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210:, which had a pharmacological emphasis, and he dedicated his medical books to Laecanius Arius, a medical practitioner there. Though he writes he lived a "soldier's life" or "soldier-like life", his pharmacopeia refers almost solely to plants found in the Greek-speaking eastern Mediterranean, making it likely that he served in campaigns, or travelled in a civilian capacity, less widely as supposed. The name Pedanius is Roman, suggesting that an aristocrat of that name sponsored him to become a Roman citizen.
1358:
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formed the core of the
European pharmacopeia through the 19th century, suggesting that "the timelessness of Dioscorides' work resulted from an empirical tradition based on trial and error; that it worked for generation after generation despite social and cultural changes and changes in medical
367:
and North
African (Carthaginian) names for some plants, which otherwise would have been lost. The work presents about 600 plants in all, although the descriptions are sometimes obscurely phrased, leading to comments such as: "Numerous individuals from the Middle Ages on have struggled with the
669:
The dedication, translated by
Scarborough and Nutton, began "At your insistence I have assembled my material into five books, and I dedicate my compendium to you in fulfilment of a debt of gratitude for your sentiments towards
421:
185:
about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances, that was widely read for more than 1,500 years. For almost two millennia
Dioscorides was regarded as the most prominent writer on plants and plant drugs.
527:
487:
445:
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The 1500th
Anniversary (512–2012) of the Juliana Anicia Codex: An Illustrated Dioscoridean Recension. Jules Janick and Kim E. Hummer. Chronica horticulturae. 52(3) 2012 pp. 9–15
1423:
343:, produced in Constantinople in 512/513 AD. Densely illustrated Arabic copies survive from the 12th and 13th centuries, while Greek manuscripts survive today in the monasteries of
832:
Borzelleca, Joseph F.; Lane, Richard W. (2008). "The Art, the
Science, and the Seduction of Toxicology: an Evolutionary Development". In Hayes, Andrew Wallace (ed.).
462:
306:
While being reproduced in manuscript form through the centuries, it was often supplemented with commentary and minor additions from Arabic and Indian sources.
507:
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is the prime historical source of information about the medicines used by the Greeks, Romans, and other cultures of antiquity. The work also records the
2688:
978:
Tafsīr Kitāb Diāsqūrīdūs - commentaire de la "Materia Medica" de
Dioscoride de Abū Muḥammad ʻAbdallāh ibn Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Bayṭār de Malaga
2769:
2082:
1467:
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1182:: Palatii Veteris NO. 1 Part 1: Reproduction of the Manuscript; Part 2: Greek Text; Part 3: Translation and Commentary Bruins, E. M. (Ed.)
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1773:
1263:
2374:
991:
3266:
2060:
1826:
3271:
1322:
Scarborough, J.; Nutton, V. (1982). "The
Preface of Dioscorides' Materia Medica: introduction, translation, and commentary".
816:
368:
identity of the recondite kinds", while some of the botanical identifications of
Dioscorides' plants remain merely guesses.
2762:
2182:
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2595:
2409:
930:
De Vos (2010) "European
Materia Medica in Historical Texts: Longevity of a Tradition and Implications for Future Use",
3111:
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620:. Translated by Iano Antonio Saraceno Lugdunaeo (Janus Antonius Saracenus). 1598 – via digitale-sammlungen.de.
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Critical Approaches to the History of Western Herbal Medicine: From Classical Antiquity to the Early Modern Period
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2755:
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2507:
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1405:(in French and Latin). Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d'odontologie, Université Paris Descartes
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Portrait of an old man; perhaps the physician Dioscorides, whose name is cut in front of it. Antique paste
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which is found from India southeast towards Indonesia and east towards China, is named after him.
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1216:"L'image paradigmatique: des Schémas anatomiques d'Aristote au De materia medica de Dioscoride"
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Pedacio Dioscorides anazarbeo: Acerca de la materia medicinal y de los venenos mortiferos
1159:
993:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
282:
In contrast to many classical authors, Dioscorides' works were not "rediscovered" in the
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Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World
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Greco-Roman physician and pharmacologist, prominent writer on plant drugs (AD c.40–90)
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328:, has been used by scholars to identify many of the flora mentioned by Dioscorides.
