541:
UNITA pressure. The regular army's 91,500 troops were organized into brigades ranging in size from 750 to 1,200 men each, deployed throughout the ten military regions. Most regions were commanded by lieutenant colonels, with majors as deputy commanders, but some regions were commanded by majors. Each region consisted of one to four provinces, with one or more infantry brigades assigned to it. The brigades were generally dispersed in battalion or smaller subunits to protect strategic terrain, urban centers, settlements, and critical infrastructure such as bridges and factories. Counterintelligence agents were assigned to all field units to thwart UNITA infiltration.
468:
598:. No official information on the other fronts was available in late 1988, but presumably the southern front included Cuando Cubango, HuĂla, and Namibe provinces, and the central front may have comprised BiĂ©, Huambo, Benguela, and Cuanza Sul provinces. There was no information on the status of Cabinda and Luanda provinces, but perhaps they remained separate regions because of their strategic importance and small size. Because of the uncertain boundaries of these fronts, most news accounts referred to the military regions when describing FAPLA's operational areas.
503:. Although they suffered heavy losses and perhaps relied too heavily on Soviet military doctrine, the FAPLA and the Angolan Air Force (FAPA/DAA) in the late 1980s showed increased strength, put greater pressure on UNITA, and raised the costs of South Africa's support for UNITA. Luanda's resolve and the improved capabilities and performance of its armed forces were among the essential conditions under which South Africa agreed to negotiate its withdrawal from Angola.
34:
384:
554:
866:
476:
counterinsurgency war in the most remote and inaccessible parts of the country over extended lines of communications, without the requisite air or ground transport or logistical infrastructure. UNITA also enjoyed the advantages of operating in thinly populated areas along porous borders with Zambia and
475:
On the other hand, it could be argued that FAPLA had substantially improved its capabilities and performance. In the first place, FAPLA had begun to develop and acquire the organisation, doctrine, and equipment of a conventional army only during the civil war of 1975-76. It was then forced to fight a
455:
encampments. UNITA reported low morale among captured FAPLA conscripts, lack of discipline among troops, heavy losses of personnel and equipment in battle, countless ambushes and attacks on FAPLA forces, successful sabotage operations, and desertions by battalion-size FAPLA units. In the late 1980s,
355:
Beginning in 1978, periodic South
African incursions into southern Angola, coupled with UNITA's northward expansion in the east, forced the Angolan government to increase expenditures on Soviet military aid. Dependence also increased on military personnel from the Soviet Union, the German Democratic
316:
regime and proclaimed its intention of granting independence to Angola, the MPLA announced the formation of FAPLA, which replaced the EPLA. The FAPLA started with a strength of some 1,500, but by late 1976 grew staggeringly, to over 95,000. In 1974-75, '..after a period of six months, Moscow started
450:
said in 1988 that 'FAPLA's military performance was difficult to gauge,' particularly due to opposing propaganda from the different warring parties. On the one hand, UNITA had extended its range of operations from the remote south-eastern extremities throughout the entire country within a few years
442:
estimated that ".. in spite of intensive Soviet training and infusions of Soviet equipment, we believe the
Angolan Army is still only a marginally capable fighting force and could not survive against any military threat--internal or external -- without Soviet backing and a Cuban military presence."
540:
In 1988, the strength of the
Angolan armed forces was estimated at 100,000 active-duty and 50,000 reserve personnel, organized into a regular army and a supporting militia, air and air defense force, and navy. The active-duty forces had expanded greatly since independence in the face of SADF and
480:, with extensive SADF combat and logistic support, making it impossible for FAPLA to isolate or outflank UNITA. Moreover, military experts believe that counterinsurgency troops must outnumber guerrillas by ten to one in order to win such wars, a ratio FAPLA could never approximate. The
577:
enclave. The Fifth and Sixth
Military Regions faced Namibia in the south. In early 1988, however, calling this structure inadequate, the Ministry of Defence announced the formation of northern, eastern, southern, and central fronts. The northern front encompassed
451:
of
Portugal's withdrawal. The SADF had occupied parts of southern Angola for extended periods, virtually without contest, for the purposes of resupplying UNITA, intervening on its behalf, conducting reconnaissance flights and patrols, and attacking
317:
to arm Neto's faction exclusively. The Soviet Union supplied the MPLA with $ 300 million worth of materiel as compared to $ 54 million over the previous fourteen years. The weapons that went to MPLA included
456:
Angola's minister of defence publicly called for greater discipline in FAPLA, citing reports of theft, assaults, and drunken military drivers. As late as 1988, in the wake of reports of increased
488:
were even further behind and had required years to acquire the assets and the expertise needed for effective operations. Although the navy was of marginal use in the war, air power was critical.
