346:
197:
516:) minstrel tradition was seemingly prominent in Parthian society, and had probably originated in the earlier Achaemenid period. A gōsān was a poet-musician though there was much variety within the tradition. They would sing in Markets during peacetime, and were probably accompanied by instrumentalists. Essentially nothing is known of their training and extremely little examples of their songs survive. Based on later evidence, their songs would "proclaim the worthiness of kings and heroes of old". This is affirmed by Strabo, who notes in his
332:
view of the
Parthians as "uncultivated and as barbarians". Such a perspective has long prevented the serious study of Parthian culture; the historian Leonardo Gregoratti noted that "The Parthian Empire, a state lasting for five-long centuries, has recently emerged slowly from the shadow of history to regain its cultural and historical identity". Evidence for Parthian music is somewhat limited, but via the visual arts, archeological evidence, as well as both Parthian and foreign texts, numerous trends of the period can be observed.
2782:
22:
2770:
331:
or Hebrew. Much information about the
Parthian Empire comes from foreign commentators, particularly Greeks and Romans—though there are accounts of Parthian history before 141 BCE, though this is extremely limited. These accounts are often inaccurate and heavily biased, which has led to a long held
1572:; Lingas, Alexander; Maliaras, Nikos; Chaldaiakis, Achilleus; Plemmenos, John; Bamichas, Pyrros; Kardamis, Kostas; Kontossi, Sofia; Economides, Myrto; Tragaki, Dafni; Tsagkarakis, Ioannis; Chardas, Kostas; Seiragakis, Manolis; Chianis, Sotirios; Brandl, Rudolph M. (2019).
46:, lasted from 247 BCE to 224 CE, in which music played a prominent role. It featured in festivals, weddings, education, warfare and other social gatherings. Surviving artistic records indicate that it involved both men and women, who could be
562:
of patronage and prosperity. It is likely that
Parthian songs remained sung long after the Empire's fall, particularly in the north-eastern parts of modern-day Iran. These song may have influenced or been included into the
403:. This extant evidence indicates that music played a prominent role in the Parthian Empire. It was part of numerous aspects of Parthian life, finding use in festivals, weddings and warfare, among other social gatherings.
474:
noting that the
Parthians "had rightly judged that, of all the senses, hearing is the one most apt to confound the soul, soonest rouses its emotions and most effectively unseats the judgement". The musicologist
345:
307:, but compared to its Western opponent, relatively little information is known. Native Parthian textual sources are very minimal, and the primary official records which still exist are
361:
of the time often illustrate the instruments discussed in text, but also depict ones which are otherwise unknown. These include depictions of instruments, musicians and ensembles on
406:
Towards the empire's later period, the first half of the 2nd century saw the increasing presence of
Christian music. In particular, the East Syrian liturgy was practiced above the
1541:
Nikonorov, Valerii P. (2000). "The Use of
Musical Percussion Instruments in Ancient Eastern Warfare: the Parthian and Middle Asian Evidence". In Hickmann, Ellen; Laufs, Ingo;
1553:
Music archaeology of Early Metal Ages : papers from the 1st
Symposium of the International Study Group on Music Archaeology at Monastery Michaelstein, 18–24 May 1998
2028:
267:(550–330 BCE), still relatively few records survive. Some speculation and anecdotal evidence suggests the presence of female choirs, as well as the emergence of the
532:, Plutarch noted that the gōsān would also ridicule the Romans, as they "sang many scurrilous and ridiculous songs about the effeminacy and cowardice of Crassus".
148:
writers, some archeological evidence, and a variety of visual sources. The last of these are usually from either the archeological sites and former settlements of
1548:
Musikarchäologie früher
Metallzeiten : Vorträge des 1. Symposiums der International Study Group on Music Archaeology im Kloster Michaelstein, 18.-24 Mai 1998
215:
Due to a paucity of surviving records, it is impossible to create a thorough outline of the earliest music in Persia. Music has existed in Persia since at least
1838:
1933:
1669:
580:, where a similar gōsān art developed. The Armenian gōsān sang on similar topics of heroism, which were often performed with instrumental accompaniment.