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1932:
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1506:
1185:
Forbes, Andrew; Henley, Daniel; Henley, David (2013). 'Pedanius Dioscorides' in:
494:
397:
356:
2425:
1349:
1064:
Isely, Duane (1994). One hundred and one botanists. Iowa State University Press.
243:
Between AD 50 and 70 Dioscorides wrote a five-volume book in his native Greek,
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286:, because his book had never left circulation; indeed, with regard to Western
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2016:
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249:(Perì hylēs íatrikēs), known in Western Europe more often by its Latin title
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1979:
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1400:"Medic: Catalogue des textes en ligne: Dioscoride/Dioscodirides, Pedanius"
1335:
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980:(ed. Ibrahim Ben Mrad), Beirut 1989 (Arabic title: تفسير كتاب دياسقوريدوس)
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2001:
1951:
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344:
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226:
1232:
558:. Translated by Tess Anne Osbaldeston; based on the 1655 translation of
2982:
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1685:
1324:
Transactions & Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia
1193:
Hamilton, J. S. (1986). "Scribonius Largus on the medical profession".
230:
203:
81:
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De Materia Medica: Being an Herbal with many other medicinal materials
163:", was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and the author of
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The Western Herbal Tradition: 2000 Years of Medicinal Plant Knowledge
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was circulated in Greek, as well as Latin and Arabic translation.
122:
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255:("On Medical Material"), which became the precursor to all modern
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through the early modern period, Dioscorides' text eclipsed the
262:
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1586:
1529:
474:
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translated the work into English in 1655, and bequeathed it to
584:. Translated by Lily Y. Beck. Olms-Weidmann: Hildesheim. 2005.
562:. Johannesburg: Ibidis Press. 2000 – via cancerlynx.com.
337:
survive. The most famous of these is the lavishly illustrated
206:, Dioscorides likely studied medicine nearby at the school in
2837:
1710:
1573:
962:
Agricultural Produce in the Land of Israel in the Middle Ages
617:
De Materia Medica : libri V Eiusdem de Venenis Libri duo
478:
244:
176:
150:
1384:"Dioscurides Neapolitanus: Codex ex Vindobonensis Graecus 1"
1600:
1523:
378:; it was published by the Oxford University Press in 1934.
275:
846:
Nutton, Vivian. Ancient medicine. Routledge, 2012. p. 178
181:/Peri hylēs iatrikēs/), a five-volume Greek encyclopedic
856:
Tobyn, Graeme; Denham, Alison; Whitelegg, Midge (2016).
884:. National Institutes of Health, USA. 16 September 2002
1386:(in Italian and Latin). Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli
1434:
Les VI livres de Ped. Diosc. de la materie medicinale
1321:
451:
Dioscorides as depicted in a 1240 Arabic edition of
860:(illustrated ed.). Singing Dragon. p. 4.
19:"Dioscorides" redirects here. For other uses, see
2455:
1213:
1129:
836:(5th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 13.
3248:
1134:(illustrated ed.). CRC Press. p. 267.
1113:"The John Goodyer Collection of Botanical Books"
533:Folio from an Arabic manuscript of Dioscorides,
717:
1379:—the full book downloadable in PDF fileformat.
989:
720:"Historical review of medicinal plants' usage"
2763:
2689:History of the creation-evolution controversy
2441:
1767:
1461:
1240:
968:), Ben-Zvi Institute: Jerusalem 2000, p. 270
2777:
1049:Krebs, Robert E.; Krebs, Carolyn A. (2003).
902:
771:"De Materia Medica - Pedanius Dioscorides -"
323:
317:
46:root, an illumination from the 6th century (
2305:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
926:
924:
907:. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 121.
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1307:. Québec, Canada: Les Éditions du sphinx.
949:Introduction to Dioscorides Materia Medica
943:Some detail about medieval manuscripts of
36:
2719:Relationship between religion and science
1264:Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum
1231:
800:
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1956:Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes
1305:The Arabic materia medica of Dioscorides
1192:
921:
261:
225:
1475:
1243:"The medical illustration in Antiquity"
1187:Health and Well Being: A Medieval Guide
1157:
804:
602:
331:A number of illustrated manuscripts of
3249:
1359:Works by or about Pedanius Dioscorides
1283:
1253:
1032:
1016:
825:
793:
2751:
2429:
1755:
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1302:
1288:. Austin: University of Texas Press.
