568:(many species with large leaves with smooth edges and drip tips) and temperate deciduous forests (smaller leaf size classes common, toothed edges common), and is often continuously variable between sites along climatic gradients, such as from hot to cold climates, or high to low precipitation. This variation between sites along environmental gradients reflects adaptive compromises by the species present to balance the need to capture light energy, manage heat gain and loss, while maximising the efficiency of gas exchange,
1587:
1575:
160:
36:
238:
occurs during changes between condensed and vapour phases: the vapour pressure of heavier isotopes is lower, so vapour contains relatively more of the lighter isotopes and when the vapour condenses the precipitation preferentially contains heavier isotopes. The difference from SMOW is expressed as
807:
is used combining 31 leaf characters, but leaf margin type represented a significant component of the relationship between physiognomic states and temperature. Using CLAMP, MAT is estimated with small standard errors (e.g. CCA ± 0.7–1.0 °C). Additional temperature parameters can be estimated
767:
is the number of species scored for leaf margin type for the individual fossil leaf flora. LMA calibrations have been derived for major world regions, including North
America, Europe, South America, and Australia. Riparian and wetland environments have a slightly different regression equation,
884:
measurements provide an estimation of the temperature at which a carbonate formed. C-O paleothermometry does not require prior knowledge of the concentration of O in the water (which the δO method does). This allows the C-O paleothermometer to be applied to some samples, including freshwater
524:
as a trace element. Because the incorporation of Mg as an impurity in calcite is endothermic, more is incorporated into the growing crystal at higher temperatures. Therefore, a high Mg/Ca ratio implies a high temperature, although ecological factors may confound the signal. Mg has a long
1279:
Greenwood, D.R. 2007. North
American Eocene Leaves and Climates: From Wolfe and Dilcher to Burnham and Wilf. In: Jarzen, D., Retallack, G., Jarzen, S. & Manchester, S. (Eds.) Advances in Mesozoic and Cenozoic Paleobotany: studies in celebration of David L. Dilcher and Jack A. Wolfe.
619:≤ 1) in vegetation varies proportionately with mean annual temperature (MAT). Requires the fossil flora to be segregated into morphotypes (i.e. ‘species’), but does not require their identification. The original LMA regression equation was derived for East Asian forests, and is:
732:
529:
in the ocean, and so it is possible to largely ignore the effect of changes in seawater Mg/Ca on the signal. Mg/Ca ratios can sometimes underestimate seawater temperatures by way of the dissolution of foraminifer shells, which lowers Mg/Ca values.
1532:
Bernasconi, Stefano M.; Schmid, Thomas W.; Grauel, Anna-Lena; Mutterlose, Joerg (June 2011). "Clumped-isotope geochemistry of carbonates: A new tool for the reconstruction of temperature and oxygen isotope composition of seawater".
533:
Strontium (Sr) incorporates in coral aragonite, and it is well established that the precise Sr/Ca ratio in the coral skeleton shows an inverse correlation with the seawater temperature during its biomineralization.
136:
is a methodology that provides an estimate of the ambient temperature at the time of formation of a natural material. Most paleothermometers are based on empirically-calibrated proxy relationships, such as the
889:
produced from natural carbonates, and by the scarcity of instruments with appropriate detector arrays and sensitivities. The study of these types of isotopic ordering reactions in nature is often called
1068:
383:
1394:
SUNDERLIN, D.; LOOPE, G.; PARKER, N. E.; WILLIAMS, C. J. (2011-06-01). "Paleoclimatic and
Paleoecological Implications of a Paleocene-Eocene Fossil Leaf Assemblage, Chickaloon Formation, Alaska".
885:
carbonates and very old rocks, with less ambiguity than other isotope-based methods. The method is presently limited by the very low concentration of isotopologues of mass 47 or higher in CO
1230:
De
Villiers, S.; Shen, G. T.; Nelson, B. K (1994). "The Sr/Ca temperature relationship in coralline aragonite—influence of variability in (Sr/Ca) seawater and skeletal growth-parameters".
808:
using CLAMP, such as the coldest month mean temperature (CMMT) and the warmest month mean temperature (WMMT) which provide estimates for winter and summer mean conditions respectively.
468:
803:
CLAMP is a multivariate approach largely based on a data set of primarily western hemisphere vegetation, subsequently added to with datasets from additional world regional vegetation.
657:
407:
is the difference between ocean temperatures where the moisture evaporated and the place where the final precipitation occurred; since ocean temperatures are relatively stable the
1146:
Ruiz-Hernandez, S.E.; Grau-Crespo, R.; Ruiz-Salvador, A.R.; De Leeuw, N.H. (2010). "Thermochemistry of strontium incorporation in aragonite from atomistic simulations".
