44:
1407:
179:
1596:
1623:
472:, take the composition and temperatures of eruptions to the extreme. All have a silica content under 45%. Komatiites contain over 18% magnesium oxide and are thought to have erupted at temperatures of 1,600 °C (2,910 °F). At this temperature there is practically no polymerization of the mineral compounds, creating a highly mobile liquid. Viscosities of komatiite magmas are thought to have been as low as 100 to 1000 cP (0.1 to 1 Pa⋅s), similar to that of light motor oil. Most ultramafic lavas are no younger than the
2043:
1388:
1309:
1945:
4903:
2368:
2354:
449:, because the less viscous lava can flow for long distances from the vent. The thickness of a solidified basaltic lava flow, particularly on a low slope, may be much greater than the thickness of the moving molten lava flow at any one time, because basaltic lavas may "inflate" by a continued supply of lava and its pressure on a solidified crust. Most basaltic lavas are of ʻaʻā or pāhoehoe types, rather than block lavas. Underwater, they can form
1701:, which is a large subsidence crater, can form in a stratovolcano, if the magma chamber is partially or wholly emptied by large explosive eruptions; the summit cone no longer supports itself and thus collapses in on itself afterwards. Such features may include volcanic crater lakes and lava domes after the event. However, calderas can also form by non-explosive means such as gradual magma subsidence. This is typical of many shield volcanoes.
1767:
1547:
1229:
1853:
1672:
182:
181:
186:
185:
180:
1435:
187:
409:. They are also commonly hotter than felsic lavas, in the range of 850 to 1,100 °C (1,560 to 2,010 °F). Because of their lower silica content and higher eruptive temperatures, they tend to be much less viscous, with a typical viscosity of 3.5 × 10 cP (3,500 Pa⋅s) at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F). This is slightly greater than the viscosity of smooth
184:
1997:). On the night of 10 January 1977, a crater wall was breached and a fluid lava lake drained out in under an hour. The resulting flow sped down the steep slopes at up to 100 km/h (62 mph), and overwhelmed several villages while residents were asleep. As a result of this disaster, the mountain was designated a
1822:
Lava tubes are formed when a flow of relatively fluid lava cools on the upper surface sufficiently to form a crust. Beneath this crust, which being made of rock is an excellent insulator, the lava can continue to flow as a liquid. When this flow occurs over a prolonged period of time the lava conduit
1607:
Block lava flows are typical of andesitic lavas from stratovolcanoes. They behave in a similar manner to ʻaʻā flows but their more viscous nature causes the surface to be covered in smooth-sided angular fragments (blocks) of solidified lava instead of clinkers. As with ʻaʻā flows, the molten interior
1323:
The temperature of most types of molten lava ranges from about 800 °C (1,470 °F) to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) depending on the lava's chemical composition. This temperature range is similar to the hottest temperatures achievable with a forced air charcoal forge. Lava is most fluid when
1255:
that takes place when the lava is erupted. The greater the viscosity, the greater the tendency for eruptions to be explosive rather than effusive. As a result, most lava flows on Earth, Mars, and Venus are composed of basalt lava. On Earth, 90% of lava flows are mafic or ultramafic, with intermediate
1155:
indicating they are derived from the highly alkaline silicic lavas with which they are always associated, probably by separation of an immiscible phase. Natrocarbonatite lavas of Ol Doinyo Lengai are composed mostly of sodium carbonate, with about half as much calcium carbonate and half again as much
436:
lavas are typified by relatively high magnesium oxide and iron oxide content (whose molecular formulas provide the consonants in mafic) and have a silica content limited to a range of 52% to 45%. They generally erupt at temperatures of 1,100 to 1,200 °C (2,010 to 2,190 °F) and at relatively
294:
The silica component dominates the physical behavior of silicate magmas. Silicon ions in lava strongly bind to four oxygen ions in a tetrahedral arrangement. If an oxygen ion is bound to two silicon ions in the melt, it is described as a bridging oxygen, and lava with many clumps or chains of silicon
1336:
A cooling lava flow shrinks, and this fractures the flow. Basalt flows show a characteristic pattern of fractures. The uppermost parts of the flow show irregular downward-splaying fractures, while the lower part of the flow shows a very regular pattern of fractures that break the flow into five- or
1295:
Lava flow speeds vary based primarily on viscosity and slope. In general, lava flows slowly, with typical speeds for
Hawaiian basaltic flows of 0.40 km/h (0.25 mph) and maximum speeds of 10 to 48 km/h (6 to 30 mph) on steep slopes. An exceptional speed of 32 to 97 km/h (20
1259:
When highly viscous lavas erupt effusively rather than in their more common explosive form, they almost always erupt as high-aspect flows or domes. These flows take the form of block lava rather than ʻaʻā or pāhoehoe. Obsidian flows are common. Intermediate lavas tend to form steep stratovolcanoes,
1247:
The lava's viscosity mostly determines the behavior of lava flows. While the temperature of common silicate lava ranges from about 800 °C (1,470 °F) for felsic lavas to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) for mafic lavas, its viscosity ranges over seven orders of magnitude, from 10 cP (10 Pa⋅s)
1871:
Rarely, a volcanic cone may fill with lava but not erupt. Lava which pools within the caldera is known as a lava lake. Lava lakes do not usually persist for long, either draining back into the magma chamber once pressure is relieved (usually by venting of gases through the caldera), or by draining
1519:
difficult and slow. The clinkery surface actually covers a massive dense core, which is the most active part of the flow. As pasty lava in the core travels downslope, the clinkers are carried along at the surface. At the leading edge of an ʻaʻā flow, however, these cooled fragments tumble down the
1988:
Lava flows are enormously destructive to property in their path. However, casualties are rare since flows are usually slow enough for people and animals to escape, though this is dependent on the viscosity of the lava. Nevertheless, injuries and deaths have occurred, either because they had their
1332:
regularly drilled into the
Kilauea Iki lava lake, formed in an eruption in 1959. After three years, the solid surface crust, whose base was at a temperature of 1,065 °C (1,949 °F), was still only 14 m (46 ft) thick, even though the lake was about 100 m (330 ft) deep.
2022:
Areas of recent lava flows continue to represent a hazard long after the lava has cooled. Where young flows have created new lands, land is more unstable and can break off into the sea. Flows often crack deeply, forming dangerous chasms, and a fall against ʻaʻā lava is similar to falling against
1579:
where the minimal heat loss maintains a low viscosity. The surface texture of pāhoehoe flows varies widely, displaying all kinds of bizarre shapes often referred to as lava sculpture. With increasing distance from the source, pāhoehoe flows may change into ʻaʻā flows in response to heat loss and
1580:
consequent increase in viscosity. Experiments suggest that the transition takes place at a temperature between 1,200 and 1,170 °C (2,190 and 2,140 °F), with some dependence on shear rate. Pahoehoe lavas typically have a temperature of 1,100 to 1,200 °C (2,010 to 2,190 °F).
1287:
of partially crystalline lava. A familiar example of plug flow is toothpaste squeezed out of a toothpaste tube. The toothpaste comes out as a semisolid plug, because shear is concentrated in a thin layer in the toothpaste next to the tube and only there does the toothpaste behave as a fluid.
354:(10 Pa⋅s) for hot rhyolite lava at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) to 10 cP (10 Pa⋅s) for cool rhyolite lava at 800 °C (1,470 °F). For comparison, water has a viscosity of about 1 cP (0.001 Pa⋅s). Because of this very high viscosity, felsic lavas usually erupt explosively to produce
125:, roughly 10,000 to 100,000 times that of water. Even so, lava can flow great distances before cooling causes it to solidify, because lava exposed to air quickly develops a solid crust that insulates the remaining liquid lava, helping to keep it hot and inviscid enough to continue flowing.
1975:
in Italy, which reached a stable height of around 2,500 m (8,200 ft) for 18 minutes, briefly peaking at a height of 3,400 m (11,000 ft). Lava fountains may occur as a series of short pulses, or a continuous jet of lava. They are commonly associated with
1567:
meaning "smooth, unbroken lava") is basaltic lava that has a smooth, billowy, undulating, or ropy surface. These surface features are due to the movement of very fluid lava under a congealing surface crust. The
Hawaiian word was introduced as a technical term in geology by
1752:, a kīpuka denotes an elevated area such as a hill, ridge or old lava dome inside or downslope from an area of active volcanism. New lava flows will cover the surrounding land, isolating the kīpuka so that it appears as a (usually) forested island in a barren lava flow.
1402:
The morphology of lava describes its surface form or texture. More fluid basaltic lava flows tend to form flat sheet-like bodies, whereas viscous rhyolite lava flows form knobbly, blocky masses of rock. Lava erupted underwater has its own distinctive characteristics.
1300:. The scaling relationship for lavas is that the average speed of a flow scales as the square of its thickness divided by its viscosity. This implies that a rhyolite flow would have to be about a thousand times thicker than a basalt flow to flow at a similar speed.
1288:
Thixotropic behavior also hinders crystals from settling out of the lava. Once the crystal content reaches about 60%, the lava ceases to behave like a fluid and begins to behave like a solid. Such a mixture of crystals with melted rock is sometimes described as
1156:
potassium carbonate, and minor amounts of halides, fluorides, and sulphates. The lavas are extremely fluid, with viscosities only slightly greater than water, and are very cool, with measured temperatures of 491 to 544 °C (916 to 1,011 °F).