1048:
1042:
266:Cover of an early printed version of
1286:Dioscorides on pharmacy and medicine
834:Principles and methods of toxicology
213:
2183:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
1781:
1195:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
439:Later representation of Dioscorides
324:
13:
2596:Central dogma of molecular biology
159:40–90 AD, known as "the father of
14:
3313:
3112:Medical community of ancient Rome
3097:Food and diet in ancient medicine
1343:
1075:"The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides"
718:Bauer Petrovska, Biljana (2012).
3229:
3228:
3117:Nutrition in classical antiquity
2732:
2731:
2373:
1214:Lazris, J.; Stavros, V. (2013).
1189:. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books.
1085:(3355): 231–233. February 1934.
526:
506:
486:
461:
444:
432:
420:
404:. A butterfly, the bush hopper,
2415:List of natural history dealers
2083:The Natural History of Selborne
1123:
1105:
1067:
1058:
1026:
1010:
983:
954:
937:
896:
874:
769:Osbaldeston, Tess Anne (2008).
608:The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides
546:
3107:Mental illness in ancient Rome
2621:One gene–one enzyme hypothesis
2317:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1422:, Antwerp, 1555, digitized at
849:
840:
811:. A&C Black. p. 193.
784:
762:
711:
683:
663:
493:Cumin and dill from an Arabic
310:'s commentary on Dioscorides'
1:
3267:Ancient Greek pharmacologists
1436:, Lyon (1559), French edition
1428:Biblioteca Nacional de España
1158:Allbutt, T. Clifford (1921).
1053:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
966:גידולי ארץ-ישראל בימי הביניים
951:by TA Osbaldeston, year 2000.
677:
610:. Translated by John Goodyer.
497:(c. 1334) after Dioscorides (
156:
92:
65:
47:
3272:1st-century Greek physicians
1424:Biblioteca Digital Hispánica
932:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
790:Scarborough and Nutton, 1982
21:Dioscorides (disambiguation)
7:
2953:Quintus Gargilius Martialis
2073:Bernard Germain de Lacépède
707:– via britannica.com.
639:
318:
10:
3318:
3102:Gynecology in ancient Rome
3087:Disability in ancient Rome
2095:A History of British Birds
1180:Codex Constantinopolitanus
1151:
1130:Austin, Daniel F. (2004).
1037:. Alexander and Shephrard.
996:. Springer. p. 1077.
413:
245:
219:
177:
151:
18:
3292:1st-century Greek writers
3224:
3201:
3178:
3130:
3082:Dentistry in ancient Rome
3067:
3021:
2818:
2785:
2727:
2649:
2581:
2468:
2410:Natural History Societies
2382:
2371:
2287:
2278:The Royal Natural History
2130:Ornithological Dictionary
2117:
2039:Johan Christian Fabricius
1965:
1871:
1798:
1789:
1678:
1612:
1595:
1483:
400:, was named after him by
155:/Pedánios Dioskourídēs/)
128:
109:
101:
88:
61:
35:
28:
3092:Disease in Imperial Rome
2779:Medicine in ancient Rome
2256:The Naturalist's Library
2159:On the Origin of Species
1350:Works by Dr. Dioscorides
1284:Riddle, John M. (1985).
1241:Lazris, J.; Stavros, V.
696:Encyclopaedia Britannica
656:
376:Magdalen College, Oxford
319:Tafsīr Kitāb Diāsqūrīdūs
297:In the medieval period,
3302:1st-century agronomists
3282:Ancient Roman botanists
3277:Ancient Greek botanists
3122:Surgery in ancient Rome
2843:Asclepiades of Bithynia
2390:Natural history museums
1992:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
1017:Nutton, Vivian (2004).
990:Selin, Helaine (2008).
