although Gitera had considerable respect for the monarchy, Rudahigwa treated him contemptuously; at one point he grabbed Gitera's throat, calling him and his followers 1292:

The protests quickly turned to riots, with Hutu gangs moving through the district attacking Tutsi homes as they went. The violence at this stage consisting primarily of

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published an article by an anonymous Rwandan priest detailing alleged centuries-long abuses of the Hutu by the Tutsi elite. This article was followed up in

5537: 1615: 1286: 1232:(PARMEHUTU). He began mobilising cells of supporters across the country, calling for an independent Hutu state under a constitutional monarchy. Historian 1233: 1074: 188:

hunter-gatherers who settled the area between 8000 and 3000 BC and remain in the country today. Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of

1127:", working in junior roles in the colonial administration. Hutu–Tutsi relations deteriorated rapidly from 1956, however. In July, Congolese newspaper 101:

The revolution began in November 1959, with a series of riots and arson attacks on Tutsi homes following an attack on one of the few Hutu sub-chiefs,

5470: 1175:(haters of Rwanda). This humiliation prompted the MSM, APROSOMA and the pro-Hutu Catholic publications to take a firmer stance against the monarchy. 401: 94:

independence to cement their power, and the Hutu elite called for the transfer of power from Tutsi to Hutu, a stance increasingly supported by the

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After the 1963–64 Tutsi massacre and defeat of the Tutsis, Kayibanda and PARMEHUTU ruled Rwanda unchecked for the next decade, overseeing a Hutu

1222:(UNAR) party. Although UNAR was pro-monarchy, it was not controlled by the monarch; the party was anti-Belgian, which attracted support from the 1101: 5871: 5344: 5338: 5138: 1109: 82:. The revolution saw the country transition from a Tutsi monarchy under Belgian colonial authority to an independent Hutu-dominated republic. 5641: 5557: 5525: 5332: 1151:

proposed new ministries of finance, education, public works and the interior run by them, independent of Belgium, through a manifesto called

220:) and into about eight kingdoms by 1700. The country was fertile and densely populated, with its kingdoms strictly controlled socially. The 5605: 5552: 5547: 5542: 1015: 5859: 5374: 3960: 3936: 1561: 254:

system in which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs). Rwabugiri's reforms developed a rift between the Hutu and Tutsi populations.

1211:

was installed, without Belgian involvement and against their wishes; Linden and Linden have described this succession as a "minor Tutsi

1077:, although he was not ordained. After completing his education in 1948, he became a primary-school teacher. In 1952 Kayibanda succeeded 5967: 5671: 5043: 4296: 1651: 5677: 5494: 3886: 1270: 723: 246:(where Tutsi patrons ceded cattle—and privileged status—to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service) and 4397: 1325:

refused this request. Preud'homme was fearful that allowing the Tutsi to arm would escalate the crisis into full-scale civil war.

4477: 4420: 3698: 3678: 1282: 1687: 224:, ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became increasingly dominant beginning in the mid-18th century. From its origins as a small 5972: 5404: 4577: 1312:) and the far southwest and east. Rioting was heaviest in the northwest; in Ruhengeri, every Tutsi home was destroyed by fire. 5452: 5997: 5653: 5117: 5048: 4863: 4274: 4239: 4207: 4175: 4140: 4105: 4071: 4050: 3986: 3930: 3865: 3844: 3825: 3788: 3756: 3724: 3652: 674: 85:

Rwanda had been ruled by a Tutsi monarchy since at least the 18th century, with entrenched pro-Tutsi and anti-Hutu policies.

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between 1853 and 1895. Rwabugiri expanded the kingdom west and north, implementing administrative reforms which included

126:, or "cockroaches", by the Hutu government), who launched attacks into Rwanda. The largest occurred in late 1963, when a 1062:

precolonial Kingdom of Rwanda, was joined by prominent citizens of kingdoms acquired during colonialism (including the

815: 360: 331: 320: 5977: 5581: 5562: 4018: 763: 4341: 5635: 4942: 4490: 1029: 1008: 308:. German rule allowed Rwabugiri's centralisation policy to continue, and the rift between Tutsi and Hutu deepened. 4317: 5913: 5883: 5013: 1831: 1554: 280:

explored the country ten years later, he discovered that the Kingdom of Rwanda included a fertile region east of

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After Kigeli V's coronation, several Tutsi chiefs and palace officials desiring rapid independence formed the

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were indistinguishable. The next catalyst for the breakdown of relations was the occurrence of the country's

5809: 5707: 5531: 4782: 4721: 4704: 4611: 1764: 887: 842: 805: 793: 738: 5733: 5158: 4848: 4667: 4626: 4506: 4470: 1527: 1371: 1104:, another ex-seminarian based in the south of the country who had left the seminary to establish a small 1001: 949: 5747: 4806: 4711: 1679: 1547: 1346: 827: 822: 5713: 1366: 277: 5841: 5817: 5785: 5629: 5434: 5416: 5410: 5368: 5065: 5033: 4911: 4833: 4684: 1257:

with the slogan "Vive Kigeli V" ("Long live Kigeli V") dating to the period of the Rwandan Revolution

934: 728: 686: 343: 1376: 5647: 5231: 5206: 5148: 5028: 4997: 4731: 4726: 4621: 4606: 1751:(RPF), a rebel group composed primarily of Tutsi refugees, invaded northern Rwanda; this began the 1037: 269: 4231:

Colonialism: an international, social, cultural, and political encyclopedia. A-M. Vol. 1, Volume 1

5962: 5924: 5428: 5350: 4828: 4757: 4616: 4521: 1777: 1756: 1748: 877: 532: 142:(RPF) forced the Hutu government into negotiations. This led to a rise in Hutu extremism and the 139: 90: 79: 3893:(in French) (42). Brussels: Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques: 15–24. 1959. 1053:), were replaced by younger clergy of working-class origin. Of these, a greater proportion were 5877: 5853: 5569: 5153: 5126: 5097: 5092: 5018: 4853: 4818: 4672: 4657: 4463: 3952: 1598: 1266: 537: 436: 86: 3920: 1737: 1693: 5847: 5506: 5291: 5256: 5226: 5075: 4993: 4777: 4677: 1262: 909: 857: 837: 775: 755: 750: 584: 464: 459: 431: 426: 285: 102: 4300: 1070: 118:

declared Rwanda an autonomous republic in 1961, and the country became independent in 1962.

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Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era

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between these two weightings highlighted the perceived unfairness of the system for Hutu.

8: 5741: 5721: 5476: 5362: 5306: 5276: 5241: 5131: 4891: 4823: 4792: 4662: 4594: 971: 944: 897: 882: 798: 718: 696: 691: 649: 579: 237: 4393: 1265:, one of the few Hutu sub-chiefs and a PARMEHUTU activist, was attacked after attending 1050: 659: 300:

and supporting Tutsi chiefs; this system allowed colonisation with few European troops.

