Knowledge

Isthmus of Panama

Source đź“ť

332: 417: 268: 221:, experienced genocidal effects from European colonization of the Isthmus. A regional slave trade in Indigenous peoples was carried out by the colonizing forces in the early 16th century across Central America from Panama to Nicaragua. Deadly working conditions, wars of conquest, and the destruction of Indigenous communities and infrastructure resulted in the complete destruction and dispersal of Indigenous peoples from the most heavily colonized parts of the Isthmus. By 1550, less than three hundred Indigenous people were counted in the cities of Panama, Nombre de Dios, and Nata combined. During the Spanish colonization of 408:
However exchange of surface water so as to maintain western Atlantic salinity at eastern Pacific values continued until about 4.6 Ma with current Caribbean values being reached by about 4.2 Ma although there seems to have been a last definite temporary breach as recently as 2.45 Ma. The ocean sediments between the volcanoes on the isthmus seem to have been laid down as recently as 3.1 Ma and the exchange of organism gene pools between the two oceans appears to have continued until about 3 Ma as well. The largest exchange of animals over the
182: 1330: 192:, a Spanish conquistador, was the first European to reach the Pacific Ocean on 25 September, 1513, then called the "South Sea" as it was on the south side of the Isthmus. Balboa had heard of a second ocean on the other side of the Isthmus from natives while sailing along the Caribbean coast. In 1519 the town of Panamá was founded near a small indigenous settlement on the Pacific coast. In 1671 the 399:
millions of years earlier than had long been thought. The Isthmus of Panama is not the only part of central America that has been low lying in the last tens of million years. This means the date of first closure and final closure of the Central American Seaway before it was artificially reopened to a degree by the
164:
archeological site contains ceramics dating from 2500-1200 BCE, some of the earliest examples of ceramics in Central America. This site also contains evidence of one of the earliest sites of maize agriculture in the region. The Monagrillo site evolved into a variety of thriving cultural traditions,
407:
The process of formation of the isthmus and its implications is geologically and ecologically more nuanced. There is isotopic and carbonate deposition rate evidence that deep water connections below 1,800 m (5,900 ft) were broken between the Atlantic and Pacific by between 12 and 9.2 Ma.
398:
bedrock from northern Colombia indicated that by 10 Ma, it is likely that instead of islands, a full isthmus between the North and South American continents had already formed where the Central American Seaway had been previously. A genomic study of army ants also suggests that the isthmus emerged
471:
As the connecting bridge between two vast land masses, the Panamanian biosphere is filled with overlapping fauna and flora from both North and South America. There are, for example, over 978 species of birds in the isthmus area. The tropical climate also encourages a myriad of large and brightly
169:
culture area. Indigenous peoples in Panama have been connected to the wider regional networks of exchange and diffusion for as long as they have inhabited the isthmus, evident in the presence of Coclé gold work being found as far away as Chichin Itza in the Yucatan. By 1501, when Europeans first
121:
The Isthmus of Panama has always been a place of global significance. Its formation as a geological feature had several biological and climatic effects that resonated on a planetary scale. The separation of the oceans increased marine biodiversity on both sides, and the connection between the
33: 289:, starting in 1849, brought a large increase in the transportation of people from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Steamships brought gold diggers from eastern U.S. ports, who trekked across the isthmus by foot, horse, and later rail. On the Pacific side, they boarded 472:
colored species, insects, amphibians, birds, fish, and reptiles. Divided along its length by a mountain range, the isthmus's weather is generally wet on the Atlantic (Caribbean) side but has a clearer division into wet and dry seasons on the Pacific side.
122:
American continents allowed for the interchange of terrestrial life. The formation of the isthmus fundamentally changed the system of inter-ocean circulation of warm and cold currents, which caused the northern polar ice cap to form. The creation of the
412:
only happened after this time, although some species had made the crossing earlier, perhaps by rafting or brief periods of connection separated by periods of a high water flow between an arc of volcanic islands not conducive to swimming or rafting.
403:
is likely to remain controversial. Some experts have proposed 15 Ma as the date of first closure, while others suggest that final closure might be more recent based on genetic drift data of black mangroves along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.