363:
state whose army was in retreat. The confluence of civil war, foreign intervention, and large-scale insurgency made Angola's experience unique. After independence, FAPLA had to reorganize for
976:
Igor
Zhdarkin, We Did Not See It Even in Afghanistan: Memoirs of a Participant of the Angolan War (1986-1988). Moscow: Memories Mockba, 2008. Translated by Tamara Reilly. 399 pp.
375:
and UNITA. Ironically, a guerrilla army that conducted a successful insurgency for more than a decade came to endure the same kind of exhausting struggle for a similar period.
1066:
352:
and ensuing UNITA insurgency, when the sudden and large-scale inflow of heavy weapons and accompanying technicians and advisers quickened the pace of institutional change.
1061:
520:
forces, into a 50,000-strong unified, neutral military force.. before the
September 1992 election. The FAA was to contain an equal number of FAPLA and FALA personnel.
951:
Miguel Junior, Popular Armed Forces for the
Liberation of Angola; First National Army and the War (1975-1992), Bloomington: Authorhouse, 2015; ISBN 978-1-5049-4126-6.
506:
Howe writes that Angola's defence minister acknowledged that senior officials profited significantly from weapons purchases; a newspaper sympathetic to the MPLA,
565:
Five military regions were initially established in 1975. Their numbers grew to seven in 1983 and ten by
December 1985. The First Military Region comprised the
816:, Military Intelligence Summary - Africa South of the Sahara, DDB 2680-104-85, ICOD 15 October 1984, Angola p9-10, declassified by letter dated April 29, 2014.
211:
297:
against the
Portuguese in eastern Angola. After 1972, however, the EPLA's effectiveness declined following several Portuguese victories, disputes with
970:Ĺ ubin, Gennadij V., and Andrei Tokarev, eds. Bush War: The Road to Cuito Cuanavale: Soviet Soldiers' Accounts of the Angolan War. Jacana Media, 2011.
388:
359:
Unlike African states that acceded to independence by an orderly and peaceful process of institutional transfer, Angola inherited a disintegrating
1026:
945:
FAPLA: Bastion of Peace in Angola, People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola. Department of Agitation and Propaganda, 1988, 250 pages
1021:
508:
1016:
452:
1056:
967:
Spall, John, Manhood, Morality and the Transformation of Angolan Society: MPLA Veterans and Post-war Dynamics. James Currey, 2020.
524:
The FAPLA and UNITA armies began the integration process, but it was halted, as UNITA returned to war following their loss of the
706:
447:
439:
1051:
981:
919:
110:
495:
was able to launch and sustain large offensives in the south. In August 1986, FAPLA repelled UNITA after they had captured
464:
commander dismissed the Angolans as "extremely unprofessional," noting that "50 percent of the threat against us is Cuban."
1041:
1031:
298:
948:
Edward George, The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965-1991: From Che Guevara to Cuito Cuanavale. Psychology Press, 2004.
293:, killing a number of troops. During the mid-1960s and early 1970s, the EPLA operated very successfully from bases in
764:
1006:
124:
1046:
525:
632:, Military Intelligence Summary - Africa South of the Sahara, DDB 2680-104-85, ICOD 15 October 1984, Angola
349:
90:
80:
710:
1001:
875:
813:
629:
420:
408:
231:
219:
163:
1036:
491:
It was only after sufficient aircraft and air defence systems had been deployed in the mid-1980s that
103:
881:
428:
239:
500:
416:
227:
167:
532:(Portuguese: Forças Armadas Angolanas (FAA)), losing the close nominal association with the MPLA.
461:
467:
964:
Smith, James, "FAPLA – Angola's Marxist Armed Forces," Jane's Intelligence Review. 1 July 1990.