1302:
Wolfe, J.A. 1979. Temperature parameters of Humid to Mesic
Forests of Eastern Asia and relation to forests of other regions of the Northern Hemisphere and Australasia.
872:
distribution of heavy isotopes. Lab experiments, quantum mechanical calculations, and natural samples (with known crystallization temperatures) all indicate that Δ
584:
approaches integrate multiple leaf characters and climatic parameters. Temperature has been estimated (to varying degrees of fidelity) using leaf physiognomy for
505:
1341:
Miller, I.M., Brandon, M.T. & Hickey, L.J. 2006. Using leaf margin analysis to estimate the Mid-Cretaceous (Albian) paleolatitude of the Baja BC block.
1380:
Greenwood, D.R., Wilf, P., Wing, S.L. & Christophel, D.C. 2004. Paleotemperature estimates using leaf margin analysis: Is
Australia different?
947:
Branson, Oscar; Redfern, Simon A.T.; Tyliszczak, Tolek; Sadekov, Aleksey; Langer, Gerald; Kimoto, Katsunori; Elderfield, Henry (1 December 2013).
1354:
Traiser, C., Klotz, S., Uhl, D., & Mosbrugger, V. 2005. Environmental signals from leaves – A physiognomic analysis of
European vegetation.
918:
824:
There is a slight thermodynamic tendency for heavy isotopes to form bonds with each other, in excess of what would be expected from a
196:
of O to O, usually in foram tests or ice cores. High values mean low temperatures. Confounded by ice volume - more ice means higher
576:. Quantitative analyses of modern vegetation leaf physiognomy and climate responses along environmental gradients have been largely
832:), with the isotopic distribution becoming more randomized at higher temperature. Along with the closely related phenomenon of
100:
414:
value mostly reflects the temperature where precipitation occurs. Taking into account that the precipitation forms above the
72:
990:
Katz, Amitai (June 1973). "The interaction of magnesium with calcite during crystal growth at 25–90°C and one atmosphere".
245:
1497:
Eiler JM (2007). ""Clumped-isotope" geochemistry – The study of naturally-occurring, multiply substituted isotopologues".
512:(Cuffey et al., 1995), implying that glacial-interglacial temperature changes were twice as large as previously believed.
953:
79:
1367:
Kowalski, E.A., 2002. Mean annual temperature estimation based on leaf morphology: a test from tropical South
America.
1315:
Wing, S.L. & Greenwood, D.R. 1993. Fossils and fossil climates: the case for equable Eocene continental interiors.
1472:
119:
53:
1030:; Rosenthal, Y.; Slowey, N. (2002). "Benthic foraminiferal Mg/Ca-paleothermometry: A revised core-top calibration".
816:
Certain plants prefer certain temperatures; if their pollen is found one can work out the approximate temperature.
17:
86:
1232:
1195:
1148:
1032:
992:
526:
727:{\displaystyle \sigma \lbrack {\text{LMA}}\rbrack =c{\sqrt {\frac {P_{\text{margin}}(1-P_{\text{margin}})}{r}}}}
1293:
often written as 'annual mean temperature'; the mean of the monthly mean daily air temperatures for a location.
804:
424:
57:
828:
or random distribution of the same concentration of isotopes. The excess is greatest at low temperature (see
68:
891:
903:
868:(as compared to 44) in a sample and a hypothetical sample with the same bulk isotopic composition, but a
1266:
Bailey, I.W. & Sinnott, E.W. 1916. The climatic distribution of certain kinds of angiosperm leaves.
1565:
856:
gas is analyzed with a mass spectrometer, to determine the abundances of isotopologues. The parameter Δ
1607:
833:
215:
908:
829:
415:
46:
913:
312:
1145:
93:
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and prevalence of features such as drip tips (‘leaf or foliar physiognomy’) differs between
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8:
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1005:
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Wilf, P. 1997. When are leaves good thermometers? A new case for Leaf Margin
Analysis.
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Magnesium (Mg) is incorporated into the calcite shells (tests) of planktic and benthic
1053:
149:
1419:
1253:
1216:
1193:
Weber, J.N. (1973). "Incorporation of strontium into reef coral skeletal carbonate".
1013:
923:
837:
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Wolfe, J.A. 1993. A method of obtaining climatic parameters from leaf assemblages.
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1415:
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The error of the estimate for LMA is expressed as the binomial sampling error:
573:
193:
156:, are able to provide, at least in theory, direct measurements of temperature.
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1084:
1601:
1423:
1027:
841:
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235:
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Casey, W. H.; Rock P. A.; Chung J. B.; Walling E. M.; McBeath M. K. (1996).
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Distributions of organic molecules in marine sediments reflect temperature.