1029:
Ochoa-Zavala, Maried; Jaramillo-Correa, Juan Pablo; Piñero, Daniel; Nettel-Hernanz, Alejandro; Núñez-Farfán, Juan (2019). "Contrasting colonization patterns of black mangrove (Avicennia germinans (L.) L.) gene pools along the Mexican coasts".
1065:
Grossman, Ethan L.; Robbins, John A.; Rachello-Dolmen, Paola G.; Tao, Kai; Saxena, Divya; O’Dea, Aaron (2019). "Freshwater input, upwelling, and the evolution of Caribbean coastal ecosystems during formation of the Isthmus of Panama".
436:. That warm currents can lead to glacier formation may seem counterintuitive, but heated air flowing over the warm Gulf Stream can hold more moisture. The result is increased precipitation that contributes to snow pack. 382:
from North and South America filled the gaps between the newly forming islands. Over millions of years, the sediment deposits added to the islands until the gap was completely filled. However, an article in
463:
all trace back to ancestors that came across the land bridge from South America. Likewise, bears, cats, dogs, horses, llamas, and raccoons all made the trek south across the isthmus.
153: 809: 351:) once separated the continents of North and South America, allowing the waters of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans to mix freely. Beneath the surface, two 496: 225:, the Isthmus developed into an important port of trade and became an administrative center for the conquests of both South and wider Central America. 107:
in 1912. Some recent studies suggest an earlier formation of the isthmus than the recognized age of 3 Ma, potentially stretching as far back as 19 Ma.
1189: 652:
Bacon, Christine D.; Silvestro, Daniele; Jaramillo, Carlos; Smith, Brian Tilston; Chakrabarty, Prosanta; Antonelli, Alexandre (12 May 2015).
160:. Since then, the isthmus has been inhabited by Indigenous peoples who have continually developed and adapted to life on the isthmus. The 1402: 1271: 339:
events of marine organisms isolated on each side (blue and green). Terrestrial species also migrated between the two continents (the
763: 704: 375:. Meanwhile, movement of the two tectonic plates was also pushing up the sea floor, eventually forcing some areas above sea level. 99:. Osborn based the proposal on the fossil record of mammals in Central America, a conclusion that would provide a foundation for 883: 443:
on the planet. The bridge made it easier for animals and plants to migrate between the two continents. This event is known in
1382: 1310: 935: 1407: 1392: 1387: 974: 331: 203: 784: 267: 1334: 1134: 532: 996: 908: 340: 161: 1343: 290: 17: 542: 1397: 126:
and the Atlantic system of weather and currents would eventually serve as the environmental engine of the "
448: 211: 189: 206:. The town was relocated some kilometers to the west at a small peninsula. The ruins of the old town, 1257: 1203:
O'Dea, A.; Lessios, H. A.; Coates, A. G.; Eytan, R. I.; Restrepo-Moreno, S. A.; Cione, A. L. (2016).
569:
O'Dea, A.; Lessios, H. A.; Coates, A. G.; Eytan, R. I.; Restrepo-Moreno, S. A.; Cione, A. L. (2016).
424:
Evidence also suggests that the creation of this land mass and the subsequent warm, wet weather over
316: 416: 84: 141:, miniature horses, rhinos, camels, early relatives of modern hippos, and at least one species of 348: 1287: 137:
The remains of a variety of paleolithic fauna that were found in the Canal Zone in 2007 include
272: 241: 96: 491: 433: 336: 1218: 1159: 1075: 584: 300: 286: 233: 1277: 8: 229: 1222: 1163: 1079: 588: 237: 1239: 1204: 1129:. Zona Tropical Publication. Comstock Publishing Associates, Cornell University Press. 1091: 1047: 864: 732: 680: 653: 605: 570: 171: 1144:
Montes, C.; Cardona, A.; Jaramillo, C.; Pardo, A.; Silva, J. C.; Valencia, V. (2015).