1853:
1574:
1483:
1426:
1309:
357:
Information on
Parthian music use comes from a few Parthian texts, archeological remains and writings from Greek and Roman authors. Depictions in the
2003:
1993:
1823:
1813:
430:
In general, most
Parthian instruments seem to be based on those of Greece, Rome and Egypt. Visual depictions indicate that instruments such as the
230:
are dated; it is possible that these instruments existed long before their visual depictions. Later surviving instruments include bull lyres from
1973:
1963:
1833:
87:
were a central tradition, probably originating in the earlier Achaemenid period. Little is known of them, though Greek commentators recall
1818:
1998:
1918:
1828:
2207:
1968:
391:; also spelled "rhutas"), provide much otherwise unknown musical information, with illustrations described by music archaeologist
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2579:
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2420:
1913:
1662:
710:
708:
706:
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140:, much less is known about the Parthians, but information on music can be gathered from a few Parthian texts, accounts from
91:
themes in their songs. A wide variety of instruments were used, often to accompany the gōsān. They included both single and
2266:
1358:
703:
2399:
353:, Berlin. The musician on the left appears to hold a percussion instrument, while there is a wind instrument on the right
1655:
667:
2812:
1603:
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442:(pan flute) was used in theater, sacrifices, Dionysian dances and other rituals. According to the Roman historian
2413:
2083:
691:
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from 1st-century BCE, include sophisticated Persian court ensembles, in which the arched harp is central. By the
1101:
1117:
2200:
522:(XV.3.18) that young men would sing of "the deeds both of the gods and of the noblest men". In the "Life of
2448:
2058:
558:(224–651 CE). The gōsān minstrel tradition continued in the Sasanian empire, where Persian music reached a
470:
drum is among the better known instruments of the Parthians. These large drums were used in warfare, with
2572:
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noted that the teachers would even "wake the boys up before dawn by the sound of brazen instruments".
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2018:
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as "most magnificent depictions" of Parthian music. These objects are generally from sites at either
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487:. He explains that an ensemble of tambourine could not arose the same fear as large snare drums.
1408:
2817:
2617:
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1594:
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617:, p. 189 notes that most ancient societies, like the Parthians, held music in high regard.
311:. The few known Parthian texts are usually from the more Western regions, generally written in
1502:
1445:
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BCE to 224 CE. At its height, its territory covered modern-day Syria to India, and the
2671:
2602:
2297:
1938:
1928:
1612:
1519:
1462:
1345:
976:
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422:, Turkey). This occurred simultaneously with many of the other Parthian music traditions.
8:
2622:
2312:
1620:
1569:
1199:
476:
133:. At least some of these, such as harps, lutes and lyres, originated in earlier periods.
1148:. Translated by Jones, Horace Leonard (Loeb Classical Library 267 ed.). Cambridge:
2385:
2169:
2128:
2008:
1923:
1580:
1489:
1432:
1387:
1379:
1315:
1178:
971:
400:
153:
62:, Parthian music was crucial in laying the foundation for the golden age of subsequent
2747:
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1958:
1953:
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145:
100:
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59:
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39:
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1943:
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63:
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1878:
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Music was standard in the education of Parthian youth. The Greek Geographer
446:, the Parthians danced "to the music of flutes and the throbbing of drums".
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137:
43:
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415:
296:
260:
256:
227:
200:
The Parthian Empire in 94 BC at its greatest extent, during the reign of
92:
2013:
1383:
508:
Based on textual and artistic representations, the gōsān (also 'gusan';
2666:
1848:
1798:
1687:
1399:
1353:
559:
484:
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362:
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157:
26:
21:
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96:
88:
2123:
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2098:
2078:
2053:
1948:
1746:
1546:
1282:; Mirabdolbaghi, Zia. "The Instruments of Yesterday and Today". In
1109:
1087:
570:
479:
notes that although the instrument is often rendered in English as
471:
467:
443:
274:
84:
47:
2185:
1555:]. Studien zur Musikarchäologie, 2. Rahden/Westf: M. Leidorf.