905:The History of Medicine
737:10.4103/0973-7847.95849
189:
42:Dioscorides receives a
2848:Aulus Cornelius Celsus
2641:Spontaneous generation
2591:Germ theory of disease
2568:Zoology (through 1859)
2242:William Jackson Hooker
2190:Alexander von Humboldt
2107:Philosophie zoologique
1890:Pinax theatri botanici
1567:Mandragora officinarum
1161:Greek medicine in Rome
947:at pages xxix–xxxi in
805:Stobart, Anne (2014).
691:"Pedanius Dioscorides"
630:: CS1 maint: others (
594:: CS1 maint: others (
572:: CS1 maint: others (
535:
517:
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325:تفسير كتاب دياسقوريدوس
312:
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279:
268:
251:
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165:
2988:Charmis of Marseilles
2662:Philosophy of biology
2328:The Study of Instinct
2267:Kunstformen der Natur
2171:The Malay Archipelago
2166:Alfred Russel Wallace
2102:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
1303:Sadek, M. M. (1983).
1254:Riddle, John (1980).
1247:Reality Through Image
1164:. London: Macmillan.
903:Rooney, Anne (2012).
724:Pharmacognosy Reviews
396:, which includes the
265:
233:from the 6th-century
229:
152:Πεδάνιος Διοσκουρίδης
2978:Crinas of Marseilles
2973:Athenaeus of Attalia
2958:Thessalus of Tralles
2828:Pedanius Dioscorides
2694:Human Genome Project
2606:Great chain of being
2573:Zoology (since 1859)
2508:Evolutionary thought
2478:Agricultural science
2247:Joseph Dalton Hooker
2200:The Birds of America
1368:Works by Dioscorides
699:. September 27, 2013
407:Ampittia dioscorides
143:Pedanius Dioscorides
55:Juliana Anicia Codex
30:Pedanius Dioscorides
2898:Marcellus Empiricus
2699:Humboldtian science
2636:Sequence hypothesis
2543:Molecular evolution
2295:Martinus Beijerinck
1838:De Natura Animalium
1477:Ancient anaesthesia
1249:: 18–23 (abstract).
1233:10.4000/pallas.1400
1132:Florida Ethnobotany
1091:1934Natur.133..231.
1033:Murray, J. (1884).
481:, 12th–13th century
3023:Medical literature
2938:Serenus Sammonicus
2923:Criton of Heraclea
2903:Caelius Aurelianus
2833:Soranus of Ephesus
2709:Natural philosophy
2657:History of science
2457:History of biology
2400:Parson-naturalists
2232:Philip Henry Gosse
2195:John James Audubon
2178:Henry Walter Bates
2066:Histoire Naturelle
2054:Historia Plantarum
1942:Avium Praecipuarum
1926:Historia animalium
1827:Historia Plantarum
1815:History of Animals
340:Vienna Dioscurides
292:Hippocratic corpus
280:
246:Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς
241:
236:Vienna Dioscurides
178:Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς
3244:
3243:
3044:De materia medica
2993:Scribonius Largus
2933:Marcellus of Side
2868:Antiochis of Tlos
2745:
2744:
2611:Hierarchy of life
2558:Plant systematics
2538:Molecular biology
2423:
2422:
2369:
2368:
1987:Marcello Malpighi
1881:Ulisse Aldrovandi
1861:De Materia Medica
1749:
1748:
1549:(devil's trumpet)
1500:Atropa belladonna
1354:Project Gutenberg
945:De Materia Medica
818:978-1-4411-8418-4
604:Gunther, R. W. T.