654:"Biological evidence supports an early and complex emergence of the Isthmus of Panama" 1306: 1244: 1177: 1150: 1145: 1130: 1095: 1051: 931: 904: 856: 724: 685: 610: 384: 116: 104: 736: 486: 367:. The pressure and heat caused by this collision led to the formation of underwater 1298: 1234: 1226: 1209: 1167: 1083: 1039: 1011: 848: 810:"Panama Canal expansion rewrites history of world's most ecologically diverse bats" 716: 675: 665: 600: 592: 575: 356: 320: 142: 127: 45: 925: 425: 364: 308: 175: 1302: 1028: 207: 1297:. Translated by Roland von Huene. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 4–17. 429: 352: 131: 100: 83:
The isthmus is thought to have been finally formed around 3 million years ago (
1376: 1358: 1345: 903:(in Spanish). Sevilla: Excma. DiputaciĂłn Provincial de Sevilla. p. 346. 860: 294: 278: 261: 149: 65: 61: 57: 53: 1172: 720: 670: 481: 166: 1267: 1248: 1230: 1181: 728: 689: 614: 596: 444: 440: 400: 307:, started a Panama Canal Company in 1880 that went bankrupt in 1889 in the 257: 253: 218: 199: 193: 73: 1015: 882:
Andagoya, Pascual de (21 June 1865). "Narrative of Pascual de Andagoya".
409: 360: 123: 92: 1190:"North and South America Came Together Much Earlier Than Thought: Study" 1317:(Original German article from 1912 with English translation from 2003.) 304: 1043: 868: 743: 1087: 460: 456: 196: 181: 138: 836: 852: 439:
The formation of the Isthmus of Panama also played a major role in
379: 312: 88: 80:, it is a location of great geopolitical and strategic importance. 249: 1064: 452: 395: 368: 245: 77: 1329: 391: 372: 319:, bought the remaining assets of the Panama Canal Company, and 260:. Scotland tried to establish a settlement in 1698 through the 69: 975:"Ant Genomics Help Reshape Biological History of the Americas" 533:"BBC - History - British History in depth: The Darien Venture" 1273:
A New Voyage and Description of the Isthmus of America (1695)
651: 420:
Francis Samuel Marryat, Crossing The Isthmus Of Panama, 1855
1202: 1143: 961: 927:
Spanish Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520–1720
837:"Paleo-Indian Discoidal Stones from Southern South America" 749: 568: 222: 256:
spent four years between 1680 and 1684 among the Kuna or
32: 1146:"Middle Miocene Closure of the Central American Seaway" 764:"Isthmus of Panama formed as result of plate tectonics" 202:
crossed the Isthmus of Panamá from the Caribbean side
185:
Núñez de Balboa's travel route to the South Sea, 1513
232:
were transported overland across the isthmus by the
52:) is the narrow strip of land that lies between the 1288:"The origins of continents: Geol Rundsch 3:276–292" 497:
Postage stamps and postal history of the Canal Zone
91:and Pacific Oceans and causing the creation of the 633: 785:"How the Isthmus of Panama Put Ice in the Arctic" 703:Hoorn, Carine; Flantua, Suzette (10 April 2015). 1374: 1022: 885:Narrative of the Proceedings of Pedrarias Davila 347:A significant body of water (referred to as the 658:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 564: 562: 560: 558: 556: 343:) upon the formation of a passable land bridge. 995:Coates, Anthony G; Stallard, Robert F (2013). 994: 217:The local Indigenous population, known as the 888:. The Hakluyt Society – via Wikisource. 525: 170:arrived, the isthmus was inhabited widely by 148:The first humans to inhabit the isthmus were 1058: 972: 702: 553: 898: 705:"An early start for the Panama land bridge" 277:The Isthmus of Panama on the Height of the 1124: 1108: 988: 371:, some of which grew large enough to form 1276:. Scotland: James Knapton. Archived from 1238: 1171: 679: 669: 604: 311:. In 1902–1904, the United States forced 881: 875: 415: 330: 266: 180: 31: 1285: 923: 761: 639: 14: 1375: 1255: 973:Golembiewski, Kate (25 October 2016). 