898:
896:
894:
892:
890:
888:
848:
846:
844:
842:
840:
793:
576:
The Parthian gōsān tradition made a substantial influence on that
490:
The rhoptron is considered an early predecessor of the modern-day
2505:
1768:
551:
491:
435:
316:
238:
112:
104:
55:
2557:
827:
825:
823:
717:, §4 "1st millennium BCE: (iii) Achaemenid period, 550–331 BCE".
2093:
2048:
1893:
1803:
1773:
1740:
1717:
1135:
885:
837:
503:
450:
439:
411:
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366:
269:
166:
161:
129:
71:
31:
1624:
1567:
998:
2235:
2230:
1984:
1864:
1356:(1957). "The Parthian Gōsān and Iranian Minstrel Tradition".
820:
783:
781:
547:
431:
396:
370:
324:
149:
108:
51:
875:
873:
676:, §2 "3rd millennium BCE: (ii) Bull lyres, (iii) Trumpets".
419:
255:
BCE, which seem to have been popular with the upper class.
223:
124:
120:
116:
778:
751:
749:
747:
920:
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937:
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631:
1034:
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947:
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50:
or singers. Along with the older music of the previous
761:
732:
700:, §4 "1st millennium BCE: (i) Elamite harp ensembles".
226:
period, from when the earliest artistic depictions of
2758:
1046:
932:
277:
tradition, which would be central in Parthian music.
1283:
1278:
1271:
1244:
643:
546:
Parthian music, along with that of the Achaemenids,
1531:
1469:
1022:
1010:
808:
1573:
1482:
1425:
1308:
720:
349:Two musicians of the Parthian period, kept in the
303:. It is often remembered for its rivalry with the
1126:(Loeb Classical Library 65 ed.). Cambridge:
2794:
16:Music of the Parthian Empire (247 BCE – 224 CE)
1097:History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus
2573:
2201:
1677:
1663:
164:and illustrations on drinking horns known as
1100:. Translated by Echols, Edward C. Berkeley:
664:, §2 "3rd millennium BCE: (i) Arched harps".
425:
284:was a major political and cultural power of
111:, as well as string instruments such as the
29:sculpture of a Parthian musician playing a
2580:
2566:
2208:
2194:
1670:
1656:
1420:
1193:
926:
902:
879:
864:
852:
831:
802:
787:
755:
637:
614:
1708:
1619:
1593:
1540:
1526:
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980:
953:
714:
697:
685:
673:
661:
410:river, having made its way there through
1595:10.1093/omo/9781561592630.013.3000000167
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1108:
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1040:
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914:
772:
344:
195:
20:
1503:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.13895
1446:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20973
1329:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.27985
1319:. Revised by Edmund A. Bowles. Oxford:
1266:
1052:
649:
2795:
1303:
1216:
1134:
992:
941:
726:
688:, §3 "2nd millennium BCE: (ii) Lutes".
2561:
2189:
1651:
1398:
1352:
1067:, §5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE.".
1028:
1016:
1004:
814:
738:
605:, found in Iran. Inv. Nr.: B 1952/2.1
554:, laid the foundation for subsequent
136:Compared to their Western rival, the
1982:
1862:
1359:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
1252:. Washington D.C.: Mage Publishers.
1248:; Mirabdolbaghi, Zia, eds. (1991a).
1223:The Dastgah Concept in Persian Music
456:
2421:Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC
2215:
1532:Lawergren, Farhat & Blum (2001)
1196:The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire
513:
388:
179:
80:
13:
1284:During & Mirabdolbaghi (1991b)
1272:During & Mirabdolbaghi (1991a)
535:
14:
2829:
2587:
1635:
2780:
2768:
2547:Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms
1122:. Vol. III. Translated by
608:
206:
1102:University of California Press
595:
483:, it more closely resembles a
95:wind instruments, such as the
1:
2407:Roman–Parthian War of 161–166
1313:. In Bowles, Edmund A (ed.).
583:
289:
249:
248:, and much later, lutes from
242:
231:
216:
185:
2449:Battle of the Cilician Gates
2414:Antony's Atropatene campaign
2059:Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam
1613:UK public library membership
1520:UK public library membership
1463:UK public library membership
1346:UK public library membership
1074:
624:
497:
7:
2400:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63
983:, §5 "Musical instruments".