302:
Because of the role of silica in determining viscosity and because many other properties of a lava (such as its temperature) are observed to correlate with silica content, silicate lavas are divided into four chemical types based on silica content:
1644:
or a lava flow enters the ocean. The viscous lava gains a solid crust on contact with the water, and this crust cracks and oozes additional large blobs or "pillows" as more lava emerges from the advancing flow. Since water covers the majority of
183:
4107:
Bosman, Alessandro; Casalbore, Daniele; Romagnoli, Claudia; Chiocci, Francesco Latino (July 2014). "Formation of an 'a'ā lava delta: insights from time-lapse multibeam bathymetry and direct observations during the
Stromboli 2007 eruption".
299:, such as ferrous iron, calcium, and magnesium, bond much more weakly to oxygen and reduce the tendency to polymerize. Partial polymerization makes the lava viscous, so lava high in silica is much more viscous than lava low in silica.
1827:, which can conduct molten rock many kilometres from the vent without cooling appreciably. Often these lava tubes drain out once the supply of fresh lava has stopped, leaving a considerable length of open tunnel within the lava flow.
1256:
lava making up 8% of flows and felsic lava making up just 2% of flows. Viscosity also determines the aspect (thickness relative to lateral extent) of flows, the speed with which flows move, and the surface character of the flows.
1523:
Accretionary lava balls as large as 3 metres (10 feet) are common on ʻaʻā flows. ʻAʻā is usually of higher viscosity than pāhoehoe. Pāhoehoe can turn into ʻaʻā if it becomes turbulent from meeting impediments or steep slopes.
1583:
On the Earth, most lava flows are less than 10 km (6.2 mi) long, but some pāhoehoe flows are more than 50 km (31 mi) long. Some flood basalt flows in the geologic record extend for hundreds of kilometres.
1790:, gradually building up a large, pillow-like structure which cracks, fissures, and may release cooled chunks of rock and rubble. The top and side margins of an inflating lava dome tend to be covered in fragments of rock,
1327:
Lava flows quickly develop an insulating crust of solid rock as a result of radiative loss of heat. Thereafter, the lava cools by a very slow conduction of heat through the rocky crust. For instance, geologists of the
373:
Felsic magmas can erupt at temperatures as low as 800 °C (1,470 °F). Unusually hot (>950 °C; >1,740 °F) rhyolite lavas, however, may flow for distances of many tens of kilometres, such as in the
1608:
of the flow, which is kept insulated by the solidified blocky surface, advances over the rubble that falls off the flow front. They also move much more slowly downhill and are thicker in depth than ʻaʻā flows.
1131:, which is the sole example of an active carbonatite volcano. Carbonatites in the geologic record are typically 75% carbonate minerals, with lesser amounts of silica-undersaturated silicate minerals (such as
1260:
with alternating beds of lava from effusive eruptions and tephra from explosive eruptions. Mafic lavas form relatively thin flows that can move great distances, forming shield volcanoes with gentle slopes.
4581:[... in El Paraíso, just the district most affected to date by the river of lava from the volcano. More than half of the houses, including the local school, have already been consumed by ash.]
295:
ions connected by bridging oxygen ions is described as partially polymerized. Aluminium in combination with alkali metal oxides (sodium and potassium) also tends to polymerize the lava. Other
4579:... en El Paraíso, justo la pedanía más afectada hasta la fecha por el río de lava del volcán. Más de la mitad de las casas, incluido el colegio local, ya han sido devoradas por la ceniza.
1368:. Where these merge towards the top of the flow, they form sheets of vesicular basalt and are sometimes capped with gas cavities that sometimes fill with secondary minerals. The beautiful
2565:"Geological, Geographical and Legal Considerations for the Conservation of Unique Iron Oxide and Sulphur Flows at El Laco and Lastarria Volcanic Complexes, Central Andes, Northern Chile"
1349:. (The terms are borrowed from Greek temple architecture.) Likewise, regular vertical patterns on the sides of columns, produced by cooling with periodic fracturing, are described as
1657:
Because it is formed from viscous molten rock, lava flows and eruptions create distinctive formations, landforms and topographical features from the macroscopic to the microscopic.
4151:
Bonaccorso, A.; Calvari, S.; Linde, A.; Sacks, S. (28 July 2014). "Eruptive processes leading to the most explosive lava fountain at Etna volcano: The 23 November 2013 episode".
3410:
Cheng, Zhilong; Yang, Jian; Zhou, Lang; Liu, Yan; Wang, Qiuwang (January 2016). "Characteristics of charcoal combustion and its effects on iron-ore sintering performance".
1504:) is one of three basic types of flow lava. ʻAʻā is basaltic lava characterized by a rough or rubbly surface composed of broken lava blocks called clinker. The word is
149:, which means a fall or slide. An early use of the word in connection with extrusion of magma from below the surface is found in a short account of the 1737 eruption of
3719:
Sehlke, A.; Whittington, A.; Robert, B.; Harris, A.; Gurioli, L.; Médard, E. (17 October 2014). "Pahoehoe to 'a'a transition of
Hawaiian lavas: an experimental study".
1989:
escape route cut off, because they got too close to the flow or, more rarely, if the lava flow front travels too quickly. This notably happened during the eruption of
3662:
Cigolini, Corrado; Borgia, Andrea; Casertano, Lorenzo (March 1984). "Intra-crater activity, aa-block lava, viscosity and flow dynamics: Arenal
Volcano, Costa Rica".
1808:
When a dome forms on an inclined surface it can flow in short thick flows called coulées (dome flows). These flows often travel only a few kilometres from the vent.
4242:
3253:
Peterson, Donald W.; Tilling, Robert I. (May 1980). "Transition of basaltic lava from pahoehoe to aa, Kilauea
Volcano, Hawaii: Field observations and key factors".
4684:
1375:
Flood basalts typically crystallize little before they cease flowing, and, as a result, flow textures are uncommon in less silicic flows. On the other hand,
4447:
Duncan, A.M.; Dibben, C.; Chester, D.K.; Guest, J.E. (1996). "The 1928 Eruption of Mount Etna
Volcano, Sicily, and the Destruction of the Town of Mascali".
4013:
Lev, Einat; Ruprecht, Philipp; Oppenheimer, Clive; Peters, Nial; Patrick, Matt; Hernández, Pedro A.; Spampinato, Letizia; Marlow, Jeff (September 2019).
2015:, poisonous gases that travel ahead of lava, or explosions caused when the flow comes into contact with water. A particularly dangerous area is called a
1151:
that was subsequently removed by hydrothermal activity, though laboratory experiments show that a calcite-rich magma is possible. Carbonatite lavas show
4593:
1248:
for felsic lavas to 10 cP (10 Pa⋅s) for mafic lavas. Lava viscosity is mostly determined by composition but also depends on temperature and shear rate.
1730:
which is thrown from an explosive vent. Spatter cones are formed by accumulation of molten volcanic slag and cinders ejected in a more liquid form.
1932:
flows of lava enter standing bodies of water. The lava cools and breaks up as it encounters the water, with the resulting fragments filling in the
1830:
Lava tubes are known from the modern day eruptions of Kīlauea, and significant, extensive and open lava tubes of
Tertiary age are known from North
2806:
Bonnichsen, B.; Kauffman, D.F. (1987). "Physical features of rhyolite lava flows in the Snake River Plain volcanic province, southwestern Idaho".
1936:
such that the sub-aerial flow can move further offshore. Lava deltas are generally associated with large-scale, effusive type basaltic volcanism.
366:
or "coulees" (which are thick, short lava flows). The lavas typically fragment as they extrude, producing block lava flows. These often contain
3068:
1356:
As lava cools, crystallizing inwards from its edges, it expels gases to form vesicles at the lower and upper boundaries. These are described as
1718:
and spatter cones are small-scale features formed by lava accumulation around a small vent on a volcanic edifice. Cinder cones are formed from
3627:
Pinkerton, Harry; James, Mike; Jones, Alun (March 2002). "Surface temperature measurements of active lava flows on
Kilauea volcano, Hawai'i".
3327:
Pinkerton, H.; Bagdassarov, N. (2004). "Transient phenomena in vesicular lava flows based on laboratory experiments with analogue materials".
1694:(also known as composite volcanoes) made of alternating layers of ash and more viscous lava flows typical of intermediate and felsic lavas.
2191:
1587:
The rounded texture makes pāhoehoe a poor radar reflector, and is difficult to see from an orbiting satellite (dark on Magellan picture).
4643:
4368:
3020:
1520:
steep front and are buried by the advancing flow. This produces a layer of lava fragments both at the bottom and top of an ʻaʻā flow.
43:
1575:
A pāhoehoe flow typically advances as a series of small lobes and toes that continually break out from a cooled crust. It also forms
256:
2004:
1364:. Liquids expelled from the cooling crystal mush rise upwards into the still-fluid center of the cooling flow and produce vertical
2030:
Diverting a lava flow is extremely difficult, but it can be accomplished in some circumstances, as was once partially achieved in
1690:
with broad, shallow slopes formed from predominantly effusive eruptions of relatively fluid basaltic lava flows, to steeply-sided
4932:
1600:
4666:
3955:
Atkinson, A.; Griffin, T. J.; Stephenson, P. J. (June 1975). "A major lava tube system from Undara Volcano, North Queensland".