899:Mena GarcĂ­a, MarĂ­a del Carmen (1984). 627: 451:. For instance, in North America, the 1282:Excerpt from the 1729 Knapton edition 1266: 950: 901:La Sociedad de Panamá en el Siglo XVI 779: 777: 428:resulted in the formation of a large 1205:"Formation of the Isthmus of Panama" 834: 571:"Formation of the Isthmus of Panama" 210:, are preserved and were declared a 130:" routes that were the basis of the 997:"How old is the Isthmus of Panama?" 359:were slowly colliding, forcing the 165:identified by archeologists as the 24: 1403:Natural history of Central America 1127:The Birds of Panama: A Field Guide 1117: 774: 335:The closure of the isthmus led to 25: 1419: 1322: 924:MacLeod, Murdo J. (5 July 2010). 768:Florida Museum of Natural History 341:Great American Biotic Interchange 134:system in the early modern era. 1328: 1125:Angehr, G. R.; Dean, R. (2010). 762:Donovan, Kelly (20 March 2009). 95:, as first suggested in 1910 by 1102: 966: 955: 944: 917: 892: 828: 802: 520:also historically known as the 152:, who probably arrived between 103:when he proposed the theory of 835:Bird, Junius B. (April 1970). 755: 696: 645: 621: 514: 378:Over time, massive amounts of 291:Pacific Mail Steamship Company 13: 1: 930:. University of Texas Press. 502: 315:to grant independence to the 68:. It contains the country of 1383:Geography of Central America 507: 466: 7: 1303:10.1007/978-3-662-08763-3_1 475: 10: 1424: 1408:Regions of Central America 1393:Isthmuses of South America 1388:Isthmuses of North America 1004:Bulletin of Marine Science 449:Great American Interchange 326: 212:UNESCO World Heritage Site 114: 110: 27:Narrow landstrip in Panama 1295:Milestones in Geosciences 317:Department of the Isthmus 228:Silver and gold from the 1196:. Reuters. 9 April 2015. 271:An 1850 oil painting by 1173:10.1126/science.aaa2815 1032:Journal of Biogeography 721:10.1126/science.aab0099 671:10.1073/pnas.1423853112 432:and contributed to the 349:Central American Seaway 303:, the developer of the 242:Spanish treasure fleets 1256:Osborn, H. F. (1910). 1231:10.1126/sciadv.1600883 1109:Angehr & Dean 2010 597:10.1126/sciadv.1600883 526: 421: 344: 282: 273:Charles Christian Nahl 204:and destroyed the city 186: 97:Henry Fairfield Osborn 49: 37: 1286:Wegener, A. (2003) . 1016:10.5343/bms.2012.1076 492:Isthmo-Colombian Area 419: 337:allopatric speciation 334: 270: 190:Vasco Núñez de Balboa 184: 36:The Isthmus of Panama 35: 1337:at Wikimedia Commons 301:Ferdinand de Lesseps 287:California Gold Rush 234:Spanish Silver Train 1398:Landforms of Panama 1355: /  1223:2016SciA....2E0883O 1164:2015Sci...348..226M 1080:2019Geo....47..857G 589:2016SciA....2E0883O 543:"The Darien Scheme" 394:crystals in middle 363:to slide under the 293:vessels headed for 230:viceroyalty of Peru 1259:The Age of Mammals 962:Montes et al. 2015 841:American Antiquity 816:. 20 February 2024 750:Montes et al. 2015 422: 345: 321:finished the canal 283: 187: 178:-speaking peoples. 87:), separating the 38: 1335:Isthmus of Panama 1333:Media related to 1312:978-3-642-07919-1 1158:(6231): 226–229. 1044:10.1111/jbi.13536 937:978-0-292-78825-1 715:(6231): 186–187. 664:(19): 6110–6115. 