335:
10:
2834:
1844:Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni
1368:Cambridge University Press
1270:. "Historical Survey". In
1228:Cambridge University Press
539:
501:
340:
189:
2742:
2716:
2680:
2595:
2534:
2498:
2477:Parthian war of Caracalla
2435:Battle of Ctesiphon (198)
2428:Battle of Ctesiphon (165)
2372:
2336:
2285:
2249:
2241:Parni conquest of Parthia
2223:
2162:
2137:
2071:
2041:
1906:
1791:
1759:
1730:
1701:
1693:Persian traditional music
1683:
1678:Medieval Perso-Arab music
1376:10.1017/S0035869X0010735X
1173:Colledge, M.A.R. (1967).
1158:
426:Instruments and occasions
2813:Music history by country
2456:Battle of Mount Gindarus
2153:Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir
2104:Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani
1250:The Art of Persian Music
1194:Ellerbrock, Uwe (2021).
1150:Harvard University Press
1128:Harvard University Press
1079:
603:Rijksmuseum van Oudheden
588:
461:
373:drinking horns known as
2526:Roman–Iranian relations
2470:Battle of Nisibis (217)
1586:Oxford University Press
1530:. "I. Pre-Islamic". In
1495:Oxford University Press
1438:Oxford University Press
1321:Oxford University Press
2380:Seleucid–Parthian Wars
2119:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
1644:of a Parthian musician
1198:. Abingdon-on-Thames:
354:
212:
35:
2490:Bactrian–Parthian War
2485:Armenian–Parthian War
2463:Battle of Amanus Pass
2114:Safi al-Din al-Urmawi
1625:Romanou et al. (2019)
540:Further information:
502:Further information:
348:
209: 124–91 BC
199:
190:Further information:
58:and particularly the
24:
2029:Sarirah al-Ra’iqiyya
1939:Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi
1929:Ulayya bint al-Mahdi
1621:Mathiesen, Thomas J.
1570:Mathiesen, Thomas J.
1409:Encyclopædia Iranica
1200:Taylor & Francis
1140:"Book XV: Chapter 3"
1092:"Book 4: Chapter XI"
323:, and less often in
2623:Ancient Tamil music
2394:Roman–Parthian Wars
1179:Thames & Hudson
834:, pp. 190–191.
477:Thomas J. Mathiesen
42:, a major state of
2386:Battle of Ecbatana
2293:Seven Great Houses
2170:Islamic Golden Age
2129:Abu Ahmad Monajjem
2024:Arib al-Ma'muniyya
2009:Inan bint Abdallah
1924:Ibrahim al-Mawsili
1623:"II. Ancient". In
1581:Grove Music Online
1490:Grove Music Online
1433:Grove Music Online
1316:Grove Music Online
1286:, pp. 99–152.
1124:Perrin, Bernadotte
995:, § §3 "To c1600".
355:
213:
36:
2756:
2755:
2748:Prehistoric music
2729:1st millennium BC
2724:2nd millennium BC
2555:
2554:
2542:Parthian monarchs
2516:Parthian Dark Age
2442:Battle of Carrhae
2267:Caucasian Albania
2183:
2182:
2067:
2066:
2037:
2036:
1902:
1901:
1874:Atika bint Shuhda
1787:
1786:
1755:
1754:
1726:
1725:
1611:(subscription or
1543:Eichmann, Ricardo
1518:(subscription or
1512:978-1-56159-263-0
1461:(subscription or
1455:978-1-56159-263-0
1427:"Parthian Empire"
1344:(subscription or
1338:978-1-56159-263-0
1274:, pp. 31–56.
1259:978-0-934211-22-2
1237:978-0-521-54206-7
1209:978-1-000-35848-3
1114:"Life of Crassus"
741:, pp. 20–21.