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the kingdom expanded through conquest and assimilation, reaching its zenith under King (

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This article is about the social revolution of 1959–62. For the 1990–94 civil war, see

4413: 3694: 3674: 1073:. Like most of the Hutu counter-elite Kayibanda had trained for the priesthood at the 5889: 5617: 5519: 5392: 5236: 5186: 5181: 4935: 4873: 4787: 4745: 4567: 4562: 4543: 4516: 4498: 4270: 4235: 4203: 4171: 4136: 4101: 4067: 4046: 4014: 3982: 3926: 3861: 3840: 3821: 3814: 3784: 3752: 3720: 3648: 1805: 1752: 1719: 1715: 1637: 1487: 1467: 1388: 1355: 1274: 954: 924: 892: 832: 664: 559: 549: 479: 454: 221: 135: 127: 20: 4260: 4091: 3809: 1145:

1956 for a rapid transition to independence. King Rudahigwa and the Tutsi-dominated

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world, and a rebellion began within the Hutu elite. In 1973 senior army commander

1656: 1632: 1586: 1517: 1497: 1444: 1156: 1045: 929: 847: 745: 713: 589: 289: 143: 24: 5943: 5865: 5771: 5695: 5689: 5422: 5356: 5221: 5216: 5102: 4951: 4916: 4906: 4901: 4881: 4699: 4370: 4264: 4229: 4197: 4165: 4130: 4126: 4095: 4061: 4040: 4008: 3976: 3855: 3778: 3746: 3714: 3642: 1507: 1408: 991: 919: 872: 788: 701: 213: 193: 181: 95: 1089:(TRAFIPRO) food-cooperative board member, edited the pro-Hutu Catholic magazine 5611: 5500: 5488: 5301: 5080: 5053: 4886: 4389: 4366: 1642: 1581: 1223: 1168: 1054: 616: 517: 507: 301: 168: 164: 35: 34:

1969 stamp celebrating the Rwandan Revolution, depicting a peasant raising the

4132:

When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda

5956: 5791: 5777: 5587: 5316: 5296: 5191: 4762: 4533: 4161: 1797: 1419: 1305: 1078: 611: 544: 347: 316: 297: 293: 273: 263: 189: 185: 159: 5112: 5087: 1815: 1810: 1330: 1317: 1041: 1033: 311: 3899: 5380: 5196: 4199:

The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860–1960

1772: 1576: 1249: 1195: 1180: 1123: 1063: 939: 339: 324: 229: 106: 986: 319:

from the Belgian Occupied East African Territories, captured during the

5251: 5246: 4170:(8, illustrated, reprint ed.). London; New York, N.Y.: Zed Books. 3857:

We Wish To Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families

1105: 961: 554: 393: 146:, in which over 500,000 Tutsi were killed before the RPF took control. 3338:

Halberstam, David (2 July 1962). "Rwanda, Burundi Raise Their Flags".

5727: 5440: 1254: 1228: 1204: 1044:

grew, and with it the demand for labourers in the Congolese mines of

574: 512: 281: 4347:. National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, Republic of Rwanda. 1040:. The economic landscape had changed considerably during the war; a 251: 5938: 5464: 5201: 1732: 1683: 1297: 1058: 606: 357:

Beginning in the late 1920s, the role of the Catholic Church grew (

225: 205: 4455: 2420: 2418: 2416: 4045:(illustrated ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. 2922: 1697:

Tutsi refugees fleeing to Uganda with their cattle (January 1964)

569: 502: 335: 242: 2756: 2754: 1767:

and he was killed. Habyarimana's death was the catalyst for the

1650:

for independently monitored elections. The commission sponsored

1321:

his own army to combat the violence, but the colonial resident,

5261: 4486: 4445: 3428: 2895: 2834: 2413: 1675: 1454: 1309: 1301: 564: 204:

migrated later and formed a distinct racial group, possibly of

131: 67: 2912: 2910: 2824: 2822: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2724: 2722: 2680: 2678: 2629: 2627: 2614: 2612: 2575: 2573: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2090: 2088: 5513: 3816:

Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda

3081: 3079: 2751: 2139: 1827: 1707: 1293: 201: 75: 4992: 4342:"The Rwandan Conflict: Origin, Development, Exit Strategies" 4167:

A people betrayed: the role of the West in Rwanda's genocide

3399: 3397: 3321: 3319: 2597: 2271: 1701:

Beginning in late 1960 armed groups of Tutsi exiles (called

3546: 3534: 3370: 2934: 2907: 2846: 2819: 2778: 2766: 2734: 2719: 2675: 2663: 2651: 2639: 2624: 2609: 2570: 2538: 2384: 2259: 2247: 2223: 2085: 1212: 1187: 601: 197: 71: 3558: 3076: 2403: 2401: 2399: 2073: 2010: 2008: 1585:. Logiest was a personal friend of Ruanda-Urundi governor 1244: 296:

in 1908). To justify its claim, Germany began a policy of

3647:(illustrated ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3510: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3447: 3445: 3443: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3394: 3382: 3316: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3270: 3268: 3266: 3157: 3155: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3113: 3111: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3040: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2709: 2707: 2705: 2449: 2447: 2445: 1969: 1759:

with the RPF. The cease-fire ended on 6 April 1994, when

3780:

The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History

3594: 3582: 3253: 3251: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3228: 3226: 3201: 3199: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3098: 3096: 3094: 3027: 3025: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3017: 3015: 3013: 3011: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2585: 2528: 2526: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2307: 2283: 2211: 2199: 2187: 2127: 2115: 2105: 2103: 2061: 2051: 2049: 2047: 1115: 284:. Germany wanted this region, which was also claimed by 180:

The earliest inhabitants of what is now Rwanda were the

2560: 2558: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2479: 2477: 2464: 2462: 2396: 2163: 2005: 1981: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1844: 1579:, a Belgian army colonel working in the Congo with the 342:, and the country came under Belgian control in a 1919 5666:

Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party

4394:"Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories (1945–1999)" 4269:(2nd ed.). Kampala: Fountain Publishers Limited. 4100:(2nd ed.). Kampala: Fountain Publishers Limited. 3675:"Mbonyumutwa son protests at Rwanda leader exhumation" 3522: 3498: 3486: 3474: 3457: 3440: 3409: 3358: 3346: 3295: 3263: 3167: 3152: 3123: 3108: 3037: 2991: 2702: 2442: 2430: 2355: 2343: 2331: 2295: 5594:

Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia

5447:

Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction

4295:

Rwanda Development Board (RDB) (I) (6 January 2009).

3860:(Reprint ed.). London; New York, N.Y.: Picador. 3695:"Hutus 'killed Rwanda President Juvenal Habyarimana'" 3285: 3283: 3248: 3223: 3211: 3196: 3179: 3140: 3091: 3064: 3008: 2946: 2883: 2858: 2807: 2795: 2690: 2523: 2367: 2319: 2235: 2175: 2151: 2100: 2044: 2020: 1945: 1897: 1868: 4412:

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2010).