3697:
4499:
4431:
2968:
2719:
1283:, which shows considerable resistance to flow until a stress threshold, called the yield stress, is crossed. This results in
1275:
properties. In other words, most lavas do not behave like Newtonian fluids, in which the rate of flow is proportional to the
3521:
A handbook of rocks for use without the microscope : with a glossary of the names of rocks and other lithological terms
1427:
The following subsection is about the types of lava flow. For the sculpture of a god from the Pacific island of Rurutu, see
3493:
1778:
Lava domes are formed by the extrusion of viscous felsic magma. They can form prominent rounded protuberances, such as at
4250:
2254:
231:. Rare nonsilicate lavas can be formed by local melting of nonsilicate mineral deposits or by separation of a magma into
4681:
1204:
volcano, Chile. They were formed by the melting of sulfur deposits at temperatures as low as 113 °C (235 °F).
4492:"Église et gendarmerie envahies mais non détruites par la coulée d'avril 1977 de Piton Sainte Rose, île de La Réunion"
1396:
1263:
In addition to melted rock, most lavas contain solid crystals of various minerals, fragments of exotic rocks known as
2827:
2690:
2429:
1686:
Volcanoes are the primary landforms built by repeated eruptions of lava and ash over time. They range in shape from
441:, although it is still many orders of magnitude higher than that of water. Mafic lavas tend to produce low-profile
157:, who described "a flow of fiery lava" as an analogy to the flow of water and mud down the flanks of the volcano (a
4716:
3101:
Keller, Jörg; Krafft, Maurice (November 1990). "Effusive natrocarbonatite activity of Oldoinyo Lengai, June 1988".
1994:
4563:
2034:, Iceland. The optimal design of simple, low-cost barriers that divert lava flows is an area of ongoing research.
4226:
1333:
Residual liquid was still present at depths of around 80 m (260 ft) nineteen years after the eruption.
1329:
4564:"Inge y Rainer, los dueños de la 'casa milagro' de La Palma: "Aunque no podemos ir, nos alivia que siga en pie""
3581:
1508:
meaning "stony rough lava", but also to "burn" or "blaze"; it was introduced as a technical term in geology by
2046:
Lava can easily destroy entire towns. This picture shows one of over 100 houses destroyed by the lava flow in
2060:
4491:
1353:. Despite their names, these are natural features produced by cooling, thermal contraction, and fracturing.
4229:
2231:
1901:
1428:
1538:ʻAʻā lavas typically erupt at temperatures of 1,050 to 1,150 °C (1,920 to 2,100 °F) or greater.
1406:
4942:
2708:
1252:
531:). They are more likely to be generated at greater depths in the mantle than subalkaline magmas. Olivine
86:, on land or underwater, usually at temperatures from 800 to 1,200 °C (1,470 to 2,190 °F). The
4927:
4807:
4423:
4393:
3149:
3076:
2082:
1191:
4677:
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Volcano Watch newsletter article on Nyiragongo eruptions, 31 January 2002
4185:
To the best of our knowledge, it reached the highest value ever measured for a lava fountain on Earth.
2494:
1649:'s surface and most volcanoes are situated near or under bodies of water, pillow lava is very common.
4345:
3061:
2105:
535:
lavas are both ultramafic and highly alkaline, and are thought to have come from much deeper in the
17:
4802:
3762:
1186:
volcanic complex on the Chile-Argentina border. Iron oxide lavas are thought to be the result of
401:
than felsic lavas. Intermediate lavas form andesite domes and block lavas and may occur on steep
31:
4661:
3224:
4937:
3797:
3519:
1595:
4671:
4372:
3028:
2217:
1112:
Some lavas of unusual composition have erupted onto the surface of the Earth. These include:
35:
1875:
There are only a few sites in the world where permanent lakes of lava exist. These include:
1267:, and fragments of previously solidified lava. The crystal content of most lavas gives them
4709:
4656:
4456:
4324:
4285:
4160:
4117:
4026:
3964:
3809:
3671:
3636:
3419:
3336:
3262:
3179:
3110:
2880:
2628:
2576:
2328:
1208:
The term "lava" can also be used to refer to molten "ice mixtures" in eruptions on the icy
1152:
393:
lavas contain 52% to 63% silica, and are lower in aluminium and usually somewhat richer in
350:
lavas. With such a high silica content, these lavas are extremely viscous, ranging from 10
4676:
4223:
437:
low viscosities, around 10 to 10 cP (10 to 100 Pa⋅s). This is similar to the viscosity of
8:
4750:
3705:
3601:
2144:
1313:
501:
4460:
4328:
4289:
4164:
4121:
4030:
3968:
3813:
3675:
3640:
3423:
3340:
3266:
3183:
3114:
2884:
2632:
2580:
2335:
and had to be completely abandoned, along with over half of the island. It is still the
4947:
4468:
4350:
4176:
4133:
4044:
3980:
3736:
3126:
2617:"Apatite–monazite relations in the Kiirunavaara magnetite–apatite ore, northern Sweden"
2592:
2246:
2161:
1641:
497:
106:
63:
4076:"Dynamics of the Mount Nyiragongo lava lake: DYNAMICS OF THE MT. NYIRAGONGO LAVA LAKE"
3648:
3501:
3348:
2640:
2134:
291:
fraction of the oxides of the major elements (other than oxygen) present in the lava.
4651:
4472:
4427:
4354:
4180:
4137:
4048:
4039:
4014:
3984:
3740:
3683:
3577:
3274:
3130:
2964:
2823:
2715:
2686:
2616:
2596:
2564:
2425:
2211:
1977:
1933:
1749:
1637:
1563:
1505:
1471:
1342:
1209:
1183:
1147:. This may not reflect the original composition of the lava, which may have included
574:
512:
485:
402:
375:
358:(fragmental) deposits. However, rhyolite lavas occasionally erupt effusively to form
200:
102:
71:
4637:
4211:
4464:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4293:
4168:
4125:
4087:
4034:
3972:
3817:
3728:
3679:
3644:
3431:
3427:
3344:
3270:
3187:
3118:
2888:
2815:
2636:
2584:
2496:
Istoria dell' incendio del Vesuvio accaduto nel mese di maggio dell'anno MDCCXXXVII
2359:
2130:
2064:
2047:
2042:
2008:
1990:
1745:
1622:
1478:
1317:
1297:
1233:
1148:
1124:
1120:
536:
355:
196:
138:
2308:
1200:
lava flows up to 250 metres (820 feet) long and 10 metres (33 feet) wide occur at
191:
Video of lava agitating and bubbling in the volcano eruption of Litli-Hrútur, 2023
4771:
4745:
4702:
4688:
4538:
4312:
3754:
3072:
1971:. The highest lava fountain recorded was during the 23 November 2013 eruption of
1964:
1802:
1770:
A forested lava dome in the midst of the Valle Grande, the largest meadow in the
1569:
1509:
1415:
1392:
1337:
six-sided columns. The irregular upper part of the solidified flow is called the
339:
236:
154:
83:
4594:"El barrio de Todoque desaparece totalmente bajo la lava del volcán de La Palma"
2402: – Air pollution resulting from volcanic gases reacting with the atmosphere
4907:
4832:
4520:
2393:
2373:
2318:
2302:
2292:
2281:
2157:
2140:
2120:
2109:
2031:
1998:
1864:
1779:
1771:
1687:
1675:
1532:
1272:
508:
442:
287:
routinely express the composition of a silicate lava in terms of the weight or
48:
4776:
4129:
3732:
2588:
2471:
4921:
4812:
2322:
2312:
2277:
2096:
2088:
1860:
1710:
1691:
1679:
1387:
1308:
1280:
410:
87:
3924:
296:
4883:
4817:
4755:
4740:
4273:
2424:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 53–55.
2269:
1968:
1944:
1879:
1723:
1376:
1276:
1217:
1213:
481:
450:
446:
208:
110:
79:
4476:
2195:
2187:
1963:
phenomenon in which lava is forcefully but non-explosively ejected from a
1372:
geodes found in the flood basalts of South America formed in this manner.
4858:
4272:
Dietterich, Hannah; Cashman, Katherine; Rust, Alison; Lev, Einat (2015).
4172:
4092:
4075:
3192:
3167:
2893:
2869:"Preeruptive magma viscosity: An important measure of magma eruptibility"
2868:
2387:
2298:
2171:
2092:
2019:. This very young ground will typically break off and fall into the sea.
1715:
1626:
1617:
1187:
1175:
1116:
561:
532:
516:
477:
473:
414:
284:
3888:
3876:
3821:
2819:
1531:
reflector, and can easily be seen from an orbiting satellite (bright on
1438:
Glowing ʻaʻā flow front advancing over pāhoehoe on the coastal plain of
3976:
3122:
2518:
2332:
2235:
2181:
2068:
2056:
2016:
1972:
1923:
1897:
1883:
1831:
1268:
1159:
1144:
566:
505:
418:
359:
351:
288:
232:
4902:
2367:
2124:
1949:
1439:
1296:
to 60 mph) was recorded following the collapse of a lava lake at
4888:
4868:
4863:
4827:
4297:
3936:
3900:
2925:
2445:
2381:
2074:
1929:
1847:
1835:
1817:
1798:
1761:
1576:
1284:
1201:
1140:
465:
394:
363:
280:
268:
260:
220:
118:
4190:
4074:
Burgi, P.-Y.; Darrah, T. H.; Tedesco, D.; Eymold, W. K. (May 2014).