457:Specific elements
265:Achaemenid Empire
60:Achaemenid period
2825:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2773:
2772:
2771:
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2708:Seikilos epitaph
2703:Oxyrhynchus hymn
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2196:
2187:
2186:
2039:
2038:
2019:Faḍl al-Shāʻirah
1980:
1979:
1959:Allawayh al-Asar
1954:Ishaq al-Mawsili
1860:
1859:
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1727:
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1414:Brill Publishers
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1007:, § paras. 1, 7.
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578:music of Armenia
515:
390:
309:Parthian coinage
294:
291:
288:, existing from
254:
251:
247:
246: 2200–1750
244:
236:
233:
221:
220: 3300–3100
218:
210:
208:
192:Achaemenid music
181:
101:transverse flute
83:) poet-musician
82:
48:instrumentalists
2833:
2832:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2822:
2808:Parthian Empire
2803:Culture of Iran
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2245:
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2217:Parthian Empire
2214:
2184:
2179:
2158:
2146:Kitab al-Aghani
2133:
2063:
2042:Andalusian-Arab
2033:
1978:
1898:
1858:
1783:
1751:
1722:
1697:
1679:
1676:
1638:
1633:
1610:
1606:
1568:Romanou, Katy;
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987:
979:
972:
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960:
952:
948:
940:
933:
927:Ellerbrock 2021
925:
921:
917:, p. 1126.
913:
909:
903:Lawergren 2001a
901:
886:
880:Ellerbrock 2021
878:
871:
865:Ellerbrock 2021
863:
859:
853:Lawergren 2001a
851:
838:
832:Ellerbrock 2021
830:
821:
813:
809:
805:, § paras. 1–3.
803:Lawergren 2001a
801:
794:
790:, p. xxiv.
788:Ellerbrock 2021
786:
779:
771:
762:
756:Ellerbrock 2021
754:
745:
737:
733:
725:
721:
713:
704:
696:
692:
684:
680:
672:
668:
660:
656:
648:
644:
638:Ellerbrock 2021
636:
632:
627:
622:
621:
615:Ellerbrock 2021
613:
609:
600:
596:
591:
586:
544:
538:
536:Later influence
506:
500:
464:
459:
428:
351:Pergamon Museum
343:
338:
292:
282:Parthian Empire
252:
245:
234:
219:
205:
194:
188:
170:or in Persian,
40:Parthian Empire
17:
12:
11:
5:
2831:
2821:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2790:
2789:
2777:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2737:
2736:
2734:1st millennium
2731:
2726:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2698:Katolophyromai
2695:
2690:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2632:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2592:
2585:
2584:
2577:
2570:
2562:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2473:
2466:
2459:
2452:
2445:
2438:
2431:
2424:
2417:
2410:
2403:
2391:
2390:
2389:
2376:
2374:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2333:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2323:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2227:
2225:
2221:
2220:
2213:
2212:
2205:
2198:
2190:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2175:Hind bint Utba
2172:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2149:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2045:
2043:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2004:Milh Al-Attara
2001:
1996:
1990:
1988:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1944:Mansour Zalzal
1941:
1936:
1934:Yaḥya al-Makki
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1910:
1908:
1904:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1884:Djamila/Jamila
1881:
1876:
1870:
1868:
1857:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1824:Hunain al-Hiri
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1765:
1763:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1736:
1734:
1724:
1723:
1721:
1720:
1714:
1712:
1703:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1674:
1667:
1660:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1637:
1636:External links
1634:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1604:
1565:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1511:
1475:Farhat, Hormoz
1467:
1454:
1418:
1396:
1350:
1337:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1276:
1258:
1242:
1236:
1218:Farhat, Hormoz
1214:
1208:
1191:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1154:
1132:
1119:Parallel Lives
1106:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1065:Lawergren 2001
1057:
1045:
1043:, p. 419.
1033:
1021:
1009:
997:
985:
981:Mathiesen 2019
970:
968:, p. 387.
958:
954:Nikonorov 2000
946:
944:, p. 179.
931:
929:, p. 188.
919:
907:
884:
882:, p. 189.
869:
867:, p. 190.
857:
836:
819:
807:
792:
777:
760:
743:
731:
719:
715:Lawergren 2001
702:
698:Lawergren 2001
690:
686:Lawergren 2001
678:
674:Lawergren 2001
666:
662:Lawergren 2001
654:
642:
640:, p. 191.