756:
750:
973:
Stephen L. Weigert, Angola: A Modern Military History, 1961-2002. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
591:
529:
254:
138:
8:
184:
130:
100:
222:(SADF). The FAPLA fought the SADF and UNITA/FALA constantly from the 1970s, part of the
340:
By 1976, FAPLA had been transformed from lightly armed guerrilla units into a national
116:
977:
915:
760:
457:
424:
412:
368:
322:
302:
235:
223:
195:
was originally the armed wing of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (
171:
985:
309:
911:
The Last Hot Battle of the Cold War: South Africa vs. Cuba in the Angolan Civil War
789:
Angola: Information on the Forças Armadas Populares de Libertaçao de Angola (FAPLA)
574:
557:
432:
364:
243:
711:"SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: A GROWING SOVIET MILITARY PRESENCE | CIA FOIA (foia.cia.gov)"
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capable of sustained field operations. This transformation was gradual until the
250:
62:
788:
579:
566:
290:
38:
16:
Former armed wing of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA)
961:(pages 84-87 and 91-102 cover Cuban operations supporting the FAPLA in Angola)
1011:
995:
870:
859:
957:
Armies of Sand: The Past, Present, and Future of Arab Military Effectiveness
516:
The Bicesse Accords of May 1991 called for the integration of the FAPLA and
773:
372:
345:
301:(FNLA) forces, and the movement of about 800 guerrillas from Zambia to the
204:
148:
75:
70:
891:
War of Intervention in Angola: Cuban and Angolan Forces at War, 1976-1983
285:. In January 1963, in one of its early operations, the EPLA attacked a
481:
270:
512:
reported that senior officers made US$ 320 million in commissions.
392:
286:
869:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
587:
282:
278:
33:
787:
Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada,
704:
590:, Cuanza Norte, and Bengo provinces. The eastern front covered
492:
383:
360:
313:
294:
200:
81:
People's Air Force of Angola / Anti-Aircraft Defense (FAPA/DAA)
431:(1987-1988) being the largest land battle in Africa since the
517:
477:
396:
334:
318:
371:
simultaneously and immediately to continue the new war with
242:(1987-1988) was the largest land battle in Africa since the
904:'New material in this edition 2011,' original edition 1992.
819:
485:
400:
341:
330:
326:
277:- EPLA). Many of its first cadres had received training in
215:
196:
652:
650:
273:
forces the "People's Army for the Liberation of Angola" (
794:
732:
730:
613:
611:
647:
535:
900:
A Political History of the Civil War in Angola 1974-90
831:
662:
261:, FAA), by the integration of UNITA and FALA members.
727:
686:
635:
608:
1067:
Military units and formations disestablished in 1993
755:. Boulder, CO., and London: Lynne Rienner. pp.
674:
337:tanks. Independence was set for November 11, 1975.
212:
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola
125:
FAPLA chief of the general staff and army commander
984:. Elaine Windrich reviewed the book at h-net.org,
752:Ambiguous Order: Military Forces In African States
325:, 37-mm and 14.5 mm antiaircraft guns..' and
1062:Military units and formations established in 1974
389:South African National Museum of Military History
387:Line up of captured FAPLA combat vehicles in the
321:assault rifles, 120-mm mortars, 82-mm and 107-mm
71:People's Army for the Liberation of Angola (EPLA)
993:
189:Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola
27:Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola
954:
893:. Africa@War No. 34. Solihill: Helion & Co.
308:In August 1974, a few months after a military
207:when the MPLA took control of the government.
914:(illustrated ed.). Casemate Publishers.
181:People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola
22:People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola
888:
800:
656:
419:, including during their 1975-76 invasion,
253:in 1993, the FAPLA were transformed in the
32:
897:
668:
466:
382:
275:Exército Popular de Libertação de Angola
853:
837:
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736:
692:
680:
641:
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453:South-West Africa People's Organisation
448:Federal government of the United States
411:constantly from the 1970s, part of the
269:In the early 1960s, the MPLA named its
39:Flag of the People's Republic of Angola
994:
907:
1027:Military wings of nationalist parties
378:
199:) but later (1975–1991) became
959:. New York: Oxford University Press.
771:citing 'Profits Fuel Angola's War,'
748:
536:Structure and military regions, 1988
471:FAPLA's air defence network in 1987.
216:Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola
1022:Military wings of socialist parties
356:Republic (East Germany), and Cuba.
299:National Liberation Front of Angola
13:
936:
14:
1078:
1017:Communist organizations in Africa
986:A Russian View of the Angolan War
573:, while the Second comprised the
1057:1993 disestablishments in Angola
864:
552:
806:
781:
742:
210:Its major adversaries were the
698:
623:
76:People's Navy of Angola (MGPA)
1:
1052:1974 establishments in Angola
898:James III, W. Martin (2011).
862:: Government Printing Office.