3572:
Macdonald, Gordon A.; Abbott, Agatin T.; Peterson, Frank L. (1983).
2836:
2562:
2067:, Canada, were destroyed by thick lava flows during the eruption of
1766:
1739:
1324:
first erupted, becoming much more viscous as its temperature drops.
4873:
4853:
4822:
4786:
4694:
3234:. University of Massachusetts Amherst. 11 February 2004. p. 19
2353:
2250:
2167:
2143:, was largely inundated by lava in June 2018, with its subdivision
2078:
2024:
1892:
1888:
1856:
1369:
1264:
1179:
1163:
1128:
584:
579:
528:
524:
520:
469:
453:, which are rather similar to entrail-type pahoehoe lavas on land.
433:
390:
367:
343:
216:
204:
150:
3576:(2nd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 23.
2390: – Terrestrial planet with the surface covered by molten lava
1515:
The loose, broken, and sharp, spiny surface of an ʻaʻā flow makes
30:"Lava flow" redirects here. For the programming anti-pattern, see
4848:
2959:
Arndt, N.T. (1994). "Archean komatiites". In Condie, K.C. (ed.).
2901:
2337:
2288:
2273:
2242:
2221:
2205:
2201:
2177:
2007:
frequently have a different cause. For example, volcanic ejecta,
1960:
1910:
1791:
1698:
1666:
1636:
is the lava structure typically formed when lava emerges from an
1411:
1237:
1136:
569:
438:
264:
252:
212:
122:
75:
3082:
3001:
2989:
2977:
1546:
4878:
4726:
4106:
3555:
3553:
3286:
3284:
2942:
2940:
2848:
2647:
2396: – Acid haze formed when molten lava enters the cold ocean
2331:, in 1995. Plymouth was the capital and only port of entry for
2265:
1906:
1719:
1516:
1443:
1241:
1228:
1197:
1171:
1167:
347:
276:
248:
228:
114:
3828:
3450:
3438:
2913:
2789:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2749:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2731:
2664:
2662:
1852:
3852:
3718:
2541:
2539:
2113:
2012:
1671:
1646:
1528:
1496:
1484:
670:
641:
540:
406:
158:
142:
67:
59:
4397:
4012:
3912:
3864:
3840:
3550:
3524:. Vol. 5. New York: D. Van Nostrand. pp. 180, 240.
3308:
3296:
3281:
3043:
2937:
4636:
4150:
4055:
3777:
3474:
3462:
3391:
3379:
3367:
2776:
2766:
2764:
2728:
2659:
2523:
Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology
2227:
1727:
1434:
1132:
839:
787:
616:
591:
398:
342:
lavas have a silica content greater than 63%. They include
272:
224:
162:
3355:
2536:
417:. Higher iron and magnesium tends to manifest as a darker
3954:
2399:
1550:
Pāhoehoe lava from Kīlauea volcano, Hawaii, United States
1490:
813:
765:
743:
721:
699:
4446:
4271:
4243:"Vestmannaeyjar, The Town That Fought A Volcano And Won"
4073:
3200:
2805:
2761:
2384: – Optical phenomenon resulting from burning sulfur
1190:
separation of iron oxide magma from a parental magma of
488:
has cooled too much to produce highly magnesian magmas.
4647:. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 289–290.
4311:
Hinton, Edward; Hogg, Andrew; Huppert, Herbert (2020).
4196:
3991:
3942:
3930:
3894:
3882:
3661:
3571:
3165:
2027:, and gloves are recommended when crossing lava flows.
90:
resulting from subsequent cooling is also often called
1872:
via eruption of lava flows or pyroclastic explosion.
1782:. As a volcano extrudes silicic lava, it can form an
413:. Intermediate lavas show a greater tendency to form
4369:"Tourist attractions of Albay Province, Philippines"
3326:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2349:
27:
Molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption
4394:"Article – Our Volcanic History by Gladys Flanders"
3626:
3246:
2108:, destroyed in 1944 by the most recent eruption of
1481:
500:(sodium and potassium), particularly in regions of
4618:Bundschuh, J. and Alvarado, G. E (editors) (2007)
2707:
515:. Their silica content can range from ultramafic (
4539:"La Palma volcano: Visual guide to what happened"
4310:
3574:Volcanoes in the sea : the geology of Hawaii
2563:Guijón, R.; Henríquez, F.; Naranjo, J.A. (2011).
2551:
4919:
4440:
3599:
3409:
2810:. Geological Society of America Special Papers.
2190:(village after which the volcano was named) and
2037:
496:Some silicate lavas have an elevated content of
480:in Central America that are attributed to a hot
247:Silicate lavas are molten mixtures dominated by
62:) that has been expelled from the interior of a
4620:Central America: Geology, Resources and Hazards
3252:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2422:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
421:, including amphibole or pyroxene phenocrysts.
4591:
4489:
4417:
4019:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3664:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3629:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3329:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3255:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3143:
2151:
2123:, were both destroyed by the same eruption of
1838:, some extending for 15 kilometres (9 miles).
1527:The sharp, angled texture makes ʻaʻā a strong
484:. No modern komatiite lavas are known, as the
476:, with a few ultramafic magmas known from the
4710:
4622:, volume 1, p. 56, London, Taylor and Francis
4061:
3834:
3802:Bulletin of the Geological Society of America
3783:
3480:
3468:
3456:
3444:
3397:
3385:
3373:
3166:Sonder, I; Zimanowski, B; Büttner, R (2006).
3088:
3049:
3007:
2995:
2983:
2931:
2919:
2907:
2854:
2793:
2755:
2743:
2668:
2653:
2545:
2419:
2180:, Italy, almost destroyed by the eruption of
4080:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
4008:
4006:
3606:Volcanic Features of Hawaii and Other Worlds
3538:Dutton, C. E. (1883). "Hawaiian volcanoes".
3100:
2614:
2603:
2420:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
2260:
1797:Examples of lava dome eruptions include the
1232:Toes of a pāhoehoe advance across a road in
4585:
4483:
4411:
4313:"Viscous free-surface flows past cylinders"
3168:"Non-Newtonian viscosity of basaltic magma"
2958:
2808:Geological Society of America Special Paper
1704:
257:most abundant elements of the Earth's crust
74:onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a
4717:
4703:
4418:Bonaccorso, A.; et al., eds. (2004).
4015:"A global synthesis of lava lake dynamics"
3747:
3595:
3593:
2952:
2705:
2112:during the Allies' occupation of southern
1162:lavas are thought to be the source of the
283:and minor amounts of many other elements.
4346:1983/f52f7078-5936-4e37-9d79-be456f08eb5c
4344:
4240:
4091:
4038:
4003:
3997:
3918:
3906:
3870:
3858:
3846:
3755:"Types and Processes Gallery: Lava Flows"
3559:
3533:
3531:
3361:
3314:
3302:
3290:
3206:
3191:
3161:
3159:
3021:"Stikine Volcanic Belt: Volcano Mountain"
2946:
2892:
2842:
2770:
2680:
1755:
4781:
4426:(Geophysical Monograph 143). p. 3.
3219:
3217:
3215:
2866:
2041:
2023:broken glass. Rugged hiking boots, long
1943:
1851:
1765:
1670:
1621:
1594:
1545:
1433:
1405:
1386:
1307:
1227:
177:
42:
4672:USGS hazards associated with lava flows
4521:"Global Volcanism Program - Nyiragongo"
4396:. Vhca.info. 1959-11-15. Archived from
4207:
4205:
3590:
3513:
3511:
2133:, was destroyed by the eruption of the
14:
4920:
4249:. Indiana Public Media. Archived from
3537:
3528:
3156:
2474:. Dictionary.reference.com. 1994-12-07
1562:
1470:
468:and highly magnesian magmas that form
310:
4698:
4241:Sonstroem, Eric (14 September 2010).
4197:Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983
3943:Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983
3931:Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983
3895:Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983
3883:Macdonald, Abbott & Peterson 1983
3795:
3212:
2492:
1107:
168:
109:, by contrast, produces a mixture of
4724:
4202:
3540:Annual Report U.S. Geological Survey
3517:
3508:
1601:Fantastic Lava Beds near Cinder Cone
1391:Lava entering the sea to expand the
553:Examples of lava compositions (wt%)
381:
322:
58:is molten or partially molten rock (
4217:
3146:An introduction to the Solar System
2963:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 19.
2867:Takeuchi, Shingo (5 October 2011).
2706:Casq, R.A.F.; Wright, J.V. (1987).
2255:2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption
2063:and Wii Lax K'abit in northwestern
1823:can form a tunnel-like aperture or
1801:dome, and successive lava domes of
1590:
378:of the northwestern United States.
101:is an outpouring of lava during an
24:
4592:Sagrera, Berto (10 October 2021).
4469:10.1111/j.1467-7717.1996.tb00511.x
4224:Nyiragongo – Could it happen here?
2615:Harlov, D.E.; et al. (2002).
2311:, El Salvador, in the eruption of
2102:Keawaiki, Hawaii, 1859 (abandoned)
1863:in the distance, with a radiating
1382:
1341:, while the lower part that shows
456:
25:
4959:
4629:
4274:"Diverting lava flows in the lab"
2450:Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
1948:450 m-high lava fountain at
1939:
1652:
491:
242:
141:and is probably derived from the
51:volcano eruption in Iceland, 2023
4901:
4662:USGS definition of Ropy Pāhoehoe
4040:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.04.010
3702:Hawaiian Dictionary (Hwn to Eng)
3498:Hawaiian Dictionary (Hwn to Eng)
2714:. Unwin Hyman Inc. p. 528.