629:
628:
626:
623:
620:
619:
607:
593:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
556:Sasanian music
542:Sasanian music
537:
534:
529:Parallel Lives
499:
496:
463:
460:
458:
455:
427:
424:
342:
339:
337:
334:
321:Greek language
273:poet-musician
202:Mithridates II
187:
184:
156:, and include
64:Sasanian music
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2830:
2819:
2818:Music of Iran
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2788:
2778:
2776:
2766:
2765:
2762:
2749:
2745:
2744:
2741:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2717:By millennium
2715:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2693:Hurrian songs
2691:
2689:
2688:Delphic Hymns
2686:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2637:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2589:Ancient music
2583:
2578:
2576:
2571:
2569:
2564:
2563:
2560:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2537:
2533:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2521:Parthian shot
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2511:Parthian army
2509:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2478:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2411:
2408:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2284:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2211:
2206:
2204:
2199:
2197:
2192:
2191:
2188:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1975:
1974:Ibn al-Tahhan
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1964:Amr ibn Banah
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1879:Azza al-Mayla
1877:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1855:
1854:Malik al-Ta'i
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1809:Sa'ib Khathir
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1729:
1719:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1704:
1700:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1682:
1673:
1668:
1666:
1661:
1659:
1654:
1653:
1650:
1643:
1640:
1639:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1617:
1614:
1607:
1605:9781561592630
1601:
1596:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1582:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1533:
1529:
1528:Lawergren, Bo
1525:
1524:
1521:
1514:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1491:
1485:
1480:
1479:Blum, Stephen
1476:
1472:
1471:Lawergren, Bo
1468:
1464:
1457:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1428:
1423:
1422:Lawergren, Bo
1419:
1415:
1411:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1360:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1340:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1317:
1311:
1306:
1305:Blades, James
1302:
1301:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1233:
1229:
1226:. Cambridge:
1225:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1175:The Parthians
1171:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1084:
1066:
1061:
1055:, p. 37.
1054:
1049:
1042:
1041:Plutarch 1916
1037:
1031:, p. 11.
1030:
1025:
1019:, p. 18.
1018:
1013:
1006:
1001:
994:
989:
982:
977:
975:
967:
966:Plutarch 1916
962:
956:, p. 71.
955:
950:
943:
938:
936:
928:
923:
916:
915:Herodian 1961
911:
904:
899:
897:
895:
893:
891:
889:
881:
876:
874:
866:
861:
854:
849:
847:
845:
843:
841:
833:
828:
826:
824:
817:, p. 10.
816:
811:
804:
799:
797:
789:
784:
782:
775:, p. 17.
774:
773:Colledge 1967
769:
767:
765:
757:
752:
750:
748:
740:
735:
728:
723:
716:
711:
709:
707:
699:
694:
687:
682:
675:
670:
663:
658:
652:, p. 39.
651:
646:
639:
634:
630:
616:
611:
604:
598:
594:
581:
579:
574:
572:
568:
567:
561:
557:
553:
549:
543:
533:
531:
530:
525:
521:
520:
511:
505:
495:
493:
488:
486:
482:
478:
473:
469:
454:
452:
447:
445:
441:
437:
433:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
404:
402:
398:
394:
386:
382:
378:
377:
372:
368:
365:plaques, and
364:
360:
352:
347:
333:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
287:
283:
278:
276:
272:
271:
266:
262:
258:
240:
237:, small Oxus
229:
225:
203:
198:
193:
183:
177:
173:
169:
168:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
134:
132:
131:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
78:
74:
73:
67:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
34:
33:
28:
23:
19:
2746:Preceded by
2681:Extant music
2644:
2363:
2277:Indo-Parthia
2151:
2144:
1983:
1863:
1739:
1731:
1579:
1552:
1547:
1488:
1431:
1407:
1363:
1357:
1314:
1295:
1280:During, Jean
1268:During, Jean
1249:
1246:During, Jean
1222:
1195:
1177:. New York:
1174:
1164:
1144:
1118:
1096:
1060:
1053:During 1991a
1048:
1036:
1024:
1012:
1000:
988:
961:
949:
922:
910:
905:, § para. 1.