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approach that is based on the observation that the proportion of woody
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variations in temperature and it was assumed that this corresponded to
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values for precipitation are always negative. The major influence on
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798:
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because they have proportionally fewer smooth-margined plants. It is
485:
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which is empirically calibrated from measurements of temperature and
138:
1107:"Gibbs energies of formation of metal carbonate solid solutions - 2"
35:
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1459:
Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments
852:
gas by reaction with concentrated phosphoric acid. The CO
508:
has shown that for glacial-interglacial variations, a =
750:
where c is the slope from the LMA regression equation,
504:
variations (Jouzel and Merlivat, 1984). More recently,
812:
Nearest living relative analogy / coexistence analysis
496:. The calibration was initially done on the basis of
378:{\displaystyle \delta {\ce {^{18}O}}=1000\times \left}
1563:
660:
427:
248:
1457:
Spicer, R.A., 2008. CLAMP. In: V. Gornitz (Editor),
1067:
Lowenstein, Tim K.; Hönisch, Bärbel (21 July 2017).
860:
is the measured difference in concentration between
592:
leaf floras, principally using two main approaches:
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1069:"The Use of Mg/Ca as a Seawater Temperature Proxy"
799:CLAMP (Climate leaf analysis multivariate program)
726:
462:
377:
1369:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1066:
949:"The coordination of Mg in foraminiferal calcite"
1599:
819:
919:List of periods and events in climate history
844:. Carbonate minerals like calcite contain CO
672:
664:
1304:United States Geological Survey Prof. Paper
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463:{\displaystyle \delta {\ce {^{18}O}}=aT+b}
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1177:
1130:
974:
836:, this effect arises from differences in
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
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876:is correlated to the inverse square of
608:species with smooth (i.e. non-toothed)
595:
14:
1600:
1282:Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg
418:, we are left with a linear relation:
148:methods. Isotope methods, such as the
1343:Earth & Planetary Science Letters
1192:
989:
770:
651:
621:
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
1499:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1461:. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 156-158.
954:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
555:
24:
1073:The Paleontological Society Papers
848:groups that can be converted to CO
515:
210:O, with small amounts of HDO and H
158:
25:
1619:
834:equilibrium isotope fractionation
1585:
1573:
34:
1555:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2011.03.080
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1464:
1451:
1446:U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin
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1335:
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1309:
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1273:
1233:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
1196:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
1149:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
1033:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
993:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
781:), standard error ± 2.0 °C
632:), standard error ± 2.0 °C
560:The characteristic leaf sizes,
45:needs additional citations for
1260:
1223:
1186:
1139:
1098:
1060:
1020:
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892:"clumped-isotope" geochemistry
805:Canonical Correlation Analysis
714:
695:
218:(SMOW) the ratio of D to H is
13:
1:
1054:10.1016/S0016-7037(02)00941-9
934:
27:Study of ancient temperatures
1254:10.1016/0016-7037(94)90457-X
1217:10.1016/0016-7037(73)90015-X
1014:10.1016/0016-7037(73)90091-4
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537:
7:
904:Geologic temperature record
897:
759:
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639:
10:
1624:
1519:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.08.020
1416:10.2110/palo.2010.p10-077r
1268:American Journal of Botany
976:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.09.037
774:MAT = 2.223 +(36.3 ×
625:MAT = 1.141 +(30.6 ×
541:
389:and a similar formula for
180:
1170:10.1016/j.gca.2009.10.049
1085:10.1017/S1089332600002564
443:
348:
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216:Standard Mean Ocean Water
909:Thermal history of Earth
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167:Common paleothermometers
1511:2007E&PSL.262..309E
967:2013E&PSL.383..134B
820:C-O bonds in carbonates
206:Ocean water is mostly H
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914:Timeline of glaciation
728:
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379:
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154:clumped-isotope method
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542:Further information:
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1535:Applied Geochemistry
830:Van 't Hoff equation
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596:Leaf margin analysis
566:tropical rainforests
506:borehole thermometry
425:
246:
54:improve this article
1547:2011ApGC...26S.279B
1408:2011Palai..26..335S
1246:1994GeCoA..58..197D
1209:1973GeCoA..37.2173W
1162:2010GeCoA..74.1320R
1132:10.2475/ajs.296.1.1
1123:1996AmJS..296....1C
1046:2002GeCoA..66.3375L
1006:1973GeCoA..37.1563K
864:with a mass of 47
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69:"Paleothermometer"
1040:(19): 3375–3387.
924:Radiative forcing
838:zero point energy
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1475:. Archived from
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1203:(9): 2173–2190.
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1000:(6): 1563–1586.
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18:Paleothermometry
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1541:: S279-S280.
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1479:on 2011-08-13
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