2685:. Berlin: Springer. p. 38.
2366:
2352:
2321:, Indonesia, in the eruption of
2106:San Sebastiano al Vesuvio, Italy
1995:Democratic Republic of the Congo
1772:Valles Caldera National Preserve
1603:in Lassen Volcanic National Park
1477:
304:
235:silicate and nonsilicate liquid
4612:
4556:
4531:
4513:
4490:Thomas, Pierre (23 June 2008).
4386:
4361:
4304:
4265:
4234:
4144:
4100:
4067:
3948:
3789:
3712:
3690:
3655:
3620:
3608:. Lunar and Planetary Institute
3565:
3486:
3403:
3320:
3232:UMass Department of Geosciences
3144:McBride; Gilmore, eds. (2007).
3137:
3094:
3055:
3025:Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes
3013:
2873:Journal of Geophysical Research
2860:
2799:
2699:
2681:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003).
2674:
1859:, New Mexico, United States: a
1397:Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park
1330:United States Geological Survey
1279:. Instead, a typical lava is a
316:
4933:Glassforming liquids and melts
4682:National Geographic lava video
4337:10.1103/PhysRevFluids.5.084101
3432:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.09.095
2511:
2486:
2464:
2438:
2413:
2249:(El Paraíso neighbourhood) on
2095:, buried by lava erupted from
2005:Deaths attributed to volcanoes
1629:on the ocean floor near Hawaii
1611:
1303:
1251:Lava viscosity determines the
330:
173:
121:of most lava is about that of
13:
1:
4420:Mount Etna:Volcano Laboratory
4371:. Nscb.gov.ph. Archived from
3649:10.1016/S0377-0273(01)00257-8
3602:"Radar Studies of Lava Flows"
3349:10.1016/s0377-0273(03)00341-x
2641:10.1016/s0009-2541(02)00148-1
2406:
2127:in January, 1960 (abandoned).
2038:Towns destroyed by lava flows
2011:from a collapsing lava dome,
1917:
1841:
1811:
424:
259:, with smaller quantities of
4667:Volcanic landforms of Hawaii
4230:Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
4212:Lava Flows and Their Effects
4153:Geophysical Research Letters
3909:, pp. 132–138, 152–153.
3684:10.1016/0377-0273(84)90072-6
3275:10.1016/0377-0273(80)90033-5
3172:Geophysical Research Letters
2499:. Naples: Presso Il De Bonis
2301:, Italy, in the eruption of
2291:, Italy, in the eruption of
2232:Democratic Republic of Congo
1902:Democratic Republic of Congo
1660:
128:
7:
4734:Basalts by tectonic setting
4657:USGS definition of Pāhoehoe
3518:Kemp, James Furman (1918).
2845:, pp. 21–24, 132, 143.
2345:
2152:Towns damaged by lava flows
2147:being completely destroyed.
1774:, New Mexico, United States
1541:
1379:is common in felsic flows.
1223:
113:and other fragments called
10:
4964:
4424:American Geophysical Union
3150:Cambridge University Press
3077:San Diego State University
2083:eruption of Trevejo (1706)
1983:
1928:Lava deltas form wherever
1921:
1845:
1815:
1759:
1737:
1733:
1708:
1664:
1615:
1426:
986:
869:
550:
29:
4897:
4841:
4795:
4764:
4733:
4130:10.1007/s00445-014-0838-2
4062:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3835:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3784:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3733:10.1007/s00445-014-0876-9
3481:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3469:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3457:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3445:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3398:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3386:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3374:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3089:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3050:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3008:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2996:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2984:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2961:Archean Crustal Evolution
2932:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2920:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2908:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2855:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2794:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2756:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2744:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2669:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2654:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2589:10.1007/s12371-011-0045-x
2546:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2493:Serao, Francesco (1778).
2261:Towns destroyed by tephra
2214:, Reunion island, in 1977
2170:, Samoa, by eruptions of
2050:, United States, in 1990.
1429:Statue of A'a from Rurutu
1253:kind of volcanic activity
1236:on the east rift zone of
504:, areas overlying deeply
4765:Basalts by form and flow
4691:Retrieved 23 August 2007
4570:(in Spanish). 2021-09-23
3798:"Origin of pillow lavas"
3759:Global Volcanism Program
2192:San Juan Parangaricutiro
1705:Cinder and spatter cones
1638:underwater volcanic vent
1416:the Big Island of Hawaii
1194:or alkaline composition.
1174:which formed during the
4652:USGS definition of ʻAʻā
4644:Encyclopædia Britannica
4600:(in Spanish). Barcelona
4110:Bulletin of Volcanology
3957:Bulletin Volcanologique
3763:Smithsonian Institution
3721:Bulletin of Volcanology
3103:Bulletin of Volcanology
2934:, p. 53-55, 59-64.
2519:"Vesuvius Erupts, 1738"
2268:is lava in the form of
2241:Los Llanos de Aridane (
1564:[paːˈhoweˈhowe]
1422:
874:Tholeiitic basalt lava
195:Solidified lava on the
117:, not lava flows.) The
32:Lava flow (programming)
4746:Mid-ocean ridge basalt
4317:Physical Review Fluids
4247:indianapublicmedia.org
3600:McGounis-Mark, Peter.
2315:between 410 and 535 AD
2224:in 1986–87 (abandoned)
2051:
1952:
1868:
1775:
1756:Lava domes and coulées
1748:term derived from the
1683:
1630:
1604:
1551:
1447:
1419:
1399:
1320:
1244:
1178:. Iron oxide lavas of
192:
52:
34:. For other uses, see
3933:, pp. 23, 26–29.
3708:on 18 September 2012.
2234:, in the eruption of
2220:, by the eruption of
2218:Royal Gardens, Hawaii
2174:between 1905 and 1911
2081:was destroyed by the
2045:
1947:
1855:
1769:
1674:
1625:
1598:
1549:
1437:
1409:
1390:
1312:Columnar jointing in
1311:
1242:Hawaii, United States
1231:
1153:stable isotope ratios
1123:lavas are known from
190:
46:
36:Lava (disambiguation)
4808:Calc-alkaline basalt
4796:Basalts by chemistry
4173:10.1002/2014GL060623
4093:10.1002/2013JB010895
3861:, pp. 132, 286.
3796:Lewis, J.V. (1914).
3504:on 28 December 2012.
3193:10.1029/2005GL024240
3066:, Unusual Lava Types
2910:, pp. 1376–377.
2894:10.1029/2011JB008243
2710:Volcanic Successions
2329:Plymouth, Montserrat
2137:in 1990 (abandoned).
1393:big island of Hawaii
4756:Volcanic arc basalt
4751:Ocean island basalt
4461:1996Disas..20....1D
4422:. Washington D.C.:
4329:2020PhRvF...5h4101H
4290:2015NatGe...8..494D
4253:on 23 February 2017
4165:2014GeoRL..41.4912B
4122:2014BVol...76..838B
4031:2019JVGR..381...16L
3969:1975BVol...39..266A
3921:, pp. 132–134.
3873:, pp. 149–151.
3849:, pp. 147–148.
3822:10.1130/GSAB-25-591
3814:1914GSAB...25..591L
3676:1984JVGR...20..155C
3641:2002JVGR..113..159P
3562:, pp. 131–132.
3424:2016ApEn..161..364C
3341:2004JVGR..132..115B
3317:, pp. 127–128.
3305:, pp. 143–144.
3293:, pp. 132–138.
3267:1980JVGR....7..271P
3184:2006GeoRL..33.2303S
3115:1990BVol...52..629K
3091:, pp. 396–397.
3010:, pp. 606–607.
2998:, pp. 139–148.
2986:, pp. 399–400.
2949:, pp. 128–132.
2885:2011JGRB..11610201T
2820:10.1130/SPE212-p119
2656:, pp. 132–133.
2633:2002ChGeo.191...47H
2581:2011Geohe...3..299G
2245:neighbourhood) and
2145:Vacationland Hawaii
1678:, Costa Rica, is a
1362:pipe-stem amygdales
554:
547:
511:, or at intraplate
502:continental rifting
498:alkali metal oxides
403:composite volcanoes
4943:Volcanic degassing
4908:Geology portal
4842:Important minerals
4687:2016-03-03 at the
3977:10.1007/BF02597832
3123:10.1007/BF00301213
3071:2017-10-23 at the
3064:How volcanoes work
2857:, pp. 23–611.
2208:eruption (rebuilt)
2162:1669 Etna eruption
2052:
1978:Hawaiian eruptions
1953:
1869:
1776:
1684:
1642:subglacial volcano
1631:
1605:
1552:
1448:
1420:
1400:
1358:pipe-stem vesicles
1321:
1245:
1108:Non-silicate lavas
552:
546:
543:than other lavas.
193:
169:Properties of lava
107:explosive eruption
64:terrestrial planet
53:
4928:Eruption products
4915:
4914:
4803:Tholeiitic basalt
4433:978-0-87590-408-5
4323:(84101): 084101.
4278:Nature Geoscience
4159:(14): 4912–4919.