860:
855:, § para. 2.
810:
758:, p. 1.
734:
729:, p. 3.
722:
693:
681:
669:
657:
650:During 1991a
645:
633:
610:
601:Kept in the
597:
575:
564:
545:
527:
517:
507:
489:
465:
448:
429:
418:(modern-day
405:
393:Bo Lawergren
380:
374:
356:
305:Roman Empire
301:Persian Gulf
286:ancient Iran
279:
268:
257:Rock reliefs
228:arched harps
214:
171:
165:
138:Roman Empire
135:
128:
70:
68:
44:ancient Iran
37:
30:
18:
2603:Mesopotamia
2298:Ispahbudhan
2286:Noble clans
2084:Al-Sarakhsi
1400:Boyce, Mary
1354:Boyce, Mary
993:Blades 2001
942:Strabo 1932
727:Farhat 2004
526:" from his
519:Geographica
416:Roman Syria
359:visual arts
297:Caspian Sea
261:Kul-e Farah
253: 1300
235: 2450
222:BCE of the
93:double reed
89:panegyrical
2797:Categories
2640:Achaemenid
2313:Spandiyadh
2072:Theorists
1849:Ibn Muhriz
1834:Ibn Surayj
1814:Ibn Misjaḥ
1710:Achaemenid
1688:Arab music
1584:. Oxford:
1493:. Oxford:
1436:. Oxford:
1412:. Leiden:
1029:Boyce 1957
1017:Boyce 1957
1005:Boyce 2012
815:Boyce 1957
739:Boyce 1957
584:References
560:golden age
485:snare drum
481:tambourine
363:terracotta
315:using the
293: 247
186:Background
158:terracotta
99:(syrinx),
27:terracotta
2596:By region
2089:Al-Farabi
1819:al-Gharid
1615:required)
1522:required)
1465:required)
1424:(2001a).
1402:(2012) .
1392:161761104
1370:: 10–45.
1348:required)
1310:"Timpani"
1187:969998589
1145:Geography
1138:(1932) .
1112:(1916) .
1090:(1961) .
625:Citations
566:Shahnameh
552:Assyrians
498:Minstrels
313:cuneiform
160:plaques,
85:minstrels
56:Assyrians
2650:Sasanian
2645:Parthian
2608:Hittites
2359:Language
2272:Chosroid
2124:Ibn Kurr
2109:Avempace
2099:Avicenna
2079:Al-Kindi
2054:Avempace
2014:Shāriyah
1999:Mahbubah
1949:Mukhariq
1919:Ibn Jami
1829:Algharid
1761:Sasanian
1747:Rhoptron
1732:Parthian
1575:"Greece"
1561:46766984
1545:(eds.).
1481:(2001).
1384:25201987
1307:(2001).
1296:Articles
1220:(2004).
1110:Plutarch
1088:Herodian
571:Ferdowsi
472:Plutarch
468:rhoptron
444:Herodian
438:and the
336:Overview
329:Parthian
275:minstrel
239:trumpets
107:and the
105:trumpets
103:, small
97:panpipes
2761:Portals
2506:Parthia
2499:Related
2349:Coinage
2337:Culture
2257:Armenia
2250:Dynasty
2224:Origins
2163:Related
1907:Abbasid
1889:Hababah
1792:Umayyad
1769:Bamshad
1702:Origins
1404:"Gōsān"
1366:(1–2).
1075:Sources
524:Crassus
510:Persian
492:Timpani
436:cithara
385:Persian
376:rhytons
367:reliefs
341:Sources
317:Aramaic
299:to the
176:Persian
167:rhytons
162:reliefs
113:kithara
77:Persian
52:Medians
2672:Celtic
2657:Greece
2635:Persia
2308:Mihran
2262:Iberia
2094:Ziryab
2049:Ziryab
1969:Jahzah
1894:Ubayda
1839:Ma'bad
1804:Nashit
1799:Ṭuways
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