3618: 2555: 2506: 2489: 2474: 2459: 2032: 1993: 1933: 1921: 1880: 1856: 1787: 3712: 3570: 2928: 1957: 1714:In December 1963 the Burundi-based rebels launched 1668: 3919:Halsey Carr, Rosamond; Halsey, Ann Howard (2000). 3813: 3641:Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis, eds. (2010). 3280: 1167:In 1958, Gitera visited the King at his palace in 3918: 3606: 2760: 1909: 1744:, killing Kayibanda and assuming the presidency. 5954: 4388: 2277: 1203:in July 1959 while seeking medical treatment in 4365: 4135:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 2265: 1269:with his wife at a church close to his home in 5345:Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent 5339:Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire 4297:"Tourism and Conservation Performance in 2008" 4228:Page, Melvin E.; Sonnenburg, Penny M. (2003). 4227: 2145: 1601:, with Logiest replacing him as the country's 1110:Association for Social Promotion of the Masses 1100:The second major figure of the Hutu elite was 5526:Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc 5333:Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire 4978: 4471: 4202:. New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press. 3692: 3564: 1555: 1009: 5648:Violence against Hindus in independent India 4038: 3713:Braathen, E.; Bøås, M.; Saether, G. (2000). 3672: 3325: 2916: 2901: 2852: 2840: 2828: 2789: 2745: 2728: 2684: 2669: 2657: 2645: 2633: 2618: 2579: 2549: 2424: 2390: 1608: 1575:decision maker in this response was Colonel 196:. According to one, the first settlers were 5860:Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh 5375:Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent 4414:"Human Development Index Trends, 1980–2010" 3922:Land of a Thousand Hills: My Life in Rwanda 3640: 2079: 16:1959–61 period of ethnic violence in Rwanda 4985: 4971: 4478: 4464: 4010:The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa 4006: 3853: 3434: 3337: 2940: 2253: 1850: 1562: 1548: 1069:The best-known figure in the movement was 1016: 1002: 5495:Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars 3898: 1726: 1336: 1229:Parti du Mouvement de l'Emancipation Hutu 1036:, with a mandate to oversee its eventual 4266:The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide 4097:The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide 3808: 3776: 3600: 3588: 2407: 2229: 2169: 2094: 2014: 1987: 1975: 1951: 1903: 1874: 1692: 1636: 1248: 1188:Death of Rudahigwa and formation of UNAR 310: 158: 29: 5459:French Revolutionary dechristianisation 4294: 4259: 4195: 4160: 4125: 4059: 3624: 3552: 3540: 3528: 3516: 3504: 3492: 3480: 3468: 3451: 3422: 3403: 3388: 3376: 3364: 3352: 3310: 3274: 3257: 3242: 3217: 3173: 3161: 3134: 3117: 3102: 3085: 3058: 3002: 2813: 2713: 2591: 2532: 2453: 2436: 2378: 2361: 2349: 2337: 2325: 2313: 2301: 2289: 2241: 2217: 2205: 2193: 2181: 2157: 2133: 2121: 2109: 2067: 2055: 2026: 1999: 1939: 1927: 1891: 1862: 1245:Attack on Mbonyumutwa and Hutu uprising 5955: 5405:Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain 3950: 3834: 3744: 3576: 3205: 3190: 3146: 3070: 3031: 2985: 2889: 2877: 2801: 2696: 2564: 2517: 2500: 2483: 2468: 2038: 1028:Belgium continued to rule Rwanda as a 66:), was a period of ethnic violence in 5654:1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight 4966: 4459: 4315: 4066:. cited in. Brussels: Didier Hatier. 3885: 3289: 2772: 2603: 1116:Deterioration of Hutu–Tutsi relations 376: 212:The population coalesced, first into 154: 4411: 4013:. University of Pennsylvania Press. 3974: 3612: 1915: 1081:as editor of the Catholic magazine, 5798:Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War 5748:Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh 5660:Jewish exodus from the Muslim world 5453:Christianization of the Sámi people 4485: 3981:. New York, N.Y.: Benchmark Books. 3839:. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. 3751:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3719:. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. 1645:which received independence in 1962 298:ruling through the Rwandan monarchy 13: 4371:"International Trusteeship System" 4339: 4039:Linden, Ian; Linden, Jane (1977). 1963: 361:Catholic Church in colonial Rwanda 276:, with imprecise boundaries. When 272:of 1884 assigned the territory to 14: 6009: 5968:Riot and civil disorder in Rwanda 5642:Violence against Muslims in India 5636:Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan 5582:Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses 4439: 2929:Braathen, Bøås & Saether 2000 1761:Habyarimana's plane was shot down 1085:. During the late 1950s he was a 5937: 4444: 3644:Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 3331: 1790: 1669:Tutsi refugees and rebel attacks 1375: 1370: 1365: 985: 400: 292:(annexed by Belgium to form the 5914:2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel 5884:Persecution of Uyghurs in China 4426:from the original on 2012-04-01 4400:from the original on 2017-10-06 4377:from the original on 2019-05-03 4354:from the original on 2019-05-03 4328:from the original on 2014-12-23 4283:from the original on 2023-01-11 4248:from the original on 2023-01-11 4216:from the original on 2023-01-11 4184:from the original on 2023-01-11 4149:from the original on 2023-01-11 4114:from the original on 2023-01-11 4080:from the original on 2023-01-11 4042:Church and Revolution in Rwanda 4027:from the original on 2023-01-11 3995:from the original on 2023-01-11 3963:from the original on 2013-09-01 3939:from the original on 2023-01-11 3907:from the original on 2017-08-20 3874:from the original on 2023-01-11 3837:Historical Dictionary of Rwanda 3797:from the original on 2023-01-11 3783:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 3765:from the original on 2023-01-11 3733:from the original on 2023-01-11 3701:from the original on 2013-06-01 3681:from the original on 2023-01-11 3661:from the original on 2023-01-11 1626: 257: 138:initiated by the Tutsi-refugee 5902:2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings 5872:Genocide of Christians by ISIL 5606:Communist Romanian persecution 4512:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa 4316:Sabar, Ariel (27 March 2013). 3978:Rwanda (Cultures of the World) 3891:Courrier Hebdomadaire du CRISP 3777:Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2003). 176:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa 70:from 1959 to 1961 between the 1: 5973:Political and cultural purges 5920:2024 Istanbul church shooting 5896:Christchurch mosque shootings 5684:Religious violence in Nigeria 5678:Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria 3633: 2761:Halsey Carr & Halsey 2000 1716:a large-scale surprise attack 1239: 149: 98:and the colonial government. 