3897:, pp. 22–23.
3885:, pp. 26–17.
3837:, pp. 59–73.
3459:, pp. 58–59.
3447:, pp. 55–56.
3364:, pp. 39–40.
2970:978-0-444-81621-4
2922:, pp. 23–25.
2758:, pp. 70–77.
2721:978-0-04-552022-0
2212:Piton Sainte-Rose
2198:from 1943 to 1952
2184:in 1928 (rebuilt)
2077:on the island of
1934:seabed topography
1867:on its south side
1750:Hawaiian language
1469:, and pronounced
1366:vesicle cylinders
1343:columnar jointing
1182:age occur at the
1105:
1104:
867:
866:
575:Tholeiitic basalt
405:, such as in the
382:Intermediate lava
376:Snake River Plain
201:silicate minerals
199:is predominantly
188:
103:effusive eruption
16:(Redirected from
4955:
4906:
4905:
4719:
4712:
4705:
4696:
4695:
4648:
4640:
4623:
4616:
4610:
4609:
4607:
4605:
4589:
4583:
4582:
4576:
4575:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4550:
4535:
4529:
4528:
4517:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4506:
4487:
4481:
4480:
4444:
4438:
4437:
4415:
4409:
4408:
4406:
4405:
4390:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4380:
4365:
4359:
4358:
4348:
4308:
4302:
4301:
4298:10.1038/ngeo2470
4269:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4258:
4238:
4232:
4221:
4215:
4209:
4200:
4194:
4188:
4187:
4148:
4142:
4141:
4104:
4098:
4097:
4095:
4086:(5): 4106–4122.
4071:
4065:
4059:
4053:
4052:
4042:
4010:
4001:
3995:
3989:
3988:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3934:
3928:
3922:
3916:
3910:
3904:
3898:
3892:
3886:
3880:
3874:
3868:
3862:
3856:
3850:
3844:
3838:
3832:
3826:
3825:
3793:
3787:
3781:
3775:
3774:
3772:
3770:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3716:
3710:
3709:
3704:. Archived from
3694:
3688:
3687:
3670:(1–2): 155–176.
3659:
3653:
3652:
3635:(1–2): 159–176.
3624:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3613:
3597:
3588:
3587:
3569:
3563:
3557:
3548:
3547:
3535:
3526:
3525:
3515:
3506:
3505:
3500:. Archived from
3490:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3466:
3460:
3454:
3448:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3407:
3401:
3395:
3389:
3383:
3377:
3371:
3365:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3335:(2–3): 115–136.
3324:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3300:
3294:
3288:
3279:
3278:
3261:(3–4): 271–293.
3250:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3239:
3229:
3221:
3210:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3163:
3154:
3153:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3098:
3092:
3086:
3080:
3059:
3053:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3036:
3027:. Archived from
3017:
3011:
3005:
2999:
2993:
2987:
2981:
2975:
2974:
2956:
2950:
2944:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2917:
2911:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2864:
2858:
2852:
2846:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2803:
2797:
2791:
2774:
2768:
2759:
2753:
2747:
2741:
2726:
2725:
2713:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2678:
2672:
2666:
2657:
2651:
2645:
2644:
2621:Chemical Geology
2612:
2601:
2600:
2560:
2549:
2543:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2529:
2515:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2417:
2376:
2371:
2370:
2362:
2360:Volcanoes portal
2357:
2356:
2202:Heimaey, Iceland
2131:Kalapana, Hawaii
2065:British Columbia
2048:Kalapana, Hawaii
2009:pyroclastic flow
1746:Hawaiian English
1688:shield volcanoes
1591:Block lava flows
1566:
1561:, from Hawaiian
1503:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1493:
1492:
1487:
1486:
1483:
1474:
1472:[ʔəˈʔaː]
1410:Lava enters the
1318:Northern Ireland
1314:Giant's Causeway
1298:Mount Nyiragongo
1149:sodium carbonate
1125:Ol Doinyo Lengai
1121:natrocarbonatite
1096:
1082:
1072:
1062:
1048:
1038:
1033: MgO (0.4%)
1032:
1027: CaO (1.3%)
1026:
1021: FeO (1.7%)
1020:
1006:
996:
980: MnO (0.2%)
979:
965:
955:
945:
931:
921:
916: MgO (4.1%)
915:
910: CaO (7.9%)
909:
904: FeO (9.3%)
903:
889:
879:
555:
551:
548:
545:
443:shield volcanoes
189:
47:Fresh lava from
21:
4963:
4962:
4958:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4953:
4952:
4918:
4917:
4916:
4911:
4900:
4893:
4837:
4791:
4772:Columnar basalt
4760:
4729:
4723:
4689:Wayback Machine
4635:
4632:
4627:
4626:
4617:
4613:
4603:
4601:
4590:
4586:
4573:
4571:
4562:
4561:
4557:
4548:
4546:
4537:
4536:
4532:
4519:
4518:
4514:
4504:
4502:
4488:
4484:
4445:
4441:
4434:
4416:
4412:
4403:
4401:
4392:
4391:
4387:
4378:
4376:
4367:
4366:
4362:
4309:
4305:
4270:
4266:
4256:
4254:
4239:
4235:
4222:
4218:
4210:
4203:
4195:
4191:
4149:
4145:
4105:
4101:
4072:
4068:
4060:
4056:
4011:
4004:
3996:
3992:
3953:
3949:
3941:
3937:
3929:
3925:
3917:
3913:
3905:
3901:
3893:
3889:
3881:
3877:
3869:
3865:
3857:
3853:
3845:
3841:
3833:
3829:
3794:
3790:
3782:
3778:
3768:
3766:
3753:
3752:
3748:
3717:
3713:
3696:
3695:
3691:
3660:
3656:
3625:
3621:
3611:
3609:
3598:
3591:
3584:
3570:
3566:
3558:
3551:
3536:
3529:
3516:
3509:
3492:
3491:
3487:
3479:
3475:
3467:
3463:
3455:
3451:
3443:
3439:
3408:
3404:
3396:
3392:
3384:
3380:
3372:
3368:
3360:
3356:
3325:
3321:
3313:
3309:
3301:
3297:
3289:
3282:
3251:
3247:
3237:
3235:
3227:
3223:
3222:
3213:
3205:
3201:
3164:
3157:
3142:
3138:
3099:
3095:
3087:
3083:
3073:Wayback Machine
3060:
3056:
3048:
3044:
3034:
3032:
3019:
3018:
3014:
3006:
3002:
2994:
2990:
2982:
2978:
2971:
2957:
2953:
2945:
2938:
2930:
2926:
2918:
2914:
2906:
2902:
2879:(B10): B10201.
2865:
2861:
2853:
2849:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2804:
2800:
2792:
2777:
2769:
2762:
2754:
2750:
2742:
2729:
2722:
2704:
2700:
2693:
2679:
2675:
2667:
2660:
2652:
2648:
2613:
2604:
2561:
2552:
2544:
2537:
2527:
2525:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2502:
2500:
2491:
2487:
2477:
2475:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2455:
2453:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2432:
2418:
2414:
2409:
2372:
2365:
2358:
2351:
2348:
2282:volcanic blocks
2263:
2154:
2135:Kīlauea volcano
2040:
1986:
1942:
1926:
1920:
1850:
1844:
1820:
1814:
1803:Mount St Helens
1788:endogenous dome
1764:
1758:
1742:
1736:
1713:
1707:
1692:stratovolcanoes
1669:
1663:
1655:
1620:
1614:
1593:
1570:Clarence Dutton
1544:
1510:Clarence Dutton
1495:
1489:
1480:
1476:
1446:, United States
1432:
1425:
1385:
1383:Lava morphology
1306:
1226:
1110:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1097: MnO (0.%)
1094:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1004:
1002:
1000:
994:
984:
983:
982:
981:
977:
975:
973:
969:
963:
961:
959:
953:
951:
949:
943:
941:
939:
935:
929:
927:
925:
919:
917:
913:
911:
907:
905:
901:
899:
897:
893:
887:
885:
883:
877:
847:
843:
817:
791:
678:
674:
649:
645:
620:
595:
494:
464:lavas, such as
459:
457:Ultramafic lava
427:
384:
333:
245:
178:
176:
171:
155:Francesco Serao
131:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4961:
4951:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4913:
4912:
4898:
4895:
4894:
4892:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4866:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4845:
4843:
4839:
4838:
4836:
4835:
4833:Picrite basalt
4830:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4799:
4797:
4793:
4792:
4790:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4768:
4766:
4762:
4761:
4759:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4737:
4735:
4731:
4730:
4722:
4721:
4714:
4707:
4699:
4693:
4692:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4631:
4630:External links
4628:
4625:
4624:
4611:
4598:elnacional.cat
4584:
4555:
4530:
4525:volcano.si.edu
4512:
4482:
4439:
4432:
4410:
4385:
4360:
4303:
4284:(7): 494–496.
4264:
4233:
4216:
4201:
4189:
4143:
4099:
4066:
4054:
4002:
3998:Schmincke 2003
3990:
3963:(2): 266–293.