582:De Materia Medica
537:De materia medica
518:De materia medica
470:De materia medica
454:De materia medica
383:De materia medica
352:De materia medica
334:De materia medica
313:De materia medica
300:De materia medica
270:De materia medica
252:De materia medica
222:De materia medica
215:De materia medica
167:De materia medica
140:
139:
134:De Materia Medica
3309:
3232:
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3170:Pneumatic school
2928:Sextus Empiricus
2913:Gessius of Petra
2878:Aurelius Opilius
2805:Spoon of Diocles
2772:
2765:
2758:
2749:
2748:
2735:
2734:
2714:Natural theology
2450:
2443:
2436:
2427:
2426:
2377:
2350:The Dancing Bees
2274:Richard Lydekker
2222:Jean-Henri Fabre
2207:William Buckland
2012:Regnier de Graaf
1906:Andrea Cesalpino
1796:
1795:
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1769:
1762:
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1554:Hyoscyamus niger
1484:Plants / animals
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1363:Internet Archive
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1117:Magdalen College
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1099:10.1038/133231a0
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1019:Ancient Medicine
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882:"Greek Medicine"
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667:
635:
629:
621:
611:
599:
593:
585:
577:
571:
563:
540:
530:
520:
510:
490:
472:
465:
456:
448:
436:
424:
390:The plant genus
385:
365:ancient Egyptian
354:
336:
327:
326:
321:
315:
302:
273:
254:
248:
247:
180:
179:
170:
158:
154:
153:
102:Other names
97:
94:
70:
67:
52:
49:
40:
26:
25:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3220:
3211:Antonine Plague
3197:
3174:
3160:Methodic school
3145:Eclectic school
3140:Dogmatic school
3126:
3063:
3058:Medicina Plinii
3017:
2948:Aemilia Hilaria
2943:Sextus Placitus
2814:
2781:
2776:
2746:
2741:
2723:
2704:Natural history
2645:
2583:
2577:
2533:Model organisms
2470:
2464:
2454:
2424:
2419:
2378:
2365:
2346:Karl von Frisch
2283:
2252:William Jardine
2142:Le Règne Animal
2113:
2061:Comte de Buffon
2022:Systema Naturae
1961:
1933:Frederik Ruysch
1911:Valerius Cordus
1901:Hieronymus Bock
1867:
1849:Natural History
1844:Pliny the Elder
1801:
1791:
1785:
1783:Natural history
1780:
1750:
1745:
1674:
1608:
1591:
1479:
1474:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1389:
1387:
1382:
1346:
1315:
1296:
1274:
1272:
1258:
1226:(93): 131–164.
1172:
1154:
1149:
1142:
1128:
1124:
1111:
1110:
1106:
1073:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1047:
1043:
1031:
1027:
1015:
1011:
1004:
988:
984:
964:(Hebrew title:
959:
955:
942:
938:
929:
922:
915:
901:
897:
887:
885:
880:
879:
875:
868:
854:
850:
845:
841:
830:
826:
819:
803:
794:
789:
785:
775:
773:
767:
763:
716:
712:
702:
700:
689:
688:
684:
680:
675:
674:
668:
664:
659:
642:
623:
622:
614:
606:, ed. (1933) .
587:
586:
580:
565:
564:
552:
549:
542:
531:
522:
511:
502:
495:book of simples
491:
482:
466:
457:
449:
440:
437:
428:
425:
416:
224:
218:
192:
95:
84:
71:
68:
57:
50:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3315:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3238:
3225:
3222:
3221:
3219:
3218:
3216:Cyprian Plague
3213:
3207:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3184:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3150:Empiric school
3147:
3142:
3136:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3125:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3073:
3071:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3054:
3051:Galenic Corpus
3047:
3040:
3033:
3027:
3025:
3019:
3018:
3016:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2883:Meges of Sidon
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2824:
2822:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2795:Cimolian earth
2791:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2775:
2774:
2767:
2760:
2752:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2659:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2587:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2474:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2453:
2452:
2445:
2438:
2430:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2397:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2379:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2366:
2364:
2363:
2356:Ronald Lockley
2353:
2343:
2331:
2324:Niko Tinbergen
2321:
2309:
2297:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2281:
2271:
2259:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2192:
2187:
2175:
2163:
2154:Charles Darwin
2151:
2146:
2137:Georges Cuvier
2134:
2125:George Montagu
2121:
2119:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2099:
2087:
2075:
2070:
2058:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2014:
2009:
2007:Jan Swammerdam
2004:
1999:
1997:William Derham
1994:
1989:
1984:
1971:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1949:
1938:William Turner
1935:
1930:
1921:Conrad Gessner
1918:
1916:Leonhart Fuchs
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1886:Gaspard Bauhin
1883:
1877:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1865:
1853:
1841:
1831:
1819:
1806:
1804:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1779:
1778:
1771:
1764:
1756:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1682:
1680:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1616:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1576:
1571:
1563:
1558:
1550:
1542:
1538:Datura innoxia
1534:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1504:
1496:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1480:
1473:
1472:
1465:
1458:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1430:
1415:
1396:
1380:
1375:Materia Medica
1370:
1365:
1356:
1345:
1344:External links
1342:
1341:
1340:
1330:(3): 187–227.