36:red-yellow-green Rwandan flag 23:. For the 1994 genocide, see 5810:War crimes in the Kosovo War 5600:Communist Polish persecution 5471:1860 Mount Lebanon civil war 5399:Crusades against schismatics 3693:BBC News (II) (2010-01-12). 1663: 1652:General Assembly resolutions 7: 5993:Political history of Rwanda 5988:Revolution-based civil wars 4864:Water supply and sanitation 4196:Newbury, Catharine (1988). 3854:Gourevitch, Philip (2000). 3673:BBC News (I) (2010-03-09). 1783: 1708:massacre thousands of Hutus 10: 6014: 5983:Ethnicity-based civil wars 3951:Henley, Jon (2007-10-31). 2146:Page & Sonnenburg 2003 1630: 1138:first democratic elections 1087:Travail, Fidélité, Progrès 371: 261: 173: 18: 5934: 5842:South Thailand insurgency 5818:Walisongo school massacre 5786:Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus 5435:Expulsion of the Moriscos 5411:European wars of religion 5325: 5169: 5004: 4929: 4872: 4814: 4805: 4753: 4744: 4653: 4644: 4602: 4593: 4497: 4007:Lemarchand, René (2009). 3887:"Guerre civile au Rwanda" 3835:Dorsey, Learthen (1994). 1609:PARMEHUTU's rise to power 1220:Union Nationale Rwandaise 344:League of Nations mandate 5998:Belgium–Rwanda relations 5978:20th-century revolutions 5232:Extrajudicial punishment 4318:"A King With No Country" 3925:. Penguin. p. 115. 2917:Linden & Linden 1977 2902:Linden & Linden 1977 2853:Linden & Linden 1977 2841:Linden & Linden 1977 2829:Linden & Linden 1977 2790:Linden & Linden 1977 2746:Linden & Linden 1977 2729:Linden & Linden 1977 2685:Linden & Linden 1977 2670:Linden & Linden 1977 2658:Linden & Linden 1977 2646:Linden & Linden 1977 2634:Linden & Linden 1977 2619:Linden & Linden 1977 2580:Linden & Linden 1977 2550:Linden & Linden 1977 2425:Linden & Linden 1977 2391:Linden & Linden 1977 1838: 184:, a group of aboriginal 5925:Crocus City Hall attack 5672:Persecution of Tibetans 5429:French Wars of Religion 5351:Yellow Turban Rebellion 4090: 3975:King, David C. (2007). 2080:Appiah & Gates 2010 1778:Human Development Index 1749:Rwandan Patriotic Front 1095:Mouvement Social Muhutu 449:By other characteristic 278:Gustav Adolf von Götzen 140:Rwandan Patriotic Front 80:ethnic groups in Rwanda 5878:Iraqi Turkmen genocide 5854:Maspero demonstrations 5702:Huế Phật Đản shootings 1727:Post-revolution Rwanda 1698: 1646: 1599:constitutional monarch 1337:Arrival of Guy Logiest 1258: 327: 171: 163:Reconstruction of the 63: 39: 5848:Boko Haram insurgency 5507:Pontic Greek genocide 5417:Ottoman–Habsburg wars 5227:Extrajudicial killing 4994:Religious persecution 4453:at Wikimedia Commons 4060:Logiest, Guy (1988). 3900:10.3917/cris.042.0015 3745:Carney, J.J. (2013). 1826:Burundian Genocides ( 1696: 1640: 1631:Further information: 1478:Coup d'état of 5 July 1263:Dominique Mbonyumutwa 1252: 1108:. Gitera founded the 751:Bulgarian unification 427:Counter-revolutionary 321:East African Campaign 314: 162: 103:Dominique Mbonyumutwa 33: 5830:September 11 attacks 5766:1984 anti-Sikh riots 5630:Rawalpindi massacres 5576:White Terror (Spain) 5387:Massacre at Ayyadieh 5272:Population cleansing 4390:United Nations (III) 3437:, pp. 135, 139. 2278:United Nations (III) 1209:Kigeli V Ndahindurwa 1201:cerebral haemorrhage 523:Contentious politics 394:Political revolution 366:Mutara III Rudahigwa 46:, also known as the 5742:Bangladesh genocide 5722:Cultural Revolution 5714:Xá Lợi Pagoda raids 5477:Circassian genocide 5363:Rhineland massacres 5277:Population transfer 5242:Forced displacement 5049:Jehovah's Witnesses 4705:Chamber of Deputies 4367:United Nations (II) 4324:. Washington, D.C. 3555:, pp. 190–191. 3543:, pp. 135–136. 3379:, pp. 160–161. 3088:, pp. 195 196. 2904:, pp. 266 267. 2843:, pp. 265 266. 2266:United Nations (II) 2232:, pp. 276–277. 1738:Juvénal Habyarimana 1261:On 1 November 1959 1133:La Presse Africaine 1129:La Presse Africaine 1075:Nyakibanda Seminary 992:Politics portal 288:as part of his own 78:, two of the three 56:Wind of Destruction 5836:2002 Gujarat riots 5760:Cambodian genocide 5754:Lebanese Civil War 5532:Soviet persecution 5369:Jerusalem massacre 5282:Sectarian violence 5267:Political violence 4783:Telecommunications 4551:Rwandan Revolution 4539:Colonial residents 4529:German East Africa 4451:Rwandan Revolution 4340:Shyaka, Anastase. 3565:BBC News (II) 2010 3340:The New York Times 2427:, p. 251–252. 2097:, p. 217–218. 1822:Kingdom of Burundi 1699: 1688:Congo-Léopoldville 1647: 1455:Republic of Rwanda 1399:German East Africa 1287:Athanase Gashagaza 1259: 1093:, and founded the 1071:Grégoire Kayibanda 1030:UN Trust Territory 967:Second Arab Spring 377:Hutu counter-elite 328: 306:German East Africa 172: 155:Precolonial Rwanda 116:Grégoire Kayibanda 44:Rwandan Revolution 40: 5950: 5949: 5890:Rohingya genocide 5618:Direct Action Day 5570:Šahovići massacre 5520:Armenian genocide 5514:Assyrian genocide 5401:(13th–15th cent.) 5395:(12th–16th cent.) 5393:Northern Crusades 5237:Forced conversion 5187:Cultural genocide 5182:Communal violence 5059:post–Cold War era 5044:Eastern Orthodoxy 4960: 4959: 4925: 4924: 4849:Human trafficking 4801: 4800: 4740: 4739: 4717:Political parties 4668:Foreign relations 4640: 4639: 4568:Rwandan Civil War 4563:Bugesera invasion 4544:Ruzagayura famine 4517:Kingdom of Rwanda 4449:Media related to 4276:978-9970-02-089-8 4241:978-1-576-07335-3 4209:978-0-231-06257-2 4177:978-1-85649-831-9 4142:978-0-691-10280-1 4107:978-9970-02-089-8 4073:978-2-87-088631-1 4063:Mission au Rwanda 4052:978-0719-00-671-5 3988:978-0-7614-2333-1 3932:978-1-1011-4351-3 3867:978-0-330-37120-9 3846:978-0-8108-2820-9 3827:978-0-09-947893-5 3820:. London: Arrow. 3790:978-1-890951-34-4 3758:978-0-199982-27-1 3726:978-0-333977-35-4 3654:978-0-19-533770-9 3519:, pp. 74–76. 3406:, pp. 55–56. 3391:, pp. 63–64. 3326:BBC News (I) 2010 2943:, pp. 58–59. 2594:, pp. 45–46. 2316:, pp. 43–44. 2256:, pp. 56–57. 2220:, pp. 30–31. 2208:, pp. 31–32. 2196:, pp. 28–29. 2136:, pp. 25–26. 2124:, pp. 23–24. 2070:, pp. 13–14. 1978:, pp. 88–89. 1966:, pp. 10–11. 