3947:
3935:
3923:
3919:Schmincke 2003
3911:
3907:Schmincke 2003
3899:
3887:
3875:
3871:Schmincke 2003
3863:
3859:Schmincke 2003
3851:
3847:Schmincke 2003
3839:
3827:
3788:
3776:
3746:
3711:
3689:
3654:
3619:
3589:
3582:
3564:
3560:Schmincke 2003
3549:
3527:
3507:
3485:
3473:
3461:
3449:
3437:
3412:Applied Energy
3402:
3390:
3378:
3366:
3362:Schmincke 2003
3354:
3319:
3315:Schmincke 2003
3307:
3303:Schmincke 2003
3295:
3291:Schmincke 2003
3280:
3245:
3211:
3209:, p. 128.
3207:Schmincke 2003
3199:
3155:
3152:. p. 392.
3136:
3109:(8): 629–645.
3093:
3081:
3054:
3052:, p. 145.
3042:
3012:
3000:
2988:
2976:
2969:
2951:
2947:Schmincke 2003
2936:
2924:
2912:
2900:
2859:
2847:
2843:Schmincke 2003
2835:
2828:
2798:
2775:
2773:, p. 132.
2771:Schmincke 2003
2760:
2748:
2727:
2720:
2698:
2691:
2673:
2658:
2646:
2627:(1–3): 47–72.
2602:
2550:
2535:
2510:
2485:
2463:
2437:
2430:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2403:
2397:
2394:Laze (geology)
2391:
2385:
2378:
2377:
2374:Geology portal
2363:
2347:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2326:
2319:Sumbawa Island
2316:
2306:
2303:Mount Vesuvius
2296:
2293:Mount Vesuvius
2278:volcanic bombs
2262:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2239:
2225:
2215:
2209:
2204:, in the 1973
2199:
2185:
2175:
2165:
2158:Catania, Italy
2153:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2141:Kapoho, Hawaii
2138:
2128:
2121:Kapoho, Hawaii
2117:
2110:Mount Vesuvius
2103:
2100:
2086:
2072:
2039:
2036:
2032:Vestmannaeyjar
1999:Decade Volcano
1993:in Zaire (now
1985:
1982:
1941:
1940:Lava fountains
1938:
1922:Main article:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1904:
1895:
1886:
1846:Main article:
1843:
1840:
1816:Main article:
1813:
1810:
1784:inflation dome
1780:Valles Caldera
1760:Main article:
1757:
1754:
1738:Main article:
1735:
1732:
1709:Main article:
1706:
1703:
1676:Arenal Volcano
1665:Main article:
1662:
1659:
1654:
1653:Lava landforms
1651:
1616:Main article:
1613:
1610:
1599:Block lava at
1592:
1589:
1557:(also spelled
1543:
1540:
1453:(also spelled
1424:
1421:
1384:
1381:
1345:is called the
1305:
1302:
1273:shear thinning
1225:
1222:
1206:
1205:
1195:
1157:
1135:and olivine),
1109:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1029:
1023:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1003:
998:
993:
991:Rhyolite lava
989:
988:
987:
985:
976:
971:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
942:
937:
933:
928:
923:
918:
912:
906:
900:
895:
891:
886:
881:
876:
872:
871:
870:
868:
865:
864:
861:
858:
855:
852:
849:
845:
841:
836:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
820:
815:
810:
809:
806:
803:
800:
797:
794:
789:
784:
783:
780:
777:
774:
771:
768:
762:
761:
758:
755:
752:
749:
746:
740:
739:
736:
733:
730:
727:
724:
718:
717:
714:
711:
708:
705:
702:
696:
695:
692:
689:
686:
683:
680:
676:
672:
667:
666:
663:
660:
657:
654:
651:
647:
643:
638:
637:
634:
631:
628:
625:
622:
618:
613:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
593:
588:
587:
582:
577:
572:
564:
559:
493:
492:Alkaline lavas
490:
486:Earth's mantle
458:
455:
426:
423:
383:
380:
332:
329:
244:
243:Silicate lavas
241:
175:
172:
170:
167:
161:) after heavy
130:
127:
49:Fagradalsfjall
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4960:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4938:Igneous rocks
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4925:
4923:
4910:
4909:
4904:
4896:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4850:
4847:
4846:
4844:
4840:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4813:Alkali basalt
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4800:
4798:
4794:
4788:
4787:Pahoehoe lava
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4777:Pillow basalt
4775:
4773:
4770:
4769:
4767:
4763:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4738:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4720:
4715:
4713:
4708:
4706:
4701:
4700:
4697:
4690:
4686:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4646:
4645:
4639:
4634:
4633:
4621:
4615:
4599:
4595:
4588:
4580:
4569:
4565:
4559:
4544:
4540:
4534:
4526:
4522:
4516:
4501:
4498:(in French).
4497:
4493:
4486:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4443:
4435:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4414:
4400:on 2016-03-03
4399:
4395:
4389:
4375:on 2016-09-21
4374:
4370:
4364:
4356:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4307:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4268:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4237:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4220:
4213:
4208:
4206:
4198:
4193:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4147:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4103:
4094:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4070:
4064:, p. 61.
4063:
4058:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4009:
4007:
4000:, p. 27.
3999:
3994:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3951:
3945:, p. 27.
3944:
3939:
3932:
3927:
3920:
3915:
3908:
3903:
3896:
3891:
3884:
3879:
3872:
3867:
3860:
3855:
3848:
3843:
3836:
3831:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3792:
3786:, p. 53.
3785:
3780:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3750:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3715:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3693:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3658:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3623:
3607:
3603:
3596:
3594:
3585:
3579:
3575:
3568:
3561:
3556:
3554:
3545:
3541:
3534:
3532:
3523:
3522:
3514:
3512:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3489:
3483:, p. 72.
3482:
3477:
3471:, p. 48.
3470:
3465:
3458:
3453:
3446:
3441:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3406:
3400:, p. 71.
3399:
3394:
3388:, p. 16.
3387:
3382:
3376:, p. 40.
3375:
3370:
3363:
3358:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3323:
3316:
3311:
3304:
3299:
3292:
3287:
3285:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3249:
3233:
3226:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3208:
3203:
3194:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3178:(2): L02303.
3177:
3173:
3169:
3162:
3160:
3151:
3147:
3140:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3097:
3090:
3085:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3058:
3051:
3046:
3031:on 2009-03-07
3030:
3026:
3022:
3016:
3009:
3004:
2997:
2992:
2985:
2980:
2972:
2966:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2943:
2941:
2933:
2928:
2921:
2916:
2909:
2904:
2895:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2863:
2856:
2851:
2844:
2839:
2831:
2829:0-8137-2212-8
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2802:
2796:, p. 20.
2795:
2790:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2782:
2780:
2772:
2767:
2765:
2757:
2752:
2746:, p. 23.
2745:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2723:
2717:
2712:
2711:
2702:
2694:
2692:9783540436508
2688:
2684:
2677:
2671:, p. 25.
2670:
2665:
2663:
2655:
2650:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2575:(4): 99–315.
2574:
2570:
2566:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2548:, p. 19.
2547:
2542:
2540:
2524:
2520:
2514:
2498:
2497:
2489:
2473:
2467:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2433:
2431:9780521880060
2427:
2423:
2416:
2412:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2369:
2364:
2361:
2355:
2350:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2327:
2324:
2323:Mount Tambora
2320:
2317:
2314:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2290:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:, Mexico, by
2193:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2146:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2132:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2097:Mayon Volcano
2094:
2090:
2087:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2071:in the 1700s.
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2035:
2033:
2028:
2026:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1981:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1957:lava fountain
1951:
1946:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1925:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1876:
1873:
1866:
1862:
1861:volcanic neck
1858:
1854:
1849:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1826:
1819:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1753:
1751:
1747:
1741:
1731:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1712:
1711:Volcanic cone
1702:
1700:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1681:
1680:stratovolcano
1677:
1673:
1668:
1658:
1650:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1609:
1602:
1597:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1578:
1573:
1571:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1548:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1518:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1501:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1445:
1441:
1436:
1430:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1380:
1378:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1354:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1301:
1299:
1293:
1291:
1286:
1282:
1281:Bingham fluid
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1257:
1254:
1249:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1221:
1219:
1218:giant planets
1215:
1211:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1192:calc-alkaline
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1113:
992:
875:
862:
859:
856:
853:
850:
848:
838:
837:
833:
830:
827:
824:
821:
819:
812:
811:
807:
804:
801:
798:
795:
793:
786:
785:
781:
778:
775:
772:
769:
767:
764:
763:
759:
756:
753:
750:
747:
745:
742:
741:
737:
734:
731:
728:
725:
723:
720:
719:
715:
712:
709:
706:
703:
701:
698:
697:
693:
690:
687:
684:
681:
679:
669:
668:
664:
661:
658:
655:
652:
650:
640:
639:
635:
632:
629:
626:
623:
621:
615:
614:
610:
607:
604:
601:
598:
596:
590:
589:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
565:
563:
560:
557:
556:
549:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
527:) to felsic (
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
507:
503:
499:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
454:
452:
448:
447:flood basalts
444:
440:
435:
431:
422:
420:
416:
412:
411:peanut butter
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
379:
377:
371:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
328:
326:
325:
320:
319:
314:
313:
308:
307:
300:
298:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
240:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
209:feldspathoids
206:
202:
198:
197:Earth's crust
166:
164:
160:
156:
153:, written by
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
126:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
95:
93:
89:
88:volcanic rock
85:
81:
78:or through a
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
50:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
4899:
4884:Cristobalite
4818:Trachybasalt
4741:Flood basalt
4642:
4638:"Lava"
4619:
4614:
4602:. Retrieved
4597:
4587:
4578:
4572:. Retrieved
4567:
4558:
4547:. Retrieved
4545:. 2021-09-25
4542:
4533:
4524:
4515:
4503:. Retrieved
4496:Planet Terre
4495:
4485:
4452:
4448:
4442:
4419:
4413:
4402:. Retrieved
4398:the original
4388:
4377:. Retrieved
4373:the original
4363:
4320:
4316:
4306:
4281:
4277:
4267:
4255:. Retrieved
4251:the original
4246:
4236:
4219:
4199:, p. 9.