522:Isthmus of Darien 117:History of Panama 105:continental drift 42:Isthmus of Panama 16:(Redirected from 1415: 1370: 1369: 1367: 1366: 1365: 1360: 1359:8.667°N 80.000°W 1356: 1353: 1352: 1351: 1348: 1332: 1316: 1292: 1281: 1263: 1252: 1242: 1210:Science Advances 1197: 1185: 1175: 1140: 1111: 1106: 1100: 1099: 1088:10.1130/G46357.1 1062: 1056: 1055: 1026: 1020: 1019: 1001: 992: 986: 985: 983: 981: 970: 964: 959: 953: 948: 942: 941: 921: 915: 914: 896: 890: 889: 879: 873: 872: 832: 826: 825: 823: 821: 806: 800: 799: 797: 795: 781: 772: 771: 759: 753: 747: 741: 740: 700: 694: 693: 683: 673: 649: 643: 637: 631: 630:, pp. 80–81 625: 619: 618: 608: 576:Science Advances 566: 551: 550: 540: 529: 518: 244:shipped them to 157: 21: 1423: 1422: 1418: 1417: 1416: 1414: 1413: 1412: 1373: 1372: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1354: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1341: 1325: 1320: 1313: 1290: 1280:on 3 July 2007. 1217:(8): e1600883. 1188: 1137: 1120: 1118:General sources 1115: 1114: 1107: 1103: 1063: 1059: 1027: 1023: 999: 993: 989: 979: 977: 971: 967: 960: 956: 949: 945: 938: 922: 918: 911: 897: 893: 880: 876: 833: 829: 819: 817: 808: 807: 803: 793: 791: 783: 782: 775: 760: 756: 748: 744: 701: 697: 650: 646: 638: 634: 626: 622: 583:(8): e1600883. 567: 554: 541: 531: 527:Istmo de DariĂ©n 519: 515: 510: 505: 478: 469: 434:current ice age 426:northern Europe 365:Caribbean Plate 329: 309:Panama scandals 155: 119: 113: 50:Istmo de Panamá 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 1421: 1411: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1364:8.667; -80.000 1339: 1338: 1324: 1323:External links 1321: 1319: 1318: 1311: 1283: 1264: 1253: 1200: 1199: 1198: 1141: 1136:978-0801476747 1135: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1101: 1074:(9): 857–861. 1057: 1038:(5): 884–898. 1021: 1010:(4): 801-813. 987: 965: 954: 943: 936: 916: 909: 891: 874: 853:10.2307/278152 847:(2): 205–209. 827: 801: 773: 754: 742: 695: 644: 632: 620: 552: 512: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 500: 499: 494: 489: 487:Gulf of DariĂ©n 484: 477: 474: 468: 465: 430:Arctic ice cap 328: 325: 132:Atlantic World 128:triangle trade 115:Main article: 112: 109: 101:Alfred Wegener 26: 18:Panama Isthmus 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 1420: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1378: 1371: 1368: 1336: 1331: 1327: 1326: 1314: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1275: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1260: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1186: 1183: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1152: 1147: 1142: 1138: 1132: 1128: 1123: 1122: 1110: 1105: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1061: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1025: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 998: 991: 976: 969: 963: 958: 952: 947: 939: 933: 929: 928: 920: 912: 910:84-500-9699-5 906: 902: 895: 887: 886: 878: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 831: 815: 814:Research News 811: 805: 790: 786: 780: 778: 769: 765: 758: 751: 746: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 699: 691: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 663: 659: 655: 648: 641: 636: 629: 624: 616: 612: 607: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 577: 572: 565: 563: 561: 559: 557: 548: 544: 538: 537:www.bbc.co.uk 534: 528: 523: 517: 513: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 479: 473: 464: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 437: 435: 431: 427: 418: 414: 411: 405: 402: 397: 393: 389: 387: 381: 376: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 357:Earth's crust 354: 350: 342: 338: 333: 324: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 296: 295:San Francisco 292: 288: 281: 280: 279:Chagres River 274: 269: 265: 263: 262:Darien scheme 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 226: 224: 220: 215: 213: 209: 205: 201: 198: 195: 191: 183: 179: 177: 173: 168: 163: 159: 151: 150:Paleo-Indians 146: 144: 140: 135: 133: 129: 125: 118: 108: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 81: 79: 75: 71: 67: 66:South America 63: 59: 58:Pacific Ocean 55: 54:Caribbean Sea 51: 47: 43: 34: 30: 19: 1340: 1294: 1278:the original 1272: 1262:. Macmillan. 