1806:History of Rwanda 1753:Rwandan Civil War 1572: 1571: 1539: 1538: 1528:COVID-19 pandemic 1468:Bugesera invasion 1323:Andre Preud'homme 1275:Gitarama Province 1234:Catharine Newbury 1148:Conseil Supérieur 1026: 1025: 560:Mass mobilization 550:Guerrilla warfare 270:Berlin Conference 222:Kingdom of Rwanda 52:Social Revolution 21:Rwandan Civil War 6005: 5942: 5941: 5908:2020 Delhi riots 5824:Kosheh massacres 5804:Bosnian genocide 5624:1946 Bihar riots 5287:Social cleansing 5212:Ethnic cleansing 4987: 4980: 4973: 4964: 4963: 4945: 4938: 4812: 4811: 4766: 4751: 4750: 4712:Decentralization 4651: 4650: 4600: 4599: 4585:Second Congo War 4573:Rwandan genocide 4556:Coup of Gitarama 4480: 4473: 4466: 4457: 4456: 4448: 4434: 4432: 4431: 4425: 4418: 4408: 4406: 4405: 4385: 4383: 4382: 4362: 4360: 4359: 4353: 4346: 4336: 4334: 4333: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4299:. Archived from 4291: 4289: 4288: 4256: 4254: 4253: 4224: 4222: 4221: 4192: 4190: 4189: 4157: 4155: 4154: 4127:Mamdani, Mahmood 4122: 4120: 4119: 4088: 4086: 4085: 4056: 4035: 4033: 4032: 4003: 4001: 4000: 3971: 3969: 3968: 3947: 3945: 3944: 3915: 3913: 3912: 3902: 3882: 3880: 3879: 3850: 3831: 3819: 3805: 3803: 3802: 3773: 3771: 3770: 3741: 3739: 3738: 3716:Ethnicity Kills? 3709: 3707: 3706: 3689: 3687: 3686: 3669: 3667: 3666: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3604: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3538: 3532: 3526: 3520: 3514: 3508: 3502: 3496: 3490: 3484: 3478: 3472: 3466: 3455: 3449: 3438: 3432: 3426: 3420: 3407: 3401: 3392: 3386: 3380: 3374: 3368: 3362: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3335: 3329: 3323: 3314: 3308: 3293: 3287: 3278: 3272: 3261: 3255: 3246: 3240: 3221: 3215: 3209: 3203: 3194: 3188: 3177: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3150: 3144: 3138: 3132: 3121: 3115: 3106: 3100: 3089: 3083: 3074: 3068: 3062: 3056: 3035: 3029: 3006: 3000: 2989: 2983: 2944: 2938: 2932: 2926: 2920: 2914: 2905: 2899: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2856: 2850: 2844: 2838: 2832: 2826: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2787: 2776: 2770: 2764: 2758: 2749: 2743: 2732: 2726: 2717: 2711: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2673: 2667: 2661: 2655: 2649: 2643: 2637: 2631: 2622: 2616: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2568: 2562: 2553: 2547: 2536: 2530: 2521: 2515: 2504: 2498: 2487: 2481: 2472: 2466: 2457: 2451: 2440: 2434: 2428: 2422: 2411: 2405: 2394: 2388: 2382: 2376: 2365: 2359: 2353: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2329: 2323: 2317: 2311: 2305: 2299: 2293: 2292:, p. 42–43. 2287: 2281: 2275: 2269: 2263: 2257: 2251: 2245: 2239: 2233: 2227: 2221: 2215: 2209: 2203: 2197: 2191: 2185: 2179: 2173: 2167: 2161: 2155: 2149: 2143: 2137: 2131: 2125: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2098: 2092: 2083: 2077: 2071: 2065: 2059: 2053: 2042: 2036: 2030: 2024: 2018: 2012: 2003: 1997: 1991: 1985: 1979: 1973: 1967: 1961: 1955: 1949: 1943: 1937: 1931: 1925: 1919: 1913: 1907: 1901: 1895: 1889: 1878: 1872: 1866: 1860: 1854: 1848: 1800: 1795: 1794: 1793: 1769:Rwandan genocide 1633:Coup of Gitarama 1587:Jean-Paul Harroy 1564: 1557: 1550: 1535: 1518:Second Congo War 1462: 1445:Coup of Gitarama 1424: 1385: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1359: 1341: 1340: 1157:Bahutu Manifesto 1051:Léon-Paul Classe 1018: 1011: 1004: 990: 989: 843:Hungarian (1956) 675:Spanish American 404: 381: 380: 290:Congo Free State 238:Kigeli Rwabugiri 194:Bantu Migrations 25:Rwandan genocide 6013: 6012: 6008: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6003: 6002: 5953: 5952: 5951: 5946: 5936: 5930: 5866:Yazidi genocide 5772:Revival Process 5708:Thích Quảng Đức 5696:Buddhist crisis 5690:Istanbul pogrom 5558:1970–1987 5553:1958–1964 5548:1928–1941 5543:1921–1928 5538:1917–1921 5423:Goa Inquisition 5357:Battle of Tours 5347:(c.550–c. 1200) 5341:(c. 324–c. 491) 5321: 5222:Ethnic violence 5217:Ethnic conflict 5165: 5164: 5163: 5118:minority Muslim 5000: 4991: 4961: 4956: 4948: 4941: 4934: 4921: 4912:Public holidays 4868: 4834:Gender equality 4797: 4764: 4736: 4685:Law enforcement 4636: 4589: 4493: 4484: 4442: 4437: 4429: 4427: 4423: 4416: 4403: 4401: 4380: 4378: 4357: 4355: 4351: 4344: 4331: 4329: 4306: 4304: 4286: 4284: 4277: 4261:Prunier, Gérard 4251: 4249: 4242: 4219: 4217: 4210: 4187: 4185: 4178: 4152: 4150: 4143: 4117: 4115: 4108: 4092:Prunier, Gérard 4083: 4081: 4074: 4053: 4030: 4028: 4021: 3998: 3996: 3989: 3966: 3964: 3942: 3940: 3933: 3910: 3908: 3877: 3875: 3868: 3847: 3828: 3810:Dallaire, Roméo 3800: 3798: 3791: 3768: 3766: 3759: 3736: 3734: 3727: 3704: 3702: 3684: 3682: 3664: 3662: 3655: 3636: 3631: 3623: 3619: 3611: 3607: 3599: 3595: 3587: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3563: 3559: 3551: 3547: 3539: 3535: 3527: 3523: 3515: 3511: 3503: 3499: 3491: 3487: 3479: 3475: 3467: 3458: 3450: 3441: 3435:Lemarchand 2009 3433: 3429: 3421: 3410: 3402: 3395: 3387: 3383: 3375: 3371: 3363: 3359: 3351: 3347: 3336: 3332: 3324: 3317: 3309: 3296: 3288: 3281: 3273: 3264: 3256: 3249: 3241: 3224: 3216: 3212: 3204: 3197: 3189: 3180: 3172: 3168: 3160: 3153: 3145: 3141: 3133: 3124: 3116: 3109: 3101: 3092: 3084: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3057: 3038: 3030: 3009: 3001: 2992: 2984: 2947: 2941:Gourevitch 2000 2939: 2935: 2927: 2923: 2915: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2876: 2859: 2851: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2827: 2820: 2812: 2808: 2800: 2796: 2788: 2779: 2771: 2767: 2759: 2752: 2744: 2735: 2727: 2720: 2712: 2703: 2695: 2691: 2683: 2676: 2668: 2664: 2656: 2652: 2644: 2640: 2632: 2625: 2617: 2610: 2602: 2598: 2590: 2586: 2578: 2571: 2563: 2556: 2548: 2539: 2531: 2524: 2516: 2507: 2499: 2490: 2482: 2475: 2467: 2460: 2452: 2443: 2435: 2431: 2423: 2414: 2406: 2397: 2389: 2385: 2377: 2368: 2360: 2356: 2348: 2344: 2336: 2332: 2324: 2320: 2312: 2308: 2300: 2296: 2288: 2284: 2276: 2272: 2264: 2260: 2254:Gourevitch 2000 2252: 2248: 2240: 2236: 2228: 2224: 2216: 2212: 2204: 2200: 2192: 2188: 2180: 2176: 2168: 2164: 2156: 2152: 2144: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2120: 2116: 2108: 2101: 2093: 2086: 2078: 2074: 2066: 2062: 2054: 2045: 2037: 2033: 2025: 2021: 2013: 2006: 1998: 1994: 1986: 1982: 1974: 1970: 1962: 1958: 1950: 1946: 1938: 1934: 1926: 1922: 1914: 1910: 1902: 1898: 1890: 1881: 1873: 1869: 1861: 1857: 1851:Gourevitch 2000 1849: 1845: 1841: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1729: 1671: 1666: 1635: 1629: 1611: 1568: 1533: 1508:First Congo War 1460: 1426: 1423:(Ruanda-Urundi) 1422: 1421: 1420:Belgian mandate 1409:Rumanura famine 1357: 1350: 1339: 1247: 1242: 1190: 1118: 1022: 984: 979: 978: 635: 627: 626: 498: 490: 489: 450: 442: 441: 412: 379: 374: 330:Belgian forces 266: 260: 178: 157: 152: 128:surprise attack 122:groups (called 96:Catholic Church 48:Hutu Revolution 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6011: 6001: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5963:1959 in Rwanda 5948: 5947: 5935: 5932: 5931: 5929: 5928: 5922: 5917: 5911: 5905: 5899: 5893: 5892:(2016–ongoing) 5887: 5886:(2014–ongoing) 5881: 5875: 5874:(2014–ongoing) 5869: 5863: 5857: 5851: 5850:(2009–ongoing) 5845: 