4192:
4184:
4156:
4152:
4146:
4113:
4109:
4102:
4083:
4079:
4069:
4057:
4022:
4018:
3993:
3960:
3956:
3950:
3938:
3926:
3914:
3902:
3890:
3878:
3866:
3854:
3842:
3830:
3805:
3801:
3791:
3779:
3767:. Retrieved
3758:
3749:
3724:
3720:
3714:
3706:the original
3701:
3692:
3667:
3663:
3657:
3632:
3628:
3622:
3610:. Retrieved
3605:
3573:
3567:
3543:
3539:
3520:
3502:the original
3497:
3488:
3476:
3464:
3452:
3440:
3415:
3411:
3405:
3393:
3381:
3369:
3357:
3332:
3328:
3322:
3310:
3298:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3236:. Retrieved
3231:
3225:"Lava Flows"
3202:
3175:
3171:
3145:
3139:
3106:
3102:
3096:
3084:
3063:
3057:
3045:
3033:. Retrieved
3029:the original
3024:
3015:
3003:
2991:
2979:
2960:
2954:
2927:
2915:
2903:
2876:
2872:
2862:
2850:
2838:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2751:
2709:
2701:
2682:
2676:
2649:
2624:
2620:
2572:
2568:
2526:. Retrieved
2522:
2513:
2501:. Retrieved
2495:
2488:
2476:. Retrieved
2466:
2454:. Retrieved
2452:. 2012-08-31
2449:
2440:
2421:
2415:
2336:
2270:volcanic ash
2264:
2059:villages of
2029:
2021:
2003:
1987:
1956:
1954:
1927:
1880:Mount Erebus
1874:
1870:
1829:
1824:
1821:
1807:
1796:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1743:
1716:Cinder cones
1714:
1696:
1685:
1656:
1633:
1632:
1606:
1586:
1582:
1574:
1558:
1554:
1553:
1537:
1526:
1522:
1514:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1449:
1401:
1377:flow banding
1374:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1355:
1351:chisel marks
1350:
1346:
1338:
1335:
1326:
1322:
1294:
1290:crystal mush
1289:
1277:shear stress
1262:
1258:
1250:
1246:
1214:Solar System
1207:
1111:
990:
873:
517:nephelinites
495:
482:mantle plume
461:
460:
451:pillow lavas
429:
428:
387:Intermediate
386:
385:
372:
335:
334:
323:
317:
312:intermediate
311:
305:
301:
293:
285:Petrologists
246:
194:
146:
134:
132:
111:volcanic ash
98:
96:
91:
55:
54:
40:
4859:Plagioclase
4500:ENS de Lyon
4455:(1): 1–20.
4257:24 November
3727:(11): 876.
3418:: 364–374.
3035:23 November
2814:: 119–145.
2569:Geoheritage
2388:Lava planet
2299:Herculaneum
2172:Mt Matavanu
2093:Philippines
2061:Lax Ksiluux
1967:, vent, or
1634:Pillow lava
1627:Pillow lava
1618:Pillow lava
1612:Pillow lava
1535:pictures).
1339:entablature
1304:Temperature
1269:thixotropic
1240:Volcano in
1176:Proterozoic
1127:volcano in
1117:Carbonatite
562:Nephelinite
533:nephelinite
478:Phanerozoic
474:Proterozoic
415:phenocrysts
360:lava spines
356:pyroclastic
331:Felsic lava
174:Composition
137:comes from
4922:Categories
4604:18 January
4574:2021-09-25
4549:2021-09-25
4404:2013-12-08
4379:2013-12-08
4116:(7): 838.
3808:(1): 639.
3769:1 December
3698:"pāhoehoe"
3583:0824808320
3546:(95): 240.
3062:Vic Camp,
2478:8 December
2456:8 December
2407:References
2333:Montserrat
2236:Nyiragongo
2182:Mount Etna
2085:(rebuilt).
2069:Tseax Cone
2017:lava bench
1991:Nyiragongo
1973:Mount Etna
1930:sub-aerial
1924:Lava delta
1918:Lava delta
1898:Nyiragongo
1884:Antarctica
1842:Lava lakes
1832:Queensland
1812:Lava tubes
1577:lava tubes
1210:satellites
1188:immiscible
1160:Iron oxide
1145:pyrochlore
567:Tholeiitic
558:Component
462:Ultramafic
425:Mafic lava
419:groundmass
364:lava domes
324:ultramafic
289:molar mass
233:immiscible
221:amphiboles
4948:Volcanism
4889:Tridymite
4869:Magnetite
4864:Amphibole
4828:Mugearite
4725:Types of
4449:Disasters
4355:225416948
4181:129813334
4138:129797425
4049:182844266
4025:: 16–31.
3985:129126355
3741:129019507
3131:129106033
3079:, Geology
2683:Volcanism
2597:129179725
2382:Blue lava
2196:Parícutin
2188:Parícutin
2168:Sale'aula
2164:(rebuilt)
2160:, in the
2119:Koae and
2116:(rebuilt)
2075:Garachico
2001:in 1991.
1848:Lava lake
1836:Australia
1825:lava tube
1818:Lava tube
1799:Novarupta
1794:and ash.
1762:Lava dome
1661:Volcanoes
1347:colonnade
1285:plug flow
1265:xenoliths
1202:Lastarria
1141:magnetite
1063: TiO
997: SiO
946: TiO
880: SiO
529:trachytes
525:tephrites
521:basanites
506:subducted
466:komatiite
395:magnesium
391:andesitic
281:potassium
269:magnesium
261:aluminium
217:pyroxenes
205:feldspars
203:: mostly
133:The word
129:Etymology
119:viscosity
99:lava flow
66:(such as
4874:Ilmenite
4854:Pyroxene
4823:Hawaiite
4685:Archived
4568:El Mundo
4543:BBC News
3612:18 March
3069:Archived
2528:6 August
2503:6 August
2346:See also
2341:capital.
2313:Ilopango
2305:in 79 AD
2295:in 79 AD
2251:La Palma
2079:Tenerife
1961:volcanic
1893:Ethiopia
1889:Erta Ale
1857:Shiprock
1744:Another
1559:pahoehoe
1555:Pāhoehoe
1542:Pāhoehoe
1533:Magellan
1506:Hawaiian
1370:amethyst
1234:Kalapana
1224:Rheology
1180:Pliocene
1164:iron ore
1129:Tanzania
1077:O (4.1%)
1049: Fe
1043:O (3.9%)
1039: Na
1007: Al
960:O (1.5%)
932: Fe
926:O (3.0%)
922: Na
890: Al
585:Rhyolite
580:Andesite
513:hotspots
470:boninite
434:basaltic
368:obsidian
344:rhyolite
151:Vesuvius
80:fracture
18:Pahoehoe
4849:Olivine
4782:Aa lava
4727:basalts
4477:8867507
4457:Bibcode
4325:Bibcode
4286:Bibcode
4161:Bibcode
4118:Bibcode
4027:Bibcode
3965:Bibcode
3810:Bibcode
3672:Bibcode
3637:Bibcode
3420:Bibcode
3337:Bibcode
3263:Bibcode
3180:Bibcode
3111:Bibcode
2881:Bibcode
2629:Bibcode
2577:Bibcode
2338:de jure
2325:in 1815
2289:Pompeii
2274:lapilli
2253:in the
2247:El Paso
2243:Todoque
2238:in 2002
2222:Kilauea
2206:Eldfell
2178:Mascali
2125:Kīlauea
2099:in 1814
2089:Cagsawa
2057:Nisga'a
1984:Hazards
1969:fissure
1950:Kīlauea
1911:Vanuatu
1792:breccia
1734:Kīpukas
1699:caldera
1667:Volcano
1440:Kīlauea
1412:Pacific
1238:Kīlauea
1212:of the
1184:El Laco
1137:apatite
1083: P
1073: K
1001:(73.2%)
966: P
956: K
898:(13.9%)
884:(53.8%)
570:picrite
539:of the
439:ketchup
340:silicic
297:cations
265:calcium
253:silicon
213:olivine
139:Italian
123:ketchup
82:in the
76:volcano
70:) or a
4879:Quartz
4505:26 May
4475:
4430:
4353:
4179:
4136:
4047:
3983:
3765:. 2013
3739:
3580:
3494:"ʻaʻā"
3238:5 June
3129:
2967:
2826:
2718:
2689:
2595:
2472:"Lava"
2446:"Lava"
2428:
2266:Tephra
2013:lahars
1965:crater
1907:Ambrym
1740:Kīpuka
1720:tephra
1517:hiking
1465:, and
1444:Hawaii
1198:Sulfur
1172:Sweden
1168:Kiruna
1143:, and
1095:
1081:
1071:
1067:(0.2%)
1061:
1057:(0.6%)
1047:
1037:
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