1258: 1214: 1208: 1193: 1155: 1149: 1126: 1104: 1071: 1067: 1060: 1035: 1031: 1024: 1007: 1003: 990: 978:. Retrieved 968: 957: 946: 926: 919: 900: 894: 884: 877: 844: 840: 830: 818:. Retrieved 813: 804: 792:. Retrieved 788: 767: 757: 745: 712: 708: 698: 661: 657: 647: 640:Wegener 2003 635: 623: 580: 574: 546: 536: 521: 516: 470: 445:paleontology 441:biodiversity 438: 423: 406: 401:Panama Canal 390:stated that 385: 377: 346: 299: 284: 276: 258:Guna Indians 254:Lionel Wafer 227: 216: 208:Panamá Viejo 200:Henry Morgan 188: 147: 143:chalicothere 136: 120: 82: 76:. Like many 74:Panama Canal 41: 39: 29: 1362: / 628:Osborn 1910 547:Historic UK 410:land bridge 361:Cocos Plate 252:from 1707. 238:Porto Bello 124:Gulf Stream 93:Gulf Stream 1377:Categories 951:Wafer 1729 503:References 482:DariĂ©n Gap 305:Suez Canal 214:in 1997. 167:Gran CoclĂ© 162:Monagrillo 60:, linking 1268:Wafer, L. 1096:199095294 1052:109795658 980:8 January 861:0002-7316 508:Citations 467:Biosphere 461:porcupine 457:armadillo 369:volcanoes 323:in 1914. 197:privateer 172:Chibchan- 154:18 and 15 139:bear-dogs 78:isthmuses 1270:(1729). 1249:27540590 1194:NBC News 1182:25859042 820:26 April 794:26 April 789:whoi.edu 737:30231555 729:25859033 690:25918375 615:27540590 476:See also 388:magazine 380:sediment 313:Colombia 240:, where 89:Atlantic 72:and the 56:and the 1240:4988774 1219:Bibcode 1160:Bibcode 1151:Science 1076:Bibcode 1068:Geology 709:Science 681:4434730 606:4988774 585:Bibcode 453:opossum 447:as the 396:Miocene 386:Science 373:islands 355:of the 327:Geology 246:Seville 176:Chocoan 111:History 46:Spanish 1350:80°0′W 1347:8°40′N 1309:  1247:  1237:  1180:  1133:  1094:  1050:  934:  907:  869:278152 867:  859:  735:  727:  688:  678:  613:  603:  459:, and 392:zircon 353:plates 156:  70:Panama 1291:(PDF) 1092:S2CID 1048:S2CID 1000:(PDF) 865:JSTOR 733:S2CID 250:Cádiz 219:Cueva 194:Welsh 62:North 1307:ISBN 1245:PMID 1178:PMID 1131:ISBN 982:2022 932:ISBN 905:ISBN 857:ISSN 822:2024 796:2024 725:PMID 686:PMID 611:PMID 285:The 248:and 223:Peru 174:and 64:and 40:The 1299:doi 1235:PMC 1227:doi 1168:doi 1156:348 1084:doi 1040:doi 1012:doi 849:doi 717:doi 713:348 676:PMC 666:doi 662:112 601:PMC 593:doi 236:to 158:kya 1379:: 1305:. 1293:. 1243:. 1233:. 1225:. 1213:. 1207:. 1192:. 1176:. 1166:. 1154:. 1148:. 1090:. 1082:. 1072:47 1070:. 1046:. 1036:46 1034:. 1008:89 1006:. 1002:. 863:. 855:. 845:35 843:. 839:. 812:. 787:. 776:^ 766:. 731:. 723:. 711:. 707:. 684:. 674:. 660:. 656:. 609:. 599:. 591:. 579:. 573:. 555:^ 545:. 535:. 530:) 455:, 297:. 275:: 264:. 145:. 85:Ma 48:: 1315:. 1301:: 1251:. 1229:: 1221:: 1215:2 1184:. 1170:: 1162:: 1139:. 1098:. 1086:: 1078:: 1054:. 1042:: 1018:. 1014:: 984:. 940:. 913:. 871:. 851:: 824:. 798:. 770:. 752:. 739:. 719:: 692:. 668:: 642:. 617:. 595:: 587:: 581:2 549:. 539:. 524:( 44:( 20:)

Index

Panama Isthmus

Spanish
Caribbean Sea
Pacific Ocean
North
South America
Panama
Panama Canal
isthmuses
Ma
Atlantic
Gulf Stream
Henry Fairfield Osborn
Alfred Wegener
continental drift
History of Panama
Gulf Stream
triangle trade
Atlantic World
bear-dogs
chalicothere
Paleo-Indians
18 and 15 kya
Monagrillo
Gran Coclé
Chibchan-
Chocoan

Vasco Núñez de Balboa

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

↑