5844:(2004–ongoing) 5839: 5833: 5827: 5821: 5815: 5814: 5813: 5807: 5801: 5789: 5783: 5782: 5781: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5750:(1971–ongoing) 5745: 5739: 5738: 5737: 5731: 5719: 5718: 5717: 5711: 5705: 5693: 5687: 5686:(1953–ongoing) 5681: 5675: 5674:(1950–ongoing) 5669: 5668:(1949–ongoing) 5663: 5657: 5651: 5650:(1947–ongoing) 5645: 5644:(1947–ongoing) 5639: 5638:(1947–ongoing) 5633: 5627: 5621: 5615: 5612:Noakhali riots 5609: 5603: 5597: 5591: 5585: 5579: 5573: 5567: 5566: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5529: 5523: 5517: 5511: 5510: 5509: 5501:Greek genocide 5498: 5492: 5489:Adana massacre 5486: 5480: 5474: 5468: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5414: 5408: 5402: 5396: 5390: 5384: 5378: 5372: 5366: 5360: 5354: 5353:(c.184–c. 205) 5348: 5342: 5336: 5329: 5327: 5323: 5322: 5320: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5302:State religion 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5207:Discrimination 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5173: 5171: 5167: 5166: 5162: 5161: 5159:Zoroastrianism 5156: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5135: 5134: 5124: 5123: 5122: 5121: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5085: 5084: 5083: 5081:Untouchability 5078: 5068: 5063: 5062: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5002: 5001: 4998:discrimination 4990: 4989: 4982: 4975: 4967: 4958: 4957: 4955: 4954: 4947: 4946: 4939: 4931: 4930: 4927: 4926: 4923: 4922: 4920: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4878: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4815: 4809: 4803: 4802: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4778:Stock Exchange 4775: 4770: 4769: 4768: 4754: 4748: 4742: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4735: 4734: 4732:Prime Minister 4729: 4727:Vice President 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4708: 4707: 4702: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4681: 4680: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4654: 4648: 4642: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4622:National parks 4619: 4614: 4609: 4603: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4587: 4582: 4581: 4580: 4578:Initial events 4570: 4565: 4560: 4559: 4558: 4548: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4531: 4526: 4525: 4524: 4514: 4509: 4503: 4501: 4495: 4494: 4483: 4482: 4475: 4468: 4460: 4441: 4440:External links 4438: 4436: 4435: 4409: 4386: 4363: 4337: 4313: 4303:on 11 May 2012 4292: 4275: 4257: 4240: 4225: 4208: 4193: 4176: 4162:Melvern, Linda 4158: 4141: 4123: 4106: 4072: 4057: 4051: 4036: 4019: 4004: 3987: 3972: 3948: 3931: 3916: 3883: 3866: 3851: 3845: 3832: 3826: 3806: 3789: 3774: 3757: 3742: 3725: 3710: 3690: 3670: 3653: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3630: 3629: 3617: 3605: 3603:, p. 299. 3593: 3591:, p. 386. 3581: 3569: 3557: 3545: 3533: 3521: 3509: 3497: 3485: 3473: 3456: 3439: 3427: 3408: 3393: 3381: 3369: 3357: 3345: 3330: 3315: 3294: 3279: 3262: 3247: 3222: 3210: 3208:, p. 135. 3195: 3193:, p. 136. 3178: 3176:, p. 124. 3166: 3164:, p. 123. 3151: 3149:, p. 129. 3139: 3137:, p. 197. 3122: 3120:, p. 135. 3107: 3090: 3075: 3073:, p. 126. 3063: 3061:, p. 196. 3036: 3034:, p. 127. 3007: 3005:, p. 195. 2990: 2988:, p. 125. 2945: 2933: 2921: 2919:, p. 267. 2906: 2894: 2892:, p. 109. 2882: 2880:, p. 124. 2857: 2855:, p. 266. 2845: 2833: 2831:, p. 264. 2818: 2806: 2804:, p. 107. 2794: 2792:, p. 263. 2777: 2765: 2750: 2748:, p. 262. 2733: 2731:, p. 261. 2718: 2716:, p. 194. 2701: 2699:, p. 102. 2689: 2687:, p. 258. 2674: 2672:, p. 257. 2662: 2660:, p. 255. 2650: 2648:, p. 254. 2638: 2636:, p. 253. 2623: 2621:, p. 252. 2608: 2606:, paragraph 2. 2596: 2584: 2582:, p. 250. 2569: 2554: 2552:, p. 249. 2537: 2522: 2505: 2488: 2473: 2458: 2456:, p. 193. 2441: 2439:, p. 192. 2429: 2412: 2410:, p. 302. 2395: 2393:, p. 245. 2383: 2366: 2364:, p. 108. 2354: 2352:, p. 114. 2342: 2340:, p. 113. 2330: 2318: 2306: 2304:, p. 106. 2294: 2282: 2270: 2258: 2246: 2234: 2222: 2210: 2198: 2186: 2174: 2172:, p. 260. 2162: 2150: 2148:, p. 508. 2138: 2126: 2114: 2099: 2084: 2082:, p. 218. 2072: 2060: 2043: 2031: 2019: 2017:, p. 160. 2004: 1992: 1990:, p. 482. 1980: 1968: 1956: 1944: 1932: 1920: 1908: 1896: 1879: 1867: 1855: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1836: 1835: 1824: 1819: 1813: 1808: 1802: 1801: 1785: 1782: 1765:Kigali Airport 1757:Arusha Accords 1728: 1725: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1643:flag of Rwanda 1628: 1625: 1610: 1607: 1582:Force Publique 1570: 1569: 1567: 1566: 1559: 1552: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1530: 1524: 1523: 1520: 1514: 1513: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1500: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1474: 1473: 1470: 1464: 1463: 1457: 1451: 1450: 1447: 1441: 1440: 1437: 1431: 1430: 1427: 1418: 1415: 1414: 1411: 1405: 1404: 1401: 1395: 1394: 1391: 1381: 1380: 1362: 1361: 1352: 1351: 1344: 1338: 1335: 1285:, the home of 1246: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1224:Communist bloc 1189: 1186: 1117: 1114: 1024: 1023: 1021: 1020: 1013: 1006: 998: 995: 994: 981: 980: 977: 976: 975: 974: 964: 959: 958: 957: 952: 947: 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 906: 905: 900: 895: 890: 880: 875: 870: 865: 860: 855: 850: 845: 840: 835: 830: 825: 820: 819: 818: 813: 803: 802: 801: 796: 791: 783: 778: 773: 772: 771: 766: 758: 753: 748: 743: 742: 741: 736: 731: 726: 724:Italian states 716: 711: 710: 709: 704: 694: 689: 684: 679: 678: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 642: 636: 633: 632: 629: 628: 625: 624: 619: 617:Tax resistance 614: 609: 604: 599: 598: 597: 592: 587: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 547: 542: 541: 540: 530: 525: 520: 518:Class conflict 515: 510: 508:Civil disorder 505: 499: 496: 495: 492: 491: 488: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 462: 457: 451: 448: 447: 444: 443: 440: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 413: 410: 409: 406: 405: 397: 396: 390: 389: 378: 375: 373: 370: 334:of Rwanda and 302:Yuhi V Musinga 262:Main article: 259: 256: 174:Main article: 165:King of Rwanda 156: 153: 151: 148: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6010: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5945: 5940: 5933: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5915: 5912: 5909: 5906: 5903: 5900: 5897: 5894: 5891: 5888: 5885: 5882: 5879: 5876: 5873: 5870: 5867: 5864: 5861: 5858: 5855: 5852: 5849: 5846: 5843: 5840: 5837: 5834: 5831: 5828: 5825: 5822: 5819: 5816: 5811: 5808: 5805: 5802: 