847:
791:, 6 December 2001, AGO37934.E
526:1992 Angolan general election
214:(UNITA), its armed wing, the
889:Fontanellaz, Adrien (2019).
7:
1042:Angolan War of Independence
814:Defense Intelligence Agency
707:Directorate of Intelligence
630:Defense Intelligence Agency
528:. The army was renamed the
440:Directorate of Intelligence
409:South African Defence Force
407:FAPLA fought UNITA and the
220:South African Defence Force
164:Angolan War of Independence
10:
1083:
1032:Military history of Angola
264:
902:. Transaction Publishers.
882:Federal Research Division
749:Howe, Herbert M. (2005).
551:
546:
438:In January 1985, the CIA
429:Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
240:Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
159:
154:
144:
137:
131:António dos Santos França
123:
109:
96:
89:
61:
53:
45:
31:
26:
21:
955:Kenneth Pollack (2019).
854:Collelo, Thomas (1991).
601:
558:Angolan military regions
501:Operation Alpha Centauri
417:South African Border War
259:Forças Armadas de Angola
228:South African Border War
168:South African Border War
856:Angola: A country study
462:South African Air Force
104:José Eduardo dos Santos
1007:Rebel groups in Angola
908:Polack, Peter (2013).
522:
472:
404:
188:
514:
470:
386:
1047:Separatism in Angola
858:. Vol. 550, no. 59.
530:Angolan Armed Forces
255:Angolan Armed Forces
828:, p. 214, 216.
460:effectiveness, the
312:had overthrown the
230:, including during
129:Lieutenant General
111:Minister of Defence
1002:Military of Angola
473:
421:Operation Savannah
405:
379:Combat performance
350:Cuban intervention
232:Operation Savannah
117:Pedro Tonho Pedale
97:Commander-in-Chief
1037:Angolan Civil War
982:978-5-903116-57-7
921:978-1-61200-195-1
778:, 8–14 July 1999.
594:, Lunda Sul, and
563:
562:
458:Angolan Air Force
427:(1980), with the
425:Operation Sceptic
413:Angolan Civil War
369:counterinsurgency
323:recoilless rifles
303:Republic of Congo
289:military post in
236:Operation Sceptic
224:Angolan Civil War
177:
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172:Angolan Civil War
145:Foreign suppliers
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988:, November 2008.
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709:(January 1985).
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657:Fontanellaz 2019
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596:Moxico Provinces
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433:Second World War
365:conventional war
244:Second World War
218:(FALA), and the
155:Related articles
63:Service branches
36:
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943:(in Portuguese)
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234:(1975-76), and
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669:James III 2011
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826:Collelo 1991
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737:Collelo 1991
718:. Retrieved
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693:Collelo 1991
688:
681:Collelo 1991
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659:, p. 6.
642:Collelo 1991
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618:Collelo 1991
592:Luanda Norte
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373:South Africa
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238:(1980). The
209:
205:armed forces
203:'s official
192:
180:
178:
149:Soviet Union
927:25 February
715:www.cia.gov
310:coup d'Ă©tat
133:(1982-1989)
996:Categories
848:References
720:2022-09-25
287:Portuguese
249:After the
185:Portuguese
91:Leadership
812:See also
509:Angolense
482:air force
271:guerrilla
101:President
54:Disbanded
774:Guardian
415:and the
393:Ural-375
361:colonial
226:and the
139:Industry
115:General
588:Malanje
575:Cabinda
499:during
401:T-34-85
291:Cabinda
283:Algeria
279:Morocco
265:History
160:History
46:Founded
980:
918:
873:.
776:Weekly
763:
493:Luanda
423:, and
399:, and
346:Soviet
333:, and
314:Lisbon
295:Zambia
201:Angola
119:(last)
602:Notes
580:Zaire
567:Zaire
518:UNITA
478:Zaire
403:tank.
397:PT-76
335:PT-76
319:AK-47
193:FAPLA
191:) or
1012:MPLA
978:ISBN
929:2015
916:ISBN
761:ISBN
705:CIA
584:UĂge
569:and
486:navy
484:and
446:The
367:and
342:army
331:T-54
327:T-34
281:and
197:MPLA
179:The
57:1993
49:1974
998::
880:.
759:.
757:91
729:^
713:.
649:^
610:^
586:,
582:,
435:.
395:,
391::
329:,
305:.
246:.
187::
931:.
884:.
769:.
723:.
348:-
257:(
183:(
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