1319:
1313:
1300:
1294:
1281:
1251:
1238:
1211:
1201:(2): 209–216.
1190:
1183:
1176:
1170:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1147:
1140:
1122:
1104:
1066:
1057:
1055:. Pages 75–76.
1041:
1025:
1009:
1002:
982:
953:
936:
920:
913:
895:
873:
866:
848:
839:
824:
817:
792:
783:
761:
710:
681:
679:
676:
673:
672:
661:
660:
658:
655:
654:
653:
648:
646:Materia medica
641:
638:
637:
636:
612:
600:
578:
548:
545:
544:
543:
532:
525:
523:
521:, 15th century
512:
505:
503:
499:British Museum
492:
485:
483:
467:
460:
458:
450:
443:
441:
438:
431:
429:
426:
419:
415:
412:
288:materia medica
220:Main article:
217:
212:
191:
188:
138:
137:
130:
129:Known for
126:
125:
119:pharmacologist
111:
107:
106:
103:
99:
98:
90:
86:
85:
72:
63:
59:
58:
41:
33:
32:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3314:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3237:
3236:
3227:
3226:
3223:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3165:Miasma theory
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3055:
3053:
3052:
3048:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3024:
3020:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2908:Cassius Felix
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2888:Sextius Niger
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2873:Antonius Musa
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2817:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2773:
2768:
2766:
2761:
2759:
2754:
2753:
2750:
2738:
2730:
2729:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2668:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2580:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2493:Biotechnology
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2451:
2446:
2444:
2439:
2437:
2432:
2431:
2428:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2391:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2376:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2351:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2339:On Aggression
2335:
2334:Konrad Lorenz
2332:
2329:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2301:
2300:Abbott Thayer
2298:
2296:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2263:
2262:Ernst Haeckel
2260:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2227:Louis Agassiz
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2212:Charles Lyell
2210:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2149:William Smith
2147:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2090:Thomas Bewick
2088:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2078:Gilbert White
2076:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2029:Georg Steller
2027:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2017:Carl Linnaeus
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1967:Enlightenment
1964:
1957:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1896:Otto Brunfels
1894:
1891:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1862:
1857:
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1832:
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1828:
1823:
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1811:
1808:
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1797:
1794:
1788:
1784:
1777:
1772:
1770:
1765:
1763:
1758:
1757:
1754:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
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1689:
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1681:
1677:
1671:
1668:
1666:
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1658:
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1602:
1598:
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1572:
1569:
1568:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1541:(thorn-apple)
1540:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1513:
1510:
1509:
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1471:
1466:
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1401:
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1378:
1376:
1371:
1369:
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1347:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1314:2-920123-02-5
1310:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1295:0-292-71544-7
1291:
1287:
1282:
1270:
1266:
1265:
1257:
1256:"Dioscorides"
1252:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1171:1-57898-631-1
1167:
1163:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1143:
1141:9780203491881
1137:
1133:
1126:
1118:
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1108:
1100:
1096:
1092:
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1080:
1076:
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1045:
1036:
1029:
1020:
1013:
1005:
1003:9781402045592
999:
995:
994:
986:
979:
975:
974:965-217-174-3
971:
967:
963:
957:
950:
946:
940:
933:
927:
925:
916:
914:9781448873708
910:
906:
899:
883:
877:
869:
867:9780857012593
863:
859:
852:
843:
835:
828:
820:
814:
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809:
801:
799:
797:
787:
772:
765:
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748:
743:
738:
733:
729:
725:
721:
714:
698:
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692:
686:
682:
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662:
652:
649:
647:
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619:
618:
613:
609:
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583:
579:
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569:
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459:
455:
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1802:antiquity
1800:Classical
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1524:Coca
1411:2010
1392:2010
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