5799: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5792:Yugoslav Wars 5790: 5787: 5784: 5779: 5778:Big Excursion 5776: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5767: 5764: 5761: 5758: 5755: 5752: 5749: 5746: 5743: 5740: 5735: 5732: 5729: 5726: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5715: 5712: 5709: 5706: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5691: 5688: 5685: 5682: 5679: 5676: 5673: 5670: 5667: 5664: 5661: 5658: 5655: 5652: 5649: 5646: 5643: 5640: 5637: 5634: 5631: 5628: 5625: 5622: 5619: 5616: 5613: 5610: 5607: 5604: 5601: 5598: 5595: 5592: 5589: 5588:The Holocaust 5586: 5583: 5580: 5577: 5574: 5571: 5568: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5527: 5524: 5521: 5518: 5515: 5512: 5508: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5496: 5493: 5490: 5487: 5484: 5483:Dungan Revolt 5481: 5478: 5475: 5472: 5469: 5466: 5463: 5460: 5457: 5454: 5451: 5448: 5445: 5442: 5439: 5436: 5433: 5430: 5427: 5424: 5421: 5418: 5415: 5412: 5409: 5406: 5403: 5400: 5397: 5394: 5391: 5388: 5385: 5382: 5379: 5376: 5373: 5370: 5367: 5364: 5361: 5358: 5355: 5352: 5349: 5346: 5343: 5340: 5337: 5334: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5324: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5297:State atheism 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5192:Deprogramming 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5174: 5172: 5168: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5144:Protestantism 5142: 5140: 5137: 5133: 5130: 5129: 5128: 5125: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5091: 5090: 5089: 5086: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5073: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5054:LDS or Mormon 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5036: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4988: 4983: 4981: 4976: 4974: 4969: 4968: 4965: 4953: 4950: 4949: 4944: 4940: 4937: 4933: 4932: 4928: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4875: 4871: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4829:Ethnic groups 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4816: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4804: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4767: 4761: 4760: 4759: 4758:National Bank 4756: 4755: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4743: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4697: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4604: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4592: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4557: 4554: 4553: 4552: 4549: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4536: 4535: 4534:Ruanda-Urundi 4532: 4530: 4527: 4523: 4520: 4519: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4504: 4502: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4481: 4476: 4474: 4469: 4467: 4462: 4461: 4458: 4454: 4452: 4447: 4422: 4415: 4410: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4350: 4343: 4338: 4327: 4323: 4322:Washingtonian 4319: 4314: 4302: 4298: 4293: 4282: 4278: 4272: 4268: 4267: 4262: 4258: 4247: 4243: 4237: 4233: 4232: 4226: 4215: 4211: 4205: 4201: 4200: 4194: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4169: 4168: 4163: 4159: 4148: 4144: 4138: 4134: 4133: 4128: 4124: 4113: 4109: 4103: 4099: 4098: 4093: 4079: 4075: 4069: 4065: 4064: 4058: 4054: 4048: 4044: 4043: 4037: 4026: 4022: 4020:9780812241204 4016: 4012: 4011: 4005: 3994: 3990: 3984: 3980: 3979: 3973: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3953:"Scar tissue" 3949: 3938: 3934: 3928: 3924: 3923: 3917: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3873: 3869: 3863: 3859: 3858: 3852: 3848: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3823: 3818: 3817: 3811: 3807: 3796: 3792: 3786: 3782: 3781: 3775: 3764: 3760: 3754: 3750: 3749: 3743: 3732: 3728: 3722: 3718: 3717: 3711: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3680: 3676: 3671: 3660: 3656: 3650: 3646: 3645: 3639: 3638: 3626: 3621: 3614: 3609: 3602: 3601:Dallaire 2005 3597: 3590: 3589:Dallaire 2005 3585: 3578: 3573: 3566: 3561: 3554: 3549: 3542: 3537: 3531:, p. 93. 3530: 3525: 3518: 3513: 3507:, p. 60. 3506: 3501: 3495:, p. 59. 3494: 3489: 3483:, p. 58. 3482: 3477: 3471:, p. 57. 3470: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3454:, p. 56. 3453: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3436: 3431: 3425:, p. 55. 3424: 3419: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3405: 3400: 3398: 3390: 3385: 3378: 3373: 3367:, p. 62. 3366: 3361: 3355:, p. 61. 3354: 3349: 3341: 3334: 3327: 3322: 3320: 3313:, p. 53. 3312: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3291: 3286: 3284: 3277:, p. 54. 3276: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3260:, p. 51. 3259: 3254: 3252: 3245:, p. 52. 3244: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3233: 3231: 3229: 3227: 3220:, p. 14. 3219: 3214: 3207: 3202: 3200: 3192: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3175: 3170: 3163: 3158: 3156: 3148: 3143: 3136: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3119: 3114: 3112: 3105:, p. 49. 3104: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3087: 3082: 3080: 3072: 3067: 3060: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3043: 3041: 3033: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3016: 3014: 3012: 3004: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2987: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2942: 2937: 2931:, p. 78. 2930: 2925: 2918: 2913: 2911: 2903: 2898: 2891: 2886: 2879: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2854: 2849: 2842: 2837: 2830: 2825: 2823: 2816:, p. 47. 2815: 2810: 2803: 2798: 2791: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2775:, footnote 1. 2774: 2769: 2762: 2757: 2755: 2747: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2730: 2725: 2723: 2715: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2698: 2693: 2686: 2681: 2679: 2671: 2666: 2659: 2654: 2647: 2642: 2635: 2630: 2628: 2620: 2615: 2613: 2605: 2600: 2593: 2588: 2581: 2576: 2574: 2567:, p. 79. 2566: 2561: 2559: 2551: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2535:, p. 43. 2534: 2529: 2527: 2520:, p. 74. 2519: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2503:, p. 75. 2502: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2486:, p. 71. 2485: 2480: 2478: 2471:, p. 70. 2470: 2465: 2463: 2455: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2438: 2433: 2426: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2409: 2408:Chrétien 2003 2404: 2402: 2400: 2392: 2387: 2381:, p. 45. 2380: 2375: 2373: 2371: 2363: 2358: 2351: 2346: 2339: 2334: 2328:, p. 44. 2327: 2322: 2315: 2310: 2303: 2298: 2291: 2286: 2279: 2274: 2267: 2262: 2255: 2250: 2244:, p. 35. 2243: 2238: 2231: 2230:Chrétien 2003 2226: 2219: 2214: 2207: 2202: 2195: 2190: 2184:, p. 27. 2183: 2178: 2171: 2170:Chrétien 2003 2166: 2160:, p. 26. 2159: 2154: 2147: 2142: 2135: 2130: 2123: 2118: 2112:, p. 25. 2111: 2106: 2104: 2096: 2095:Chrétien 2003 2091: 2089: 2081: 2076: 2069: 2064: 2058:, p. 69. 2057: 2052: 2050: 2048: 2041:, p. 38. 2040: 2035: 2029:, p. 18. 2028: 2023: 2016: 2015:Chrétien 2003 2011: 2009: 2001: 1996: 1989: 1988:Chrétien 2003 1984: 1977: 1976:Chrétien 2003 1972: 1965: 1960: 1954:, p. 69. 1953: 1952:Chrétien 2003 1948: 1942:, p. 58. 1941: 1936: 1930:, p. 16. 1929: 1924: 1918:, p. 75. 1917: 1912: 1906:, p. 58. 1905: 1904:Chrétien 2003 1900: 1894:, p. 61. 1893: 1888: 1886: 1884: 1877:, p. 44. 1876: 1875:Chrétien 2003 1871: 1865:, p. 41. 1864: 1859: 1853:, p. 59. 1852: 1847: 1843: 1833: 1829: 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London. 3943:2016-09-25 3911:2017-08-19 3878:2016-09-25 3801:2016-09-25 3769:2016-09-25 3737:2016-09-25 3705:2012-02-16 3685:2014-12-23 3665:2016-09-25 3634:References 3290:Sabar 2013 2773:CRISP 1959 2604:CRISP 1959 1740:organised 1718:, seizing 1680:Tanganyika 1435:Revolution 1240:Revolution 1106:brickworks 962:Euromaidan 910:Bolivarian 858:Nicaraguan 838:Guatemalan 776:Young Turk 756:Philippine 585:Nonviolent 580:Resistance 555:Insurgency 465:Nonviolent 460:From above 432:Democratic 286:Leopold II 150:Background 5728:Four Olds 5441:Test Acts 5307:Terrorism 5149:Rastafari 5098:Ahmadiyya 4892:Languages 4824:Education 4793:Transport 4722:President 4663:Elections 4627:Volcanoes 4595:Geography 3613:UNDP 2010 1916:King 2007 1818:(1960–65) 1664:Aftermath 1657:a meeting 1522:1998–2003 1512:1996–1997 1502:1993–1994 1492:1990–1994 1488:Civil War 1439:1959–1962 1429:1922–1962 1413:1916–1918 1403:1885–1919 1306:the Congo 1255:pin badge 915:Bulldozer 868:Carnation 863:Argentine 806:1917–1923 794:Communist 739:Hungarian 575:Rebellion 513:Civil war 475:Permanent 422:Communist 417:Bourgeois 282:Lake Kivu 5944:Religion 5465:Utah War 5335:(64–313) 5312:Violence 5202:Domicide 5154:Yazidism 5071:Hinduism 5029:Buddhism 5005:By group 4952:Category 4859:Religion 4690:Military 4646:Politics 4632:Wildlife 4507:Timeline 4491:articles 4421:Archived 4398:Archived 4375:Archived 4349:Archived 4326:Archived 4281:Archived 4263:(1999). 4246:Archived 4214:Archived 4182:Archived 4164:(2000). 4147:Archived 4129:(2002). 4112:Archived 4094:(1999). 4078:Archived 4025:Archived 3993:Archived 3961:Archived 3937:Archived 3905:Archived 3872:Archived 3812:(2005). 3795:Archived 3763:Archived 3731:Archived 3699:Archived 3679:Archived 3659:Archived 1784:See also 1733:hegemony 1720:Bugesera 1684:Tanzania 1616:communal 1605:leader. 1603:de facto 1498:Genocide 1347:a series 1345:Part of 1298:paraffin 1205:Usumbura 972:Sudanese 950:Egyptian 945:Tunisian 898:Romanian 799:Cultural 785:Chinese 760:Iranian 729:February 650:American 645:Atlantic 634:Examples 607:Samizdat 411:By class 386:a series 384:Part of 352:uburetwa 346:, named 248:uburetwa 226:toparchy 206:Cushitic 111:Kigeli V 74:and the 5698:(1963) 5455:(1700s) 5170:Methods 5127:Judaism 5113:Sunnism 5103:Shi'ism 5014:Atheism 4936:Outline 4882:Cuisine 4874:Culture 4807:Society 4788:Tourism 4746:Economy 4499:History 1832:1990–94 1703:inyenzi 1682:(later 1534:present 1461:present 1389:Kingdom 1271:Byimana 1196:Kalinga 1161:ubuhake 1124:evolués 1097:(MSM). 1059:Walloon 1055:Flemish 1046:Katanga 903:Singing 853:Rwandan 828:Spanish 823:Siamese 811:Russian 781:Mexican 707:Belgian 682:Serbian 670:Haitian 655:Brabant 640:English 570:Protest 503:Boycott 497:Methods 470:Passive 372:Prelude 338:during 336:Burundi 315:A 1916 274:Germany 243:ubuhake 124:inyenzi 91:Belgium 87:Germany 5927:(2024) 5916:(2023) 5910:(2020) 5904:(2019) 5898:(2019) 5856:(2011) 5838:(2002) 5832:(2001) 5826:(2000) 5820:(2000) 5812:(1999) 5806:(1995) 5788:(1990) 5780:(1989) 5768:(1984) 5744:(1971) 5736:(1966) 5730:(1966) 5716:(1963) 5710:(1963) 5704:(1963) 5692:(1955) 5680:(1950) 5656:(1948) 5632:(1947) 5626:(1946) 5620:(1946) 5614:(1946) 5584:(1933) 5572:(1924) 5491:(1909) 5479:(1864) 5473:(1860) 5389:(1191) 5371:(1099) 5365:(1096) 5326:Events 5262:Pogrom 5108:Sufism 4839:Health 4773:Mining 4763:Franc 4700:Senate 4607:Cities 4489: 4487:Rwanda 4273: 4238: 4206: 4174: 4139: 4104: 4070: 4049: 4017: 3985: 3929: 3864: 3843: 3824: 3787: 3755: 3723: 3651: 1964:Shyaka 1742:a coup 1686:) and 1676:Uganda 1358:Rwanda 1349:on the 1310:Butare 1302:Uganda 1169:Nyanza 1032:after 955:Yemeni 935:Kyrgyz 925:Orange 893:Velvet 888:Yogurt 833:August 816:German 789:Xinhai 769:Second 746:Eureka 734:German 665:French 622:Terror 565:Mutiny 480:Social 455:Colour 252:corvée 218:ubwoko 200:; the 169:Nyanza 132:Kigali 68:Rwanda 64:muyaga 5359:(732) 5088:Islam 4943:Index 4917:Sport 4907:Music 4902:Media 4617:Lakes 4522:kings 4424:(PDF) 4417:(PDF) 4352:(PDF) 4345:(PDF) 1839:Notes 1763:near 1532:2020– 1459:1962– 1294:arson 1283:Ndiza 1083:L'Ami 930:Tulip 848:Cuban 764:First 714:Texas 687:Greek 660:Liège 590:Civil 234:Mwami 228:near 214:clans 202:Tutsi 190:Bantu 186:pygmy 76:Tutsi 54:, or 4996:and 4887:Flag 4309:2012 4271:ISBN 4236:ISBN 4204:ISBN 4172:ISBN 4137:ISBN 4102:ISBN 4068:ISBN 4047:ISBN 4015:ISBN 3983:ISBN 3927:ISBN 3862:ISBN 3841:ISBN 3822:ISBN 3785:ISBN 3753:ISBN 3721:ISBN 3649:ISBN 1830:and 1828:1972 1641:The 1482:1973 1472:1963 1449:1961 1331:Save 1304:and 1267:mass 1213:coup 1064:Kiga 920:Rose 883:1989 873:Saur 719:1848 702:July 697:1830 692:1820 602:Riot 485:Wave 359:see 268:The 198:Hutu 89:and 72:Hutu 42:The 5317:War 3895:doi 1215:". 1066:). 323:in 250:(a 182:Twa 5959:: 4419:. 4396:. 4392:. 4373:. 4369:. 4320:. 4279:. 4244:. 4212:. 4180:. 4145:. 4110:. 4076:. 4023:. 3991:. 3955:. 3935:. 3903:. 3889:. 3870:. 3793:. 3761:. 3729:. 3697:. 3677:. 3657:. 3459:^ 3442:^ 3411:^ 3396:^ 3318:^ 3297:^ 3282:^ 3265:^ 3250:^ 3225:^ 3198:^ 3181:^ 3154:^ 3125:^ 3110:^ 3093:^ 3078:^ 3039:^ 3010:^ 2993:^ 2948:^ 2909:^ 2860:^ 2821:^ 2780:^ 2753:^ 2736:^ 2721:^ 2704:^ 2677:^ 2626:^ 2611:^ 2572:^ 2557:^ 2540:^ 2525:^ 2508:^ 2491:^ 2476:^ 2461:^ 2444:^ 2415:^ 2398:^ 2369:^ 2102:^ 2087:^ 2046:^ 2007:^ 1882:^ 1780:. 1678:, 1273:, 388:on 236:) 62:: 50:, 38:. 4986:e 4979:t 4972:v 4479:e 4472:t 4465:v 4433:. 4407:. 4384:. 4361:. 4335:. 4311:. 4290:. 4255:. 4223:. 4191:. 4156:. 4121:. 4087:. 4055:. 4034:. 4002:. 3970:. 3946:. 3914:. 3897:: 3881:. 3849:. 3830:. 3804:. 3772:. 3740:. 3708:. 3688:. 3668:. 3627:. 3615:. 3579:. 3567:. 3328:. 3292:. 2763:. 2280:. 2268:. 1834:) 1563:e 1556:t 1549:v 1121:" 1017:e 1010:t 1003:v 